Ruminant Animal Production and Husbandry

http://www.unaab.edu.
ng
COURSE CODE: APH301

COURSE TITLE: Ruminant Animal Production and Husbandry
NUMBER OF UNITS: 3 Units
COURSE DURATION: Three hours per week
COURSE DETAILS:
COURSE DETAILS:
Course Coordinator: Dr. O. A. Fasae
Email: [email protected]
Office Location: COLANIM Building
Other Lecturers: Dr. O. S. Sowande, Dr. (Mrs.) O. O. Adewumi and
Mr. A. O. Yusuf
COURSE CONTENT:
Cattle production, problems and prospects in Nigeria. Indigenous and exotic breeds of beef and
dairy cattle. Dairy and beef production systems. Dairy and beef production enterprises. Sheep
and goat production- breeds, management systems, feeding for growth, production and housing.
Common diseases and control in cattle, sheep and goats. Marketing of animals and their
products. Methods of ageing in animals. Common farm operations, handling and control of
animals.
COURSE REQUIREMENTS:
This is a compulsory course for all 300 level students in Colleges of Animal Science and
Livestock Production, Plant Science and Crop Production’ and Veterinary Medicine as well as
those in the Departments of Agricultural Economics and Farm Management and Agricultural
Extension and Rural Development. Students are expected to participate in all the course activities
and have minimum of 70% attendance to be able to write the semester examination.
http://www.unaab.edu.ng
READING LIST:
1. Gatenby, R.M. 1986. Sheep production in the tropics. Longman Publisher. London and
New York.
2. Ranijhan, S.K. 1980. Animal nutrition in the tropics. Vikas Publishing House PVT Ltd.
3. Payne, W.J.A. 1990. An introduction to animal husbandry in the tropics. 4 th edition.
Blackwell Science Ltd.
4. Fraser, A and J.T. Stamp. 1987. Sheep husbandry and Diseases. 6th edition. B.S.P
Professional Books, Great Britain.
5. Croston, D and G. Pollott. 1994. Planned sheep production. 2nd edition. Blackwell
Scientific Publications. Great Britain.
6. Hunter, A. 1996. Animal Health volume 1: General Principles. Macmillan Education
Ltd. London.
7. Hunter, A.. 1994. Animal Health. Volume 2: Specific Diseases. Macmillan Education
Ltd. London.
8. Pagot, J. 1992. Animal Production in the tropics and subtropics. Macmillan Education
Ltd.
9. Greenwood, P. 2000. Artificial methods of rearing goats. Armidale Agfact, second
edition, http://www.goatworld.com/articles/kidding/rearing.shtml. April 14, 2009.
10. Coffey, L., Hale, M. and Williams, P. 2004. Dairy goats: Sustainable production.
http://attra.ncat.org/attra-pub/dairygoats.html. April 14, 2009
11. Barnet Harris, B. and Springer, F. 2003. Dairy goat production guide. CIR452.
http://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/DS134. April 14, 2009.
12. Fulton, G. S. and Bedford, M. B. 2008. Feeding the doe.
http://bedford.extension.psu.edu/agriculture/goat/Feed /Pregnant Doe.htm. April 21, 2009
13. Blench, R. M. 1999. Traditional livestock breeds: geographical distribution and dynamics
14. in relation to the ecology of West Africa. Working Paper 122. Overseas Development
Institute, Portland House, Stag Place, London, SW1E 5DP
15. Otte, M. J. and Chilonda, P. 2002. Cattle and small ruminant production systems in sub-
Saharan Africa: A systematic review. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United
Nations, Rome
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E
LECTURE NOTES
INTRODUCTION
The Ruminant Animal
Ruminants are characterized by their four stomach chamber and "cud-chewing" behaviour. The cud is a
food bolus that has been regurgitated. There are about 150 different ruminant species including cows,
goats, deer, buffalo, bison, giraffe, moose, and elk. Ruminant species can further be classified as grazers,
browsers, or intermediates. Grazers, such as sheep, cattle, and buffalo consume mostly lower quality
grasses while browsers such as moose and mule deer stay in the woods and eat highly nutritious twigs
and shrubs. Intermediates, such as goats and white-tailed deer have nutritional requirements midway
between grazers and browsers.
The primary difference between ruminants and simple-stomached animals, like dogs or pigs, is the
presence of a four-compartment stomach that includes the rumen, reticulum, omasum, and abomasum.
Llamas and alpacas are "pseudo-ruminants" because they have a three-compartment stomach instead
of four like ruminants. Horses are also not ruminants; however they have a "caecum" that performs a
similar function as the cow or sheep's rumen.
The Ruminant Digestive System

Mature sheep are ruminant animals. Their digestive tracts, which are similar to those of cattle and deer,
consist of the mouth, esophagus, four stomach compartments, small intestine, and large intestine.
The digestive tract of goats.

1. Oesophagus
2. Rumen
3. Reticulum
4. Omasum
5. Abomasum
6. Small Intestine
7. Cecum
8. Large Intestine
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The mouth: Like other ruminant animals, goats have no upper incisor or canine teeth. They depend on
the dental pad in front of the hard palate, lower incisor teeth, lips, and tongue to take food into their
mouths.
The rumen also called the paunch occupies a large percentage of the abdominal cavity of the ruminant
animal. It is a large storage space for food that is quickly consumed, then later regurgitated, re-chewed,
and re-swallowed in a process called cud-chewing. Rumination or cud-chewing occurs predominantly
when the animal is resting and not eating. Microbial digestion in the rumen is the basic reason why
ruminant animals effectively utilize fibrous feeds and are maintained primarily on roughages. Rumen
microorganisms also convert components of the feed to useful products such as the essential amino
acids, the B complex vitamins, and vitamin K. Finally, the microorganisms themselves are digested
farther in the digestive tract. Healthy mature sheep will chew their cud for several hours each day. The
capacity of the rumen of sheep and goats ranges from 12-24 litres depending on the type of feed.
The rumen is also a large fermentation vat. It contains billions of micro-organisms, including bacteria
and protozoa, which allow ruminants to digest fibrous feeds such as grass, hay, and silage that other
animals cannot efficiently utilize. Fermentation in the rumen produces enormous quantities of gas that
ruminants must get rid of by belching. Anything that interferes with belching is life threatening to the
ruminant and may result in a condition called "bloat." Mild cases of bloat can be treated with an antacid.
The reticulum also referred to as the honeycomb is closely associated with the rumen. Contents mix
continually between both sections. It looks like a "honey comb. This compartment is located just below
the entrance of the esophagus into the stomach. The reticulum is part of the rumen separated only by
an overflow connection, the rumino-reticular fold. The capacity of the reticulum ranges from 1-2 litres.
The omasum also called many-piles consists of many folds or layers of tissue that grind up feed ingesta
and remove some of the water from the feed. The capacity of the omasum of goats is approximately 1
litre.
The abomasum is the "true stomach" of the ruminant. It is similar in function to the stomach of a non-
ruminant: secretion of enzymes and acids to breakdown nutrients before they enter the small intestine.
The capacity of the abomasum of goats and sheep is approximately 4 litres.
As partially digested feed enters the small intestine, enzymes produced and secreted by the pancreas
and small intestinal mucosa further breakdown feed nutrients into simple compounds that are absorbed
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into the bloodstream. Undigested feed and unabsorbed nutrients leaving the small intestine pass into
the large intestine.
The functions of the large intestine include absorption of water and further digestion of feed materials
by the microorganisms present in this area. The 100-foot-long intestinal canal of sheep has a capacity to
hold 12 litres.
When a goat lamb is born, the rumen is small and the abomasum is the largest of the four stomach
compartments. The rumen of a goat kid represents about 30 percent of the total stomach area, while
the abomasum represents about 70 percent. Hence, digestion in the lamb is like that of a monogastric
animal. In the suckling lamb, closure of the esophageal groove ensures that milk is channeled directly to
the abomasum, instead of entering the rumen, reticulum, and omasum. When the suckling goat kid
starts to eat vegetation (first or second week of life), the rumen, reticulum, and omasum gradually
develop in size and function. The lamb's rumen and reticulum are usually functional by the time it is 50
to 60 days old.
SHEEP PRODUCTION
Sheep and goats are tied for second and third animals to be domesticated after dogs. Sheep were totally
domesticated. The sheep of today has evolved through thousands of generations of human contact.
The average is life expectancy of sheep is about 10 to 12 years. However, the length of a sheep's
productive life tends to be much less. This is because a ewe's productivity usually peaks between 3 and 6
years of age and usually begins to decline after age 7. As a result, most ewes are removed from the flock
before they are 10 years old. It is possible for ewes to be productive for a period of 10 years, if they are
well fed and managed, and stay healthy.
The approximate age of sheep can be determined by the teeth. At birth, lambs have eight milk teeth, or
temporary incisors, arranged in four pairs on the lower jaw. The central pair of temporary incisor teeth
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is shed and replaced by the permanent teeth at approximately 1 year of age. At 2 years, the second pair
of milk teeth is replaced by a pair of permanent incisors. At 3 and 4 years, the third and fourth pairs of
permanent teeth appear. At 4 years of age the sheep has a "full mouth." When a ewe loses some of her
incisor teeth, she is called a "broken mouth." When she loses all of her teeth she is called a "gummer.
Sheep Breeds
There are more breeds of sheep than breeds of any other livestock species. Worldwide, there are more
than a thousand distinct sheep breeds. Sheep come in all different shapes, sizes, and colors. They can be
differentiated by their primary purpose (meat, wool, or milk), the color of their faces (black, white, red,
or mottled), and/or various production or physical characteristics. The most appropriate sheep breed
depends upon environmental conditions; the producers desired management intensity, and personal
preference. The types are divided into four basic groups: wool, meat, dairy, and hair types.
Wool sheep: The wool breeds can withstand heat, cold, and drought, and produce satisfactorily under
harsh conditions and produce fleece. e.g . Cheviot, Suffolk, Blackface, Galway.
Hair sheep: Some breeds of sheep lack wool and are covered with hair instead, like their wild ancestors.
Some hair sheep have pure hair coats, whereas others have coats containing a mixture of hair and wool.
Hair sheep are found mostly in Africa and the Caribbean, but are also raised in temperate climates such
as the U.S. and Canada. Hair sheep comprise about 10 percent of the world sheep.
The major sheep breeds in Nigeria can be classified under the hair type of sheep. They include the
Yankasa, West African Dwarf, Balami and Ouda breeds.
Meat-type: They are best adapted to farm-flock production. These breeds are commonly crossed with
other commercial ewes to produce market lambs. Wool from these breeds lacks the fineness compare
to the wool breed. Sheep meat is called mutton.
Dairy sheep: These are type of sheep that produce milk. They could either be hair or wool sheep.
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Some foreign sheep breeds
Cheviot Blackface
Texel Galway
Rambouillet Merino
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Suffolk
Nigerian sheep breeds
Yankasa West African dwarf
Ouda
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Feeding of Sheep
Pastures /forages are the cheapest feed sources for both sheep and goat production. Therefore, we
should use them to the fullest extent. Mostly, sheep eat grass, clover, weeds, and other pasture plants.
Sheep especially love to eat "weeds." Sheep prefer plants that are young and tender and will graze close
to the ground. Sheep will graze for an average of seven hours per day, mostly in the hours around dawn
and in the late afternoon, near sunset. This makes them different from goats that prefer to eat browse
(brushy plants) and can efficiently digest coarse, fibrous feeds. Hence, goats will consume and
effectively utilize a wide variety of woody and weedy plant species found on ranges.
Sheep may not need additional feed if they are grazing on land areas with a variety of brush, weeds, and
grass. Additional feed, however, may be needed in periods of drought or in dry season. The types and
amounts of supplemental feed are also dictated by their productive function(s).
Newborn lambs should be allowed to suckle their dams to obtain Colostrum (first milk). Colostrum
contains antibodies that protect young kids against diseases. At birth, kids are able to absorb these
antibodies effectively. However, the ability to absorb colostral antibodies decreases within the first 36 to
48 hours of life. To greatly increase the chances of survival, lambs should receive colostrum immediately
after birth.
Early forage consumption will lead to early rumen development. To encourage young lambs to consume
solid feed at about 2 to 3 weeks of age, fine hay can be offered. Young lamb receiving adequate
amounts of milk from their dams do well on good pasture or range. If pasture or range conditions are
poor, however, lambs should have access to good quality hay plus about 0.75 pounds of a grain mixture
daily.
Nutrient Requirements of Sheep

Energy: Age, body size, growth, level of activity, pregnancy, lactation, and environment all affect the
energy requirements of sheep. Carbohydrates and fats supply most of the energy requirements of the
animal body. Much of the sheep's energy comes from the breakdown of cellulose in roughages and the
breakdown of starch and fat in concentrates. Energy deficiency in sheep results in reduced growth or
weight loss, reduced reproductive performance, reduced milk or fiber production, and reduced
resistance to infectious diseases and internal parasites.
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Protein: Protein consists of amino acids that are the basic units of all body cells. The sheep's body
requires protein for growth, reproduction, milk production, disease resistance, and general
maintenance. Mature sheep, like other ruminant animals, rely on rumen microorganisms to synthesize
essential amino acids. Rumen microbes can utilize either nitrogen (N) of feed origin or non protein
nitrogen (NPN) to synthesize amino acids and protein to meet the requirements of the host animal.
Microbial protein and undigested feed protein reaching the small intestine are broken down to amino
acids that are absorbed and utilized by sheep. Protein deficiencies in the diet of goats result in depleted
stores in muscles, retarded fetal development, low birth weights, reduced growth, and depressed milk
production.
Vitamins: Vitamins are organic compounds required in small amounts by the sheep's body. Because all
the B vitamins and vitamin K are synthesized by microorganisms in the rumen and vitamin C is
synthesized in body tissues, mature sheep require only dietary sources of the fat-soluble vitamins A, D,
and E. During the grazing season, Sheep and goats can obtain sufficient fat-soluble vitamins from green
pastures and plenty of sunlight. Goats can also store an adequate supply of these vitamins to maintain
production for 3 to 4 months. Symptoms of vitamin A deficiency are associated with abnormal bone
development, low resistance to infections, night blindness, and birth of abnormal lambs. Vitamin D
deficiency results in bone abnormalities, such as rickets. Vitamin E, a biological antioxidant, is added to
the diet of young lambs and kids to prevent nutritional muscular dystrophy. Selenium, which has a
sparing effect on the vitamin E requirement, is also effective in preventing nutritional muscular
dystrophy.
Minerals: Many minerals (inorganic elements) are required by the sheep. The major or macro minerals
of concern are common salt (NaCl), calcium, phosphorus, magnesium, potassium, and sulfur. The trace
or micro minerals of importance are cobalt, copper, molybdenum, fluorine, iodine, iron, manganese,
selenium, and zinc. In sheep feeding, most minerals are usually added to mixed feeds. Some symptoms
of mineral deficiencies in sheep include reduced feed intake, depressed milk production, and retarded
growth and abnormal bone development in young lambs.
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Water: Water is the least expensive nutrient and the largest component of live animal tissue.
Environmental factors, age, growth, pregnancy, lactation, and level of activity affect the water
requirements. Sheep obtain water from their feed, as well as from drinking water. Because water carries
out important body functions, an adequate supply of fresh, clean water is critical to sheep during their
entire life cycle.
Importance of Grazing Sheep

Ruminants can digest cellulosic substances and can convert plants to products such as milk, meat, wool,
and mohair. Pastureland, therefore, is critical to the production of these ruminants and the products
they provide. In order to obtain maximum profits from pasture grazing, producers must manage the
land for high production per acre and must manage the animals to minimize forage waste and to ensure
that they are growing sufficiently.
Grazing systems provide high-quality forage and reduce feed and veterinary costs while avoiding
manure buildup. Feed costs are reduced because farmers and ranchers do not have to grow or purchase
forage and grain year-round, and veterinary costs are reduced because animals on pasture have fewer
health problems than those that feed in the barnyard. In addition, pastures require few or no pesticides
and allow natural recycling of manure. They also provide a continuous soil cover, thus protecting wildlife
habitats and important ecosystems.
Reproduction in Sheep
In their natural state, sheep are seasonal breeders; offspring are born at the time most favorable for
their survival. In some domestic sheep, the breeding season has been altered both naturally and through
the use of hormones. Tropical sheep breeds throughout the year.
Age of puberty: Ewes typically reach puberty at 5 to 12 months, depending on breed, nutrition, and date
of birth.
Anestrous period (reproductive inactivity): This is the period when ewes normally do not demonstrate
estrus (heat). Three types of anestrous are observed in ewes: seasonal (influenced by length of day),
lactation (influenced by the sucking stimulus of lambs), and postpartum.
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Length between estruses, or heat periods: The normal cycle for ewes is approximately 17 days between
heat periods. However, it can vary from 14 to 19 days.
Duration of estrus, or heat period: The heat period usually lasts 30 to 35 hours, with a range of 20 to 42
hours. Ovulation occurs late in the period.
Gestation period: The normal gestation period of ewes is approximately 147 days, ranging from 144 to
152 days. The medium-wool breeds and meat-type breeds ordinarily have a shorter gestation period
than do the fine-wool breeds. High temperatures and high nutrition levels may shorten the gestation
period two or three days. Ewes bred to white-faced, wool-breed rams may have a slightly longer
gestation period than those bred to black-faced, meat-type rams.
Breeding ewe lambs: Ewe lambs that breed as yearlings generally have a greater lifetime production
than ewes that have their first lamb as 2 year old. Since the onset of puberty depends largely upon body
weight, ewe lambs should be provided adequate levels of nutrition to reach at least two-thirds of
mature weight before breeding. Also, lambs born in winter or early spring are more likely to exhibit heat
the first year than are lambs born later. Ewes that lamb as yearlings should be separated from mature
ewes; manage and feed them so that the yearling ewes can grow to their maximum potential size.
Ewe lambs and yearlings are normally rather shy breeders. For best results, breed them separate from
older ewes. In some cases, it may be better to use rams of smaller breeds on young ewes to minimize
the chance of lambing difficulties.
Nutrition has a direct bearing upon reproductive performance. Ewes kept in acceptable condition before
breeding normally produce more lambs if they are flushed, or given the chance to gain weight before
and during the breeding season. They can be flushed with rested pastures or by supplementation. Begin
flushing three weeks before breeding and, if possible, continue through the first cycle (approximately 17
days).
Flushing ewes are most effective when they are mated early in the breeding season. Since ovulation rate
is near a maximum during the middle of the season, flushing at this time is not as beneficial. The results
of flushing are quite variable. Sometimes, when farm flock ewes are already on a high nutrition level
before the breeding season, flushing may not affect ovulation or lambing percentage. Nutrition affects
total lifetime productivity of sheep by influencing mature size. Well-developed ewes consistently have
higher lamb crop percentages than smaller ewes. Fat ewes, however, are typically less fertile, do not
respond to flushing, and may experience more embryonic death loss.
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Ram fighting
In some countries, sheep are used for fighting. The sheep are trained to fight from a young age. They are
chosen for their size. They start fighting when they are three years old. Their career lasts for about four
years. Sheep fighting is usually part of a celebratory festival such as Eid al adha (the Muslim Festival of
Sacrifice). In some countries, tournaments are organized, and the victorious rams are exhibited in the
main roads of towns.
Sheep Production Systems

Sheep are reared by men and women with diverse working and professional background. The
production systems are as numerous as the socio-economic and varied agricultural situations in the
country. However, they can be broadly classified into the following:-
Tethering: This is common in many communities, where probably because of intensive cropping, it is a
convenient means of rearing goats from the stand point of control, minimum labour input and utilization
of feed .It is thus a sedentary system. A variation of this method is combining tethering with grazing up
to 5 sheep at a time, led by ropes held by women and children.
Extensive production: This involves low carrying capacity in situations where land is marginal and is
plentiful. It is characterized by low rainfall and various browse plants. The system is used by nomadic
people, usually in very low rainfall areas or during winter months when crop residues are available.
Intensive production: The sheep are fed in confinement with limited access to land. It involves high
labour and cash inputs. Cultivated grasses and agro-industrial by products are fed in situ. This system
also has the advantage of allowing control over the animals.
Semi-intensive production: This system is practiced to some degree in most of the situations, but the
nature and extent of integration depend on the type of crops grown and their suitability to sheep. The
advantages of this system are increased fertility of land via the return of dung and urine, control of
waste herbage growth, reduced fertilizer usage, easier crop management, increased crop yields, and
greater economic returns.
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GOAT PRODUCTION AND HUSBANDRY
Breeds of Goat in Nigeria

There are three main breeds of goats in Nigeria.
The Sahel goat
It is found more abundantly in the Sahel of the country. They have varying coat colour but usually mixed
black, white and brown. They possess fine hair coat, short ears and long legs. Mature weight range from
25 – 35kg. Rams have horns. The breed is adapted to nomadic and wide range grazing. They are meat
animals although they could be used for milk and skin production.
Red Sokoto or Maradi goat

The breed is found mainly in the north-western Nigeria but has spread to the savannah belt of Nigeria. It
is uniformly dark red in colour and weighs 20 – 30kg at maturity. Both sexes are horned. The breed is
noted for its valuable skin and it is a meat animal.
West African Dwarf (WAD) goats

They are found mainly in the forest belts of the southern Nigeria. The breed is hardy and
trypanotolerant. They have small body sizes and strongly set short legs. The breed is black, brown or
white or a combination of black, brown and white. They are prolific giving birth to twins and triplets.
Mature weight is 20 – 25kg. The breed is used mainly for meat but also has dairy potentials.
Feeding of Goats
Feeding goat from birth to weaning
It is most important for kids to receive colostrum (the doe’s first milk) during the first 24 hours of its life.
A healthy newborn kid rarely needs help to suck from its dam. Colostrum, which is produced by the doe
during the first 4 or so days after kidding, is thicker and darker than ordinary milk. It contains essential
antibodies (immunoglobulins) that protect kids from disease, and is a concentrated source of nutrients.
The newborn kid can absorb the essential antibodies in colostrum only during its first 24 hours or so of
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life. These antibodies protect the kid for the first 8–10 weeks against many diseases. Excess colostrum
can be stored for future use in either fermented form (3 months) or frozen form (12 months).
If the mother dies shortly after giving birth or becomes too ill to care for the kid, or if the mother refuses
to accept the kids, bottle feeding of the kid is recommended. Bottle feeding requires a lot of time and a
total commitment to the kid. It is best to feed the kid at the same time of day during each feeding. It is
best to use a milk replacer designed specifically for goats or goat milk. Goat kids have different needs
than other animals. Lamb milk replacer is too high in fat and calf milk replacer is too low in protein for
goat kids. In the absence of milk replacer, you can make your own by mixing: 1 gallon of whole milk, 1
can evaporated milk, and 1 cup of buttermilk (Take the gallon of milk, pour out about 1/3 and set aside.)
Pour into the gallon container 1 can evaporated milk and 1 cup buttermilk. Then pour the rest of the
milk that you set aside in to the gallon container until full. Shake and serve warm. Bottles and nipples
must be thoroughly cleaned before each use.
Kids eat solid food from about 1 week of age and are often seen ruminating at about 2 weeks, so it is
important to give them good-quality hay and suitable concentrate from 1–2 weeks of age. Usually both
hay and concentrates are provided ad libitum, although, particularly with concentrates, you should try
to match the allowance with the kids’ appetites to reduce waste. It is important to make sure that
energy and protein supplements are kept fresh, so new feed material should be provided daily.
Wean kids at between 8 and 10 weeks of age, or a little older. Weaning can be abrupt, or it can be
gradual with milk being withdrawn by restricting the amount fed and the number of feeds per day.
Whichever weaning method is used, kids must be consuming, and have ready access to, high-quality
solid food. The ration may include some high-quality roughages to assist rumen development. It is
important for clean water to be available at all times.
Management of weaned kids
Weaning kids from their dams is a stress-inducing experience for both mothers and kids. Stress can
cause illness and sometimes even death, so it is wise to minimize stress at all times. Intact bucklings
should be weaned 8 to 12 weeks of age to avoid the possibility that they might be able to breed their
dams, sisters, or other females in the herd. Doelings can stay with their dams for a longer period of time.
Depending upon prevailing conditions, the weanlings may be dewormed prior to moving them to a
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weaned-kids pen/pasture as far away from their dams as possible. Males and females from weaning age
and up are kept in pastures separately to avoid indiscriminate breeding. When weaning kids (bucklings
in particular but both sexes in general), never wean one or two kids and place them into a herd of
already-weaned kids. They will be harassed to the point of exhaustion. Feed the kids after they are in
their new pastures. Eating together is a familiar group activity that will distract them from harassing
each other. Kids tend to wander, getting lost from the main group, therefore becoming potential targets
for predators. Herding kid goats requires that one animal takes a leadership role. This can be done by
introducing one or two older goats of the same sex into the herd.
Feeding goat for meat production
Feed costs typically account for about 70 percent of the total cost in a meat goat enterprise and feeding
program has a large effect on profitability and herd productivity. The nutritional needs of meat goats
vary according to weight, age and stage of growth and/or breeding cycle. They can be met by a variety
of feedstuffs and feeding programs. There is no perfect feed or feeding program. Ration formulations
are usually based upon a combination of the animals' nutritional needs, feedstuff availability and cost.
The cost of feeding goats can vary tremendously according to feed formulation and source of feed
ingredients.
Meat goats require water, protein, energy, minerals and vitamins in their diets. Water is by far the most
important nutrient. Animals can go for a long time without food, but not without water. Energy is
usually the most limiting ingredient in goat rations; protein the most expensive. Calcium and
phosphorus are the two most important minerals. The ratio of calcium to phosphorus in the diet should
be at least 2:1 to prevent urinary calculi, the formation of kidney stones in the bladder of male goats.
Goats require vitamins A, D, E and K in their diet, but synthesize the B vitamins in their rumens.
Nutritional Requirements of Meat Goats
Protein (CP) Energy (TDN)
Buck 11% 60%
Dry Doe 10% 55%
Late Gestation 11% 60%
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Lactating Doe 11% 60%
High Producing Doe 14% 65%
Weaned Kid 14% 68%
Yearling 12% 65%
Pasture should comprise the majority of the diets of meat goats. Goats are ruminant livestock, whose
system is designed to utilize forage and other fibrous materials. When fresh forage cannot meet the
nutritional needs, supplemental feeding may be necessary. Supplements should only be fed to the point
where they support profitable levels of production. The amount of pasture needed to support a meat
goat doe and her offspring will vary considerably, depending upon the quality of pasture and
management system. Goats will do well on improved pastures, as well as brushy, woody areas. They are
natural browsers and if given the opportunity will choose brush and weeds over grass.
Feeding pregnant goats (Does)

The feeding requirements for does changes based on the stage of production. Does should be fed at a
maintenance level when they are dry and during the first two thirds of their pregnancy. The doe’s
requirements increase during the last third of pregnancy. It is critical to provide adequate nutrition to
the doe to produce healthy and vigorous kids and to allow her to produce milk to raise those kids.
Early Pregnancy: During early pregnancy does can be fed to maintain their body condition unless they
are thin and need to improve their body condition. Pasture or average quality hay is sufficient to meet
their nutritional requirements. The does should have access to free choice mineral mixture that has
been balanced for goats. This will help to ensure that the does remain healthy throughout their
pregnancy. Overfeeding should be avoided. Most animals produce fat externally over their body,
however, goats produce fat internally. Overfeeding can cause problems in late pregnancy for very fat
does. They will not be able to eat enough to meet their energy requirements and can develop pregnancy
toxemia or pregnancy disease. The body fat and the growing kids will take up so much room that
nannies become too full to eat enough to meet their nutritional needs.
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Late Pregnancy: During the last third of pregnancy, the does need to be monitored more closely. The
nutritional requirements during this time increase to provide for the growth of the unborn kids. Doe’s
diet should be supplemented daily with concentrate in addition to the average quality hay/pasture that
they have been eating. As the doe approaches the last few weeks of pregnancy, increase the quality of
the hay/pasture to prepare them for lactation. After kidding, the amount of supplement can be adjusted
upward. Does nursing twins or triplets will require more supplementation than does nursing a single kid.
Feeding goat for milk production

To get the best milk production from goats, excellent quality forages must be provided. A pasture that
contains many kinds of plants, including browse plants, legumes and grasses is ideal. Good mixed-grass
hay (cut at an early stage of maturity) is ideal for dry season feeding. Goats will eat a wide variety of
plants, including weeds. They are selective eaters that will seek the most nutritious plants while grazing,
browsing, or eating hay. They are also wasteful eaters, and therefore it is wise to help them use their
feed more efficiently by controlling their grazing and by feeding them only a little more hay than they
will require. Goats, if allowed to be very selective, they will waste more feed, but they will produce more
milk. On the other hand, If you are too strict with their forage allowance, you will save money on feed
but lose income from milk.
Good quality hay and a balanced concentrate is the best approach in maintaining high levels of milk
production. Fiber in the total ration is needed to maintain a normal milk-fat test. However, too much
poor quality fiber will lead to lowered levels of milk production. Rations containing some cottonseed
hulls or other fibers may be included in the grain where hay or other roughages are not readily available.
Dairy goats are good eaters and can consume from 4 to 7% of their body weight as compared to 3 to 4%
consumption for dairy cows. This high level of intake allows the dairy goat to have an abundance of
nutrients readily available for the synthesis of milk. Overall, the efficiency of milk production by the
dairy goat is quite similar to that of the dairy cow.
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Animal Identification Methods

(1) Ear tags: A tag is a piece of numbered metal or plastic that is fixed by means of a hole in the ear
using an applicator. Regardless of which type of tag is used, it is inevitable that some tags will
be lost. It is therefore necessary that another means of identification be used in addition to ear
tags. Reading of tags may be difficult unless the animal is restricted. However, ear tag is a quick
and easy method of identification and also relatively inexpensive.
(2) Tattooing: A tattoo is applied by making holes in the skin and forcing a marking dye into the
wounds. When the wounds heal the dye is retained under the skin and leaves a permanent
record of the wound. Finely ground charcoal can be used in place of special tattoo dye. It is
possible to tattoo almost anywhere on the animal. Tattooing however, requires more effort for
installation than ear tags and can often be very difficult to read.
(3) Branding: A brand is an indelible mark that is placed on an animal. The aim of hot branding is
to cause a wound, which wills latter form scar tissue upon which hair will not grow. The animal
should be cast and restrained on the ground. Young animals are easier to restrain and branded
than adult animal. The hot iron which has been heated in a wood fire to bluish-white colour is
then applied to the skin. The iron is then rocked up and down and from side to side to give a
uniform brand. The scar tissue formed after branding reduces the value of the skin and it is
more painful to the animal.
(4) Flesh marks: This is a cut or hole made in the ear or other part of an animal for owner
identification. Ear notching in sheep are normally coded so that each notch in a specific ear or in
a specific location on that ear has a set of value e.g. sequential numbering, letter number and
individual animal number, year and month of birth. Copies of the numbering system should be
made on paper so that everyone working with the sheep has access to a code card. Special tools
are used for notching and can be in a variety of shapes including a “V”, a crescent or a “T”-
shape. Notching should be done as soon as possible after birth to minimize bleeding. The
advantage of notching is that no continuing expense is required as in the case of ear tags and
tattooing. However, it is slower to read than ear tags and more liable to error than tags or
tattoos.
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Castration
It involves the destruction of testicular function, the testicles being the two organs that lie together
in the ram’s scrotum. Method of castration in sheep includes:
(1) The knife method: The scrotum is cut open and both testicles removed by knife.
(2) Burdizzo method: The spermatic cord connecting the testicles with the rest of the body
is crushed mechanically with a pair of heavy and blunt pincers thereby leading to slow degeneration
and eventual complete atrophy (withering) of the two testicles in the un-opened scrotum.
(3) Elastration method: A strong rubber ring is fitted over the lamb’s scrotum and left
there until the whole scrotum atrophies and falls off. The male sheep becomes a wether or wedder
having lost all sexual power and desire.
Common Diseases of Goats

1. Peste des Petits Ruminante (PPR)
It is a viral disease of goat. Outbreaks are common in West Africa. PPR may be
peracute (4-6 days), acute (about 10 days) or subacute (about 2 weeks). Clinical signs include
catarrhal discharge from the nose, low-grade fever and intermittent diarrhea. Most animals
recover. Spread of infection occurs through inhalation of discharges in the air, direct contact
with sick animals, ingestion of contaminated feed and water. There is no treatment for the
disease. Fluid replacement therapy combined with antibiotic and anti-diarrhea drugs may be
helpful for symptomatic treatment. The only realistic approach to control is vaccination using
live tissue culture rinderpest vaccine.
2. Foot Rot
It is a disease of the feet of goat caused by infection with two bacteria, Fusobacterium
necrophorum and Bacteroides nodosus. Clinical signs include lameness of various degrees
depending on the severity of the lesions and the number of feet affected. In worst cases, goats
are reluctant to walk, tending to lie or crouch and graze in a kneeling position.
Spread of the disease occurs through contamination of the pasture. Chances of spread
increases in warm weather with wet conditions. These conditions favour the survival of the
organisms in the environment, cause softening of the skin of the feet and increase the chances
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of infection with bacteria. Treatments involve cutting away the under-run hoof to expose the
diseased tissues to the air, which improves healing. Cutting knives and shears should be
disinfected with 10% solution of zinc sulphate, 5% formalin and 5% copper Sulphate or sprayed
with antibiotic aerosol. The easiest but most expensive method is injection with penicillin in
combination with streptomycin in high doses for sufficient drug to reach the diseased tissue.
Control of the disease could be achieved by quarantine, culling of animals that do not respond
to treatment and routine vaccination.
3. Orf/Contagious Ecthyma/Sore Mouth
It caused by a virus and is seen as scabby lesions on the lip and spread to the muzzle, nostrils,
adjacent skin and round the eyes. Lesions are also found, in some cases, on udders of lactating
goats resulting in mastitis. Clinical signs lead to reduced feed intake and loss of condition.
Treatment is not very successful. Most cases of Orf are resolved within 4-6 weeks on their own.
Isolation of infected animals and vaccination with live vaccine containing live Orf virus are the
two most important methods of control.
4. Pneumonia:
This is used to refer to the inflammation of the lungs arising from bacterial or viral infections,
mechanical factors or a combination of these. Pasteurella multicida or Pasteurella haemolytica
causes enzootic pneumonia or haemorrhagic septicemia. Clinical signs are high fever, heavy
breathing and death in some 90% of cases. In healthy animals P. haemolytica may not cause
disease when present unless the animals are exposed to stress and under nutrition. Antibiotics
can be used to treat infected animals and vaccination used as a means of control.
5. Internal Parasites:
The major internal parasites of goats are Nematodes (Roundworms) e.g. Haemonchus spp.
Oesophagostomum spp and Trichostrongulus spp; Cestodes (Tapeworms) e.g. Coenurus
cerebralis and Trematodes (Flukes) Fasciola gigantica and Fasciola hepatica. The ill effects of
helminth infection in goats are as follows:
- Loss of condition due to competition for nutrients.
- Diarrhea due to gastro-enteritis
- Anaemia due to blood loss
- Tissue damage from migrating larvae
- Reaction to helminth in tissues
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Control of internal parasites can only be effective when goats are well managed and well
nourished. Rotational grazing can effectively reduce the level of infection. Drenching with
anthelmintic drugs is usually necessary whatever managerial system is practices.
6. External parasites:
These parasites are usually arthropods classified as insects (flies, lice and fleas) and Acarids (ticks
and mites) which parasitises the skin of goat. They cause loss of productivity in many ways
including serious irritation leading to interference of feeding; skin damage and wounds
predisposing the animal to secondary infections by bacteria; and acts as disease vectors. These
parasites are much more serious problems in extensive and large-scale intensive units. Control
of external parasites could be achieved using a combination of the following methods:
- Grazing management
- Washing and disinfection of livestock premises
- Treatment of infected animals through the application of insecticides and arcaricides as
sprays, dip baths, manual application, impregnation into ear tags and neck or tail bands
and in pour-on or spot-on preparations and injections.
- Good hygiene on farm premises to destroy or disrupt arthropod breeding cycles.
DISEASE CONTROL
(1) Breeding animals for the environment:

Some diseases are peculiar to certain environment. Within the same environment some animal
breeds may be resistant to the disease. Genetic selection of such animal should an important
part of integrated approach to animal health. This involves selection for disease resistance in
livestock breeding programmes.
(2) Health maintenance through surgical procedure:
Disbudding/dehorning of young animals prevent injury in housed animals. Castration of male
animals has significant implication on health as it reduces fighting in the sexually matured
animals. Removal of supernumerary teat is a wise precaution as such teat is disposed to
develop mastitis.
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(3) Modification of the environment:

This may be achieved through provision of adequate nutrition and supplementary feeding of
free range animals, grazing management (rotational grazing to prevent build up of infective
micro-organisms and to break the life-cycles of parasitic worms), housing of animals,
disinfection and general hygiene.
(4) Immunity:
Young animals when exposed to colostrum from the does greatly facilitate the acquisition of
passive immunity because colostrum is rich in antibodies. Vaccination of animals involves the
exposure of the animal to infective agent or its products in such a way that the immune system
is stimulated and protection against subsequent exposure to the agent results, without the
occurrence of clinical disease.
(5) Prophylaxis:
The measures taken in prophylaxis fall into two classes: one tends to protect the animal from
the action of pathogenic organisms/agents and the other has the objective of rendering the
animals able to resist them. Sanitary prophylactic measures involve subjection of individual
animal to a health inspection and isolation in quarantine before being introduced into the herd.
Sick animals should be isolated and kept within the area where it was when the disease was
diagnosed. For certain diseases, the statutory health regulations require slaughter of sick and
contaminated animals.
Chemical medical prophylaxis is used for the protection of vulnerable animals by injection of
synthesized chemical products. This method is mainly used in the prophylaxis of diseases due to
protozoan parasites of the digestive tract and blood system.
The products are scattered on food at intervals of time from one day to a week, or injected
under the skin or muscles. Their slow diffusion allows spacing of protective injections over
several months and gaining of chemoprevention over a long period.
(6) Vector Control:
Many major diseases of livestock in the tropics are transmitted by and develop in the
arthropods, such as flies, lice, fleas, ticks and mites. The control of these vectors reduces
disease transmission, loss of blood, skin irritation and damage. Vector control could be trough
the use of chemical agents as sprays, dip baths, injections, pour-on or spot-on.
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RECORD KEEPING
Record keeping is preserving or reserving in a certain state, a formal writing of any fact or information. It
applies to all classes of livestock production. Record keeping is important for the following reasons:
1. A farmer will know whether he is operating at a loss or profit.
2. He will know the nutritional status of the animals under various management regimes.
3. Through an efficient and adequate breeding record a farmer will know which male serves a
female animal and be able to avoid inbreeding problems.
4. A farmer will know which disease is prevalent in his flock and plan for its control.
5. Record keeping is vital in making management decisions, and detecting and correcting
management errors.
6. Through good record keeping, government can plan national livestock projects.
Types of records
A Ancillary records:
These records are kept in hard cover notebooks at the farm. These are
2. Mating record – record of date, method of mating, male and female mated.
3. Lambing/kidding and weaning records – record of date of birth, type of birth, sex, birth weight,
mortality, weaning date and weaning weight.
4. Health record – record of history of any disease diagnosed in any animal or flock, prognosis,
treatment administered, control measures taken, response of animal(s) to treatment or
measures and other relevant remarks.
5. Feed and drug acquisition record – record of detail inputs acquired for farm use.
6. Sales record – record of the revenue realized from the farm operations.
7. Monthly record – record of monthly stock taking of the operations of the farm. That is, current
and previous months’ summaries of total and class of stock (female, male, weaned lambs/kids,
mortality, lambings/kiddings, culling, sales, purchases, transfer and revenue).
B. Core records: These records are entered in specially designed hard books and are intended for
computerization.
1. Pedigree record – contain animal tag number, flock, date of birth, sex, dam, sire, date of
disposal, and reasons for disposal (coded).
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2. Breeding record – contain breeding date, lambing/kidding date, parity, liter size, sex, birth
weight, survival (coded), weaning weight, weaning date.
3. Live weight record – usually taken monthly but could be more frequent to follow experimental
protocol. It contain information on month, tag number, date and live weight.
4. Fattening record – contain information on the date the animal enters or leave the feedlot, initial
and final weight, the regular weighing date and the amount of feed offered.
5. Milking record – contain dates, tag number, daily milk yield, total milk yield and lactation length.
6.
PRODUCTS FROM GOATS
A list of the main products from sheep and goats is listed below.
Products from milk
• Fresh milk: only from goats.
• Ultra High Temperature (UHT) processed milk: only from goats.
• Fresh cheese (from raw or pasteurized milk): sheep and goats.
• Seasoned cheese (from raw or pasteurized milk): sheep and goats
Products from meat
• Meat from sheep and goats of different ages for consumption in different seasons.
• Meat from adult animal can be made into some traditional dishes in certain regions.
• The adults meat can be transformed (e.g. goat ham).
CATTLE PRODUCTION
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Cattle Production, Problems and Prospects in Nigeria

An average Nigeria consumes only 3.245g of animal protein of animal protein per day. Cattle industry
has been making significant contribution to the National Economy of the country in that it provides.
Food such as meat, milk and egg, employment, raw materials for industries like hides and skin for
clothing, shoes, as source of foreign exchange, generates income to rural people through sales of
animals and their products
Prospects
Nigeria has high prospects of increasing her cattle population because of increased preference for beef,
good prices brought about by population growth, better health and nutritional education of the citizens,
high economic growth rate, better per capita income all leading to higher demand for beef, per capita
consumption of animal protein is grossly inadequate hence market favours producers. Cattle breeds are
adapted to the environment. Vast grasslands are available in the country for cattle production. There
are large rivers and lakes for adequate water supply. Animal traction and transport are available in
Northern Nigeria. Building requirements for cattle production is not elaborate, hence low initial capital
outlay. Beef animal serves as financial security or collateral in times of need. No tribal, religion or social
inhibition or taboo to beef consumption or leather goods. Availability of personnel to man the animals
Problems
1. Socio-cultural
Cattle production is the traditional occupation of the Fulanis and Shuwas in Nigeria. They are
characterized by the love of animals, dependence on daily milk economy, an annual
transhumant system of production forced on them by the agro-climatic constraints, and hence a
constant base shifting that makes it difficult to impart new knowledge and technical
innovations. Overstocking often leads to overgrazing of available grasslands. Unfavourable land
tenure system is a major socio-cultural constraint
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2. Management
Management includes nutrition, breed and breeding, housing, disease control, herd health
management, environmental factors. To get more beef, we need to improve the environmental
factors directly affecting production. Emphasis was placed in the past on developing a high
genetic potential cattle for production by introduction of exotic breed. The nation can do better
in cattle industry development based on the existing highly adapted breeds. Biological efficiency
however, without regard for environment which was to support it is undesirable and often leads
to failure. Nutrition is the most important single factor, apart from endemic disease,
constraining livestock production in Nigeria. Wide seasonal variations have an important
influence on food production. Irregular precipitation coupled with high rates of evaporation
brings about two seasons. When there is high variability in feed supplies, marked fluctuations
arise in the weight gain of grazing animals causing poor quality meat. Improvement in pasture is
very expensive. Land gradient in some cases does not lend itself to mechanization. Thus, there is
need for concentrate supplementation. Lack of improvement in crop yields and the competition
between human and animals as well as brewing industries for the available grains makes
meeting nutritional requirement at reasonable cost more difficult to achieve. The beef industry
is also faced with insidious economic disease which leads to breeding inefficiency, reduced
weight gain, decreased feed efficiency, poor condition and even death.
3. Financial constraint
Beef cattle industry suffers untold hardship despite government effort on lending policies to
assist livestock farmers through injection of money from financial institutions. However, the
slow rate of production, returns and recovery of loans, lack of technical know-how on
processing loans and lack of security guarantee are parts of the problems leading to low
financing of cattle industry up to the present time.
4. Marketing
There is no organized market system, no market information, no standard or organized auction
of live cattle, exploitative middlemen, inefficient transportation, slaughtering and processing
5. Lack of commitment
There is generally lack of personal commitment on government farms. No motivation, no sense
of patriotism on government farms, high ranking officers are not personally involved,
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overstaffing is the order of the day. Official protocols kill initiatives. These make government
farms an unprofitable venture.
Indigenous and Exotic Breeds of Beef and Dairy Cattle

Family BOVIDAE- Taurine
- Bibovine
- Bibontine
- Bubaline
Taurine- Bos Taurus
- Bos Indicus
Bibovine – Bos gaurus
- Bos Frontalis
Bibontine-Bos gunniens
-Bos bison
Bubaline- bufallo found mainly in South East Asia and Phillipines
Types of cattle
1. Beef type-mainly for meat e.g Sokoto Gudali, Red Bororo, Ndama (Borgu), Brown Swiss (have
great width and depth of body)
2. Dairy type- mainly for milk White Fulani, Kuri, Shuwa Arab (Wadara), Holstein, Jersey, Ayrshire
(lean angular with well developed mammary gland)
3. Dual purpose type: meat and milk production e.g Muturu, Shuwa (Wadara), Azuwal, Biu
4. Draft type: work animal (great size, ruggedness long legs for walking long distance) e.g Sokoto
Gudali
Classes of cattle
1. Humped or zebu (highly resistant to rinderpest and better adapted to living in arid or semi-arid
areas)
a. Long horned e.g White Fulani or Bunaji and Red Fulani or Rahaji
b. Short horned e.g. Sokoto Gudali, Shuwa Arab or Wadara
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2. Humpless or Non-zebu (resistance to trypanosomiasis, survive in forest areas)

a. Long horned cattle e.g. Ndama, Kuri or Budama
b. Short horned cattle e.g. Muturu
Breeds of Indigenous Cattle

Kuri
Also known by: Kouri, Baharié, Buduma, Budduma, Budumu, Boudouma, Chad, Dongolé, Kuburi, White
Lake Chad
The gigantic bulbous horns are an unmistakable trait of the Kuri. These cattle are native to the shores of
Lake Chad where Cameroon, Chad, Niger and Nigeria join. The Kuri are believed to be descended from
the Hamitic Longhorn cattle and have been herded by the Buduma and Kuri peoples for centuries.
Kuri Cattle
The tribesmen were strict in their selection of animals for their horns, many of which grow in a lyre or
crescent shape. The horns sometimes reach 130 cm in length and 55 cm in diameter. Most remarkable
is the unique pear shape of the horns.
These animals are kept as dairy cattle in herds of approximately 30 females with one bull. The animals
spend several hours each day in the water swimming in search of water plants for food. It is thought
that the horns act as floats. The cattle are acclimated to water to such a degree that they survive with
difficulty away from their indigenous area. They are easily affected by the sun if unable to bathe.
Because of this, the Kuri are largely unsuitable as working animals. The bulls, which are docile and
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friendly in temperament, are occasionally used as pack animals but they are slow and tire easily. The
females yield 4 liters of milk a day after nursing their calves.
The Kuri are tall for an African breed, with a long back, shallow body and a large, bony rump. The legs
are strong, long and bony with large, widely cleft hooves. Kuri are usually white in color. The females
are 135 to 145 cm in height and average 400 kg in weight. The bulls range from 152 to 180 cm and
average 475 kg of weight. Some males will reach 600 kg.
Red Fulani
Also referred to as M'Bororo, Red Bororo, Wodabe, Fellata, Abori, Bodadi, Brahaza. They are found in
Borno and Sokoto states and Chad Republic. Plain red coat coloured, temperament can be nervous and
intractable. Adult live weight is 350 – 450kg and possesses long (up to 140cm) lyre-shaped horns. They
are poor milkers.
N'Dama
Other Names: Boenca or Boyenca (Guinea-Bissau), Fouta Jallon, Fouta Longhorn, Fouta Malinke, Futa,
Malinke, Mandingo (Liberia), N'Dama Petite (Senegal). Incorrect names that are sometimes used: Dama
and Ndama.
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The N'Dama breed is the most representative "Bos Taurus" breeds in West Africa. The origin of this
breed is located in the Fouta-Djallon highlands of Guinea (Conakry). From there the N'Dama has spread
to the sudanian and guinean regions. Being trypanotolerant, it has been used for large scale
dissemination for grazing savannah in Congo, Central Africa, Gabon, Nigeria and Zaire, especially in the
regions infested by the tse-tse fly. The N'Dama is a hardy breed, medium size type (100 cm at
shoulder height for cows; 120 cm for bulls) with a large and strong head and with lyre-shaped
horns. Its skin, with short and thin hair, is fawn colored but varies from sand to black colour and
sometimes spotted.
Cows produce only 2 to 3 liters milk per day during 7 to 8 months. The N'Dama breed is used for meat
and the ratio carcass/live weight is around 50%. The meat has a very good flavour without much fat.
Average live weight for a mature steer varies between 250 to 300 kg. In West Africa, to date there are
approximately 7 million head of N'Dama. For the last 65 years, this breed has been developed in Zaire,
where large scale herds have been improved by permanent selection practices by a private company
named "Compagnie J. VAN LANCKEIC' which owns over 40,000 head of purebred N'Dama. This company
has managed to increase, by selection, the average live weight by 30 to 50kg without reducing the breed
hardiness. This company is collaborating with the International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI) for an
improved genetic analysis and selection.
Bunaji
Bunaji or White Fulani cattle is a white, black-eared and medium-horned breed, and is the most
numerous and widespread of all Nigerian cattle breeds. The NNLRS estimated that they represent some
37% of the national herd. They are found from Lagos to Sokoto, Katsina and Kano States and spread
across the Nigerian Middle Belt. The only areas from which they are significantly absent are old Borno
state (Adamawa and Yobe States), where Rahaji and Wadara predominate, and in the south-east, where
there are no resident zebu. The movement into the derived savannah and to the edge of the humid zone
has largely been of Bunaji and pastoralists generally agree that they are superior to all other breeds of
zebu in resisting disease.
Gudali
There are two quite distinct types of Gudali in Nigeria – the Sokoto Gudali (or Bokolooji) and the
Adamawa Gudali.
Sokoto Gudali
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There are two quite distinct types of Gudali in Nigeria – the Sokoto Gudali (or Bokolooji) and the
Adamawa Gudali. The Sokoto Gudali is a uniform cream, light grey or dun, the dewlap and skin folds are
highly developed and the horns almost absent. Although the Sokoto Gudali stereotypically occurs mainly
in the northwest of Nigeria, in reality it is now distributed widely throughout the country. The NNLRS
estimated that they represent some 32% of the national herd.
Adamawa Gudali
The Adamawa Gudali resembles the Bunaji in conformation. It is medium to large sized, with
medium-length horns, and usually pied, or with a white, black, red or brown coat. It has thick,
crescent-shaped horns, a pendulous hump, and a short head and muzzle. The pendulous hump is the
feature that most reliably distinguishes it from the Bunaji. The NNLRS estimated that Adamawa Gudali
represent some 2% of the national herd. The Adamawa Gudali, as its name implies, is restricted to
Adamawa. Both Kanuri and Fulbe (Fulani) pastoralists own Adamawa Gudali cattle. It is rare for them to
have complete herds of Adamawa Gudali, and often they are mixed with Wadara, Bunaji or Rahaji. They
are regarded by many farmers as the indigenous race of the region and are common in villages.
Adamawa Gudali are favoured for ploughing, but when they become too large to pull a plough
effectively they are further fattened in the compound and sent to market.
Azawak
The Azawak is said to be native to the Azawak Valley north-east of Nigeria and is distributed along its
north-western border. It is lightly built with medium-length horns. Although Azawak in Niger are
commonly described as red, the Azawak that enter Nigeria are usually a light fawn colour, though they
can also be white, brown, pied and black. The NNLRS estimated that they represent just 0.7% of the
national herd. A small population of Azawak cattle exists in Nigeria throughout the year, but majorly as
seasonal transhumants. Azawak are generally only found on the border north and west of Sokoto but
there were also some in the north-west of Borgu and dotted along the frontier from Sokoto to Katsina.
Rahaji
The Rahaji is one of the largest zebu breeds and is distinguished by its deep burgundy-coloured coat,
pendulous ears and long, thick horns. It is the third most numerous breed of cattle in Nigeria, some 22%
of the national herd. The Rahaji is adapted to arid and semi-arid regions and rarely goes further south
than Kaduna in the wet season, except for the isolated population on the Mambila Plateau in the south-
east. Fulani pastoralists consider the Rahaji an extremely prestigious breed and many herds of ‘white’
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cattle include a few Rahaji for crossbreeding. Nonetheless, it tolerates neither humidity-related diseases
nor poor nutrition.
Wadara
Wadara cattle are medium-sized, lightly built cattle, and are usually dark red, black, pied or brown. They
are short-horned and have a small erect hump, representing some 6.6% of the national herd. Wadara
cattle are the ‘indigenous’ cattle of Borno and are referred to by the Koyam and related pastoralists as
‘our’ cattle. They are frequently called ‘Shuwa’ in the literature, after the Shuwa Arabs who also herd
them. A related breed with a white coat, the Ambala, is often traded into Nigeria from Chad.
West African Dwarf Shorthorn
The West African dwarf shorthorn or muturu is small bodied, and blocky in conformation with short,
fine-boned limbs. It has a compact body, no hump, a straight back, and a broad head. The face is slightly
dished, and the horns are very short. In south-central Nigeria, the muturu is generally black, or black and
white. Animals on the Jos Plateau itself are usually black and white but are distinctly larger than lowland
animals. There are more variations in the northern populations; brown, red or tawny animals were
recorded.
Within Nigeria, Muturu cattle have a very disjoint distribution suggesting the gradual retreat of a once
more widespread population. Muturu are widely dispersed and often stall-fed, and so are less visible
than zebu. There are isolated populations of Muturu along the Republic of Cameroon frontier up as far
as south-eastern Borno, adjoining the Michika-Mubi area of Adamawa. Small clusters exist in the
Atlantika mountains, south-east of Yola and near Cham east of Bauchi. Muturu are still relatively
common south-east of the Jos Plateau in the dry savannah. There is another nucleus of Muturu north of
Tegina in the north-west, with diverse coat-colours suggesting a link with the north-eastern populations.
Muturu were probably once kept throughout the whole of southern Nigeria and that their
disappearance from many areas is relatively recent. At present, the major concentrations of Muturu are
in the south-east, in the Cross River area and among the Tiv people in and around Makurdi. Muturu are
kept throughout the Igbo areas but in very low densities. The division of muturu into different
populations is somewhat controversial. The research defined four subsets; northern savannah/montane,
plateau, derived savannah and forest. Only the first group is distinctive in physical appearance; the
further north they are found, the larger in stature they are. Muturu in the derived savannah and forest
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are similar in colour, conformation and management and contrast with those in the northern
savannah/montane environments.
Keteku (taurine x zebu crosses)
These are crosses of Muturu x Zebu or Muturu x N’Dama. The Muturu x Zebu cross is called the Borgu
Keteku and the Muturu x N’Dama, the Lagos Keteku. Keteku are significantly less common than
previously thought and their distribution quite different. It is unlikely that there as many as 100,000 of
all types. Borgu Keteku combines Muturu and Bunaji features with white, grey and black types
predominating, and more occasionally red and brown. The horns are long compared with a muturu, but
the hump smaller, and the legs shorter than a Bunaji. In Nigeria, keteku in herds are restricted to a
narrow band along the Benin Republic border in the region usually known as ‘Borgu’. Further east,
keteku are occasionally kept adjacent to villages in northern Yorubaland.
Exotic Breeds of Cattle

Ayrshire cattle
The Ayrshire breed of dairy cattle originated from Ayrshire in Scotland. The average mature Ayrshire
cow weighs 1000 - 1300 pounds (450-600 kg). Ayrshires have red markings. The red can be an orange to
a dark brown, with or without colored legs. They are known for low somatic cell counts, ability to
convert grass into milk efficiently, and hardiness. The breed's strong points are the now desired traits of
easy calving and longevity. They also have a very "spirited" nature, which may or may not be desirable.
Ayrshire Cow
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The breed was also known as Dunlop cattle (see Dunlop) or Cunninghame cattle (see Cunninghame).
They were exported to all parts of the world and extensive cattle docks used to exist at
Cunninghamhead station for loading and export purposes. The Dunlops of that ilk are credited with
breeding this line, with animals being brought in from Holland. Ayrshires are medium-sized cattle
weighing over 1200 pounds at maturity. They are strong, rugged cattle that adapt to all management
systems including group handling on dairy farms with free stalls and milking parlors. Ayrshires excel in
udder conformation and are not subject to excessive foot and leg problems. These traits make Ayrshires
outstanding commercial dairy cattle. Other traits that make Ayrshires attractive to the commercial
dairyman include the vigor of Ayrshire calves. They are strong and easy to raise. The Ayrshire is a
moderate butterfat breed and relatively high protein breed. The actual average of all Ayrshires on
official ABA programs in 2002 is 17,230 pounds of milk with 665 pounds of fat and 542 pounds of
protein. Ayrshires (especially the ones from Finland) are also crosbred with Holstein cattle in order to
improve the Holstein's hardiness and fertility.
Guernsey cattle
The Guernsey is a breed of cattle used in dairy farming. It is fawn and white in colour, and is particularly
renowned for the rich flavour of its milk, as well as its hardiness and docile disposition. The unique
qualities of the milk produced by the Guernsey cow have made the breed world famous. The milk has a
golden colour due to an exceptionally high content of beta carotene. Beta-carotene is a source of
Vitamin A, which has been touted to help reduce the risks of certain cancers. The milk also has a high
butterfat content of 5% and a high protein content of 3.7%.[2] Guernsey cows produce around 6000 litres
per cow per annum. In the US Guernsey cows average 16,200 pounds of milk per year with 4.5% fat and
3.2% protein. Guernsey cattle are known to produce the highest percentage of A2 milk of all breeds of
dairy cattle.
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Herd of Guernsey Cattle
As its name implies, the Guernsey was bred on the British Channel Island of Guernsey. It is believed to
be descended from two breeds brought over from nearby France, Isigny cattle from Normandy and the
Froment du Léon from Brittany. Today the breed is well-established in Great Britain, the United States,
Canada, South Africa and elsewhere.
The cow weighs 450 to 500 kg, slightly more than the average weight of the Jersey cow which is around
450 kg (1000 pounds). The bull weighs 600 to 700 kg which is small by standards of domestic cattle, and
they can be surprisingly aggressive. The Guernsey cow has many notable advantages for the dairy
farmer over other breeds. These include high efficiency of milk production, low incidence of calving
difficulty and longevity. However, inbreeding is becoming a concern due to the small gene pool in a
given area, and may be solved in most cases by exchanging cows with no overlap in lineage from other
farms. Guernsey cows are also sometimes regarded as somewhat more fragile than comparably sized
breeds.
Jersey cattle
Jersey cattle are a small breed of dairy cattle. Originally bred in the Channel Island of Jersey, the breed is
popular for the high butterfat content of its milk and the lower maintenance costs incurred by its lower
bodyweight, as well as its genial disposition. The Jersey cow is quite small, ranging from only 360 to 540
kg (800 to 1200 pounds). The main factor contributing to the popularity of the breed has been their
greater economy of production, due to: The ability to carry a larger number of effective milking cows per
unit area due to lower body weight, hence lower maintenance requirements, and superior grazing
ability. Ease of calving and a relatively lower rate of dystocia led to their popularity in crossbreeding
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with other dairy and even beef breeds to reduce calving related injuries. They have high fertility, high
butterfat conditions, 6% butterfat and 4% protein, and the ability to thrive on locally produced food.
Bulls are also small, ranging from 540 to 820 kg (1200 to 1800 pounds), and are notoriously aggressive.
Castrated males can be trained into fine oxen which, due to their small size and gentle nature make
them popular with young teamsters. Jerseys come in all shades of brown, from light tan to almost black.
They are frequently fawn in color. All purebred Jerseys have a lighter band around their muzzle, a dark
switch (long hair on the end of the tail), and black hooves, although in recent years color regulations
have been relaxed to allow a broadening of the gene pool.
They are calm and docile animals, but tend to be a bit more nervous than other dairy cow breeds. They
are also highly recommended cows for first time owners and marginal pasture. Unfortunately, they have
a greater tendency towards postparturient hypocalcaemia (or "milk fever") in dams and frail calves that
require more attentive management in cold weather than other dairy breeds due to their smaller body
mass and greater surface area.
Jersey cattle being judged at a show in Jersey, home of the breed
As its name implies, the Jersey was bred on the British Channel Island of Jersey. It apparently descended
from cattle stock brought over from the nearby Norman mainland, and was first recorded as a separate
breed around 1700.
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Charolais cattle
Charolais cattle are a beef breed of cattle (Bos taurus) which originated in Charolais, around Charolles, in
France. They are raised for their meat and are known for their composite qualities when crossed with
other breeds, most notably Angus and Hereford cattle. The breed tends to be large muscled, with bulls
weighing up to 2,500 pounds (1,100 kilograms) and cows up to 2,000 pounds.
Charolais Bull Charolais cow and calf

The breed was introduced in the southern US as early as the 1940s. It was the first popular breed after
the English breeds and Brahmans. It was known to produce beef animals that had more red meat and
less fat. The breed was often crossed with English breeds. Despite their relatively northerly origin,
Charolais tolerate heat well, and show good weight gains on even mediocre pasturage. The coat is
almost pure white. The Australian and Canadian breed standards also recognise cattle possessing a light
red colour called 'Red Factor' Charolais. The term Charbray refers to the offspring of Charolais crossed
with Brahmans and is recognised as a breed in its own right. Charolais also can be black in colour.
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Angus cattle
Angus cattle (Aberdeen Angus) are a Scottish breed of cattle much used in beef production. They were
developed from cattle native to the counties of Aberdeenshire and Angus in Scotland, and are known as
Aberdeen Angus in most parts of the world.
Mixed herd of Black and Red Angus Angus cattle grazing
They are naturally polled (do not have horns) and solid black or red, although the udder may be white.
There have always been both red and black individuals in the population, and in the USA they are
regarded as two separate breeds - Red Angus and Black Angus. Black Angus is the most popular beef
breed of cattle in the United States, with 324,266 animals registered in 2005.
Red Angus cattle occur as the result of a recessive gene. Breeders collecting red cattle from black herds
began the Red Angus Association of America in 1954. Other countries such as the United Kingdom and
Canada still register both colors in the same herd book. The Angus breed is known to be prone to several
possible genetic disorders. Angus cattle are widely used in crossbreeding to reduce the likelihood of
dystocia (difficult calving). They are also used as a genetic dehorner as the polled gene is passed on as a
dominant trait.
Beefmaster
Beefmaster cattle have been developed by Lasater combining the breeding of the Brahman and
Hereford cattle and also used some registered Shorthorn bulls. After making crosses of Brahman-
Hereford and Brahman-Shorthorn, he felt a superior animal had been produced and called the cattle
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"Beefmaster." The exact pedigree of the foundation cattle was not known. The breeding operations
were carried on in multiple-sire herds and rigid culling was practiced.
The cattle were handled under range conditions that were often adverse, and a culling program was
started based on disposition, fertility, weight, conformation, hardiness and milk production. Stress was
placed on the production of beef. No selection has been made to characteristics that do not affect the
carcass, such as horns, hide or color. The original concepts of Tom Lasater in developing Beefmaster
cattle have continued. Selection continues for those points which were originally used and are now
known as the Six Essentials - Weight, Conformation, Milking Ability, Fertility, Hardiness and Disposition.
Considerable progress has been made in selecting cattle that give very satisfactory levels of production
under the practical and often severe range conditions. Satisfaction by ranchers and creditable
performance in feedlots indicate the value of stressing the important utilitarian points in developing
breeding herds.
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Brahman cattle
The Brahman or Brahma is a breed of Zebu cattle (Bos primigenius indicus), later exported from India to
the rest of the world. The main breeds used were Kankrej, Guzerat, Nelore or Ongole and the Gir or Gyr
cattle. It is named for the sacred cow of Hinduism.
Brahman bull Brahman Calves
The American Brahman has a distinct large hump over the top of the shoulder and neck, and a loose flap
of skin (dewlap) hanging from the neck. Their ears are larger than Bos taurus breeds. Bulls weigh 1,600
to 2,200 pounds (800 to 1,100 kg) and cows weigh 1,000 to 1,400 pounds (500 to 700 kg). At birth,
calves weigh 60 to 65 pounds (30 to 33 kg). American Brahmans are known as a docile, intelligent breed
of beef cattle. Brahman cattle can be gray or red color. Their tail switch is black, and they have black
pigmentation on their noses, tips of ears, and hooves. They are primarily a horned breed of cattle
however there are some bloodlines of Brahman that are naturally polled (without horns).
Brahmans have a greater ability to withstand heat than European cattle. They have more sweat glands,
and also an oily skin, thought to help repel pest insects along with a smooth coat. They have a short hair
coat. They are also more resistant to parasites and disease. Brahmans have also been extensively
crossbred with European cattle in subtropical United States, in Central America and in some tropical
areas of the world to gain their advantages in hot climates. A Brahman cow is an extremely good
mother, offering protection and an abundance of milk for her calves. Brahman calves tend to measure
high weights at weaning because of the outstanding milk given by Brahman cows. In some countries,
especially in South America, Brahman cattle are used for both milk and beef production.
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The Brahman is mainly used for breeding and the meat industry; it has been crossbred extensively with
Bos taurus (European) beef breeds of cattle. Brahman cattle are known for their extreme tolerance to
heat conditions, and therefore are used in many tropical regions. They are also resistant to insects due
to their thick layer of skin. Brahman cattle live longer than many other breeds, often still producing
calves at ages 15 and older.
Cattle Production Systems

Livestock production systems may be classified according to a number of criteria, the main ones being
integration with crop production, the animal-land relationship, intensity of production, and type of
product. Other criteria include size and value of livestock holdings, distance and duration of animal
movement, types and breeds of animals kept, market integration of the livestock enterprise, economic
specialization, household dependence on livestock and farming systems approach. A farming system is
defined as a group of farms with a similar structure, such that individual farms are likely to share similar
production functions. A farm is usually the unit making decisions on the allocation of resources.
Pastoral and agropastoral systems
Pastoral systems are associated with zones that are too dry for cropping to provide a basis for
subsistence and are defined as land-based systems occurring in areas with a length of growing period
(LGP) of less than 180 days, where the grazing of ruminants is the predominant form of land use. Based
on the degree of economic dependency on livestock, a pastoral production system has been defined as
one in which 50 percent or more of household gross revenue (the total value of marketed production
plus the estimated value of subsistence production) comes from livestock or livestock-related activities,
or where more than 20 percent of household food energy is directly derived from livestock or livestock-
related activities. Three types of pastoral system can be identified. In the rainfall range of less than 400
mm per year:
- nomadic pastoralism, which is a pure pastoral system, characterized by little or no agriculture
and by high mobility of people and animals in search of grazing and water;
- transhumant pastoralism, which is based on more or less regular seasonal migrations from a
permanent homestead. It is characterized by almost exclusive reliance on animals and animal-
related activities for household revenue. There is no cultivation and there is little use of crop
residues by animals. The basic production units are independent nuclear families or groups
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joined together in camps, whose composition varies seasonally and whose members cooperate
to varying degrees in economic activities. The animals are grazed on communal pastures using
family or hired labour.
In areas with annual rainfall between 400 and 600 mm:
- agropastoralism, in which livestock production is associated with dryland or rainfed cropping
and animals range over short distances. This system is characterized by a high degree of reliance
on pastoral activities for household revenue, but rainfed cultivation by, or on behalf of, the
household also contributes an important share (up to 50 percent).
The main functions of livestock production in pastoral households are to provide subsistence products
(milk, blood and meat), to meet social obligations (bride price, stock alliances and stock patronages) and
to insure against disaster (drought, epidemics, raids).
Livestock management in pastoral systems is characterized by three principles; adaptation to the
environment in the attempt to ensure subsistence, risk averting strategies and adaptation to the
institutional environment (characterized by communal grazing systems).
Mixed systems
Semi-arid, subhumid and humid zones:
The term mixed systems has a dual meaning: the farming system is based on livestock but practiced in
proximity to other farming systems based on cropping (e.g. pastoral systems in arable areas) and
livestock subsystems of integrated crop-livestock farming. The first type is more common and is
characterized by seasonal penetration into the more humid areas, with southward movements during
the dry season and northward movements during the rainy season. Integrated crop-livestock farming is
categorized based on agro-climatic conditions in particular rainfall and cropping pattern, pressure of
human population expressed by cultivation intensity, tsetse challenge and overall importance of
livestock expressed by livestock densities and species.
A major characteristic of mixed farming systems is the varying degree of interaction between crops and
livestock. Mixed systems have also been defined as those which derive between 10 and 50 percent of
gross revenue from livestock, or 50 percent or more from cropping. The basic principle of these systems
is that rainfed agriculture is the main source of income, although livestock provide an important
additional source.
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Livestock management is usually sedentary and if movement is part of the management system, it is
generally restricted to short distances. Cattle are normally grazed on communal pastures, herded by
family or hired labour and kraaled at night in order to prevent theft or crop losses. Manure is often
collected and calves are separated from their dams to make milking possible. In some areas, cattle are
left free to wander during the dry season after the crops have been harvested.
Highland zones:
The mixed systems of the highlands have special features that justify their separate consideration:
- good soils and suitable climatic conditions, allowing higher crop productivity and consequently
higher population densities;
- high cropping intensities and more or less permanent cropping patterns as a result of generally
high population pressure;
- crops are grown are unsuitable for the lowlands, such as wheat, barley, coffee and tea;
- crops and livestock are normally produced within the same management unit, hence
approaching the concept of mixed farming;
- absence of trypanosomiasis; and
- ecological conditions suitable for the intensification of both crop and livestock production
through the introduction of varieties and breeds from temperate zones.
Highland mixed systems are particularly important in East Africa, which has 70 percent of sub-Saharan
Africa’s highland area. Livestock and livestock products account for some 80 percent of mean farm cash
income.
The animals are herded and grazed during most of the day. After the crop harvest, cattle are needed for
threshing and grazing time for oxen reduces accordingly. Labour inputs to livestock production consist of
efforts related to milking, barn clearing, manure collection, feeding, herding and watering, the dominant
input being for herding. Animals are grazed private grazing land, communal grazing land and on the
stubble of crops grown on family farmland.
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Production Parameters of Cattle in Traditional Systems

Production parameters include the following:
- mortality risk, defined as the probability of an animal dying during a specified time period (one
year for cattle);
- age at first parturition, expressed in months;
- parturition rate, defined as the number of parturitions per female per year;
- prolificacy, defined as the number of live offspring per parturition;
- milk offtake per lactation, defined as the milk used for human consumption (i.e. excluding that
consumed by the calf);
- offtake rate, defined as the proportion of animals sold or consumed in a year; and
- mean live weight of breeder females and males (uncastrated adult males used for breeding).
These parameters determine the population dynamics and gross productivity. The gross productivity of
livestock production systems is generally closely linked to the basic production parameters of fertility
and mortality, the difference between which allows management decisions on the trade-off between
sale, consumption and investment in herd growth.
Traditional systems are characterized by high mortality risks, low fertility rates, low milk offtake and low
cattle offtake. Calf mortality risks are practically the same between pastoral (21.4 percent) and mixed
(22.6 percent) systems. Since stock mortality is one of the most important parameters determining
population dynamics and hence the gross productivity of livestock production systems, high mortality
risks, especially among calves, is a major constraint in traditional cattle production systems in sub-
Saharan Africa.
Cattle in traditional systems generally have a delayed mean age at first calving of 47.9 months, with a
wide range from 33.4 months to 62.5 months. The mean ages at first calving are virtually the same in
pastoral and mixed systems.
Calving rates in traditional cattle systems are low, at 58.7 percent (median of 58 percent). The mean
calving rates for pastoral and mixed systems are similar, at 60.8 percent and 58.2 percent respectively.
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Milk offtake per lactation in traditional systems is generally low, at an average of 252 kg (median of 251
kg). It ranges from 60 kg to 508 kg per lactation. The mean milk offtake per lactation reported in pastoral
and mixed systems is virtually identical and very low.
The mean of reported offtake rates for cattle in traditional systems is 9.9 percent (median of 9 percent)
and ranges from 1.2 to 20.0 percent. Mean offtake rates for cattle in pastoral systems are higher than in
mixed systems.
The mean weight of mature cows in traditional systems is 244 kg (median of 250 kg), ranging from 152
kg to 357 kg. The mean weights of mature cows in pastoral and mixed systems are similar. Weights of
mature cows are different across the sub-regions and across the systems. Mature cow weights the
mixed systems in the semi-arid and subhumid zones are higher than those in mixed systems in the
humid zone and in the highlands. The mean weight of mature bulls in pastoral systems (322kg) is similar
to mixed systems (326kg).
Ranching Systems
Ranching systems consist of labour-extensive enterprises specializing in one or more livestock species
and producing mainly live animals for slaughter (for meat, skins and hides), but also for wool and milk.
Management is characterized by grazing within the fixed boundaries that delimit tenure. Ranches are
generally commercial enterprises, with generation of a cash income as the primary function of the
livestock raised on them. It supporting fewer people per land area, since tenure is generally individual
(although not necessarily private) and providing options for intensifying water and feed supplies.
Ranching may take any of the following forms:
 Cattle ranching for meat (the most common type),
 Dairy ranching,
 Stud breeding.
Ranching systems can either hold both breeding and growing stock or specialize in rearing/fattening
animals, according to environmental and economic conditions. Ranching systems are commonest in the
arid and semi-arid zones of East and southern Africa and occur only sporadically in the drier parts of
West and Central Africa. Ranches are also found in the humid zone of Central and West Africa but are
not a predominant form of land use there. A few ranches are also found in the highlands.
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Ranches generally exhibit improved herd, pasture and water management. Records are kept, herding
patterns are closely adapted to the needs of different animal groups, and more external inputs are used
(labour, purchased feed, inputs for animal health, etc.).
Smallholder Dairy Systems

Smallholder dairy systems may be characterized as mixed systems whose principal output is milk for
sale. They are found mainly in the highlands. Smallholder dairy systems predominate in the high-
potential highlands of Kenya and occur to a lesser extent in other East African highland areas. Livestock
production is integrated with the growing of subsistence crops, such as maize, beans and potatoes, and
of cash crops, including coffee, tea and pyrethrum. Besides engaging in crop farming and keeping other
livestock, smallholder dairy farmers in Kenya also typically keep two or three dairy cows with their
offspring which are mostly grade animals, but some are zebu or zebu x taurine crosses.
The herds are composed of 80 percent female cattle and 20 percent male (mainly young males).
Breeding bulls are not important in this system and represent less than 1 percent of the total herd.
The farms practice zero grazing, free grazing or a combination of these. In general, land ownership is
private rather than communal and livestock management varies from family to family, with some
families keeping grade cattle under improved management regimes involving stall feeding, use of
concentrates and disease control.
Production Parameters of Cattle in Non-traditional Systems

Beef systems
The mean calf mortality risks in beef systems located in the arid/semi-arid zones (10.2 percent) and in
the subhumid/humid zones (10.1 percent ) are similar. The mean replacement mortality risks are 10.0
percent and 7.8 percent, while the mean cow mortality risks are 5.7 percent and 6.2 percent in beef
systems located in the arid/semi-arid and the subhumid/humid zones respectively. The mean age at first
calving for beef systems in the subhumid/humid zones is 41 months, while no values are available for
the arid/semi-arid zones. The calving rates in beef systems in the arid/semi-arid and subhumid/humid
zones are similar, at 76.6 percent and 76.2 percent respectively. The mean weight of cows (414 kg) and
bulls (495 kg) in the arid/semi-arid zones is higher than the mean weight of cows (309 kg) and bulls (440
kg) in the subhumid/humid zones.
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Dairy systems
The mean calf mortality risks reported in the smallholder dairy systems are 12.4 percent and 15.9
percent for female and male calves respectively, while the mean replacement mortality risks are 9.1
percent and 22.4 percent for females and males respectively. The mean reported cow mortality risk in
smallholder dairy is 5.2 percent, while the mean age at first calving is 48 months, the mean calving rate
is 71.9 percent and the mean milk offtake per lactation is 2,050 kg. The mean weight of cows and bulls in
smallholder dairy systems is 320 kg and 450 kg.
Mean calf mortality risk in large-scale dairy systems is 8.1 percent and 6.4 percent for female and male
calves, respectively. The mean reported replacement female mortality risk in these systems is 1 percent,
while the mean cow mortality risk is 4 percent. The mean age at first calving is 33.4 months and the
average calving rate is 87.2 percent. The mean milk offtake per lactation in large-scale dairy systems is 3
911 kg, with a median of 3 195 kg and a range of 2 112 kg to 6 715 kg. The mean weight of mature cows
and bulls is 414 kg and 450 kg respectively.
Methods of Determining Age of Cattle

The beef cow has relatively short life span. After their peak productive age, breeding market value
usually declines as the animal gets older. Year branding or ear tag numbering are good methods of
permanently identifying the age of cattle. These practices usually add value when selling bred cows.
Buyers can bid with confidence on the age of cow they are purchasing. However, many cattle ranchers
are unable to accurately identify the ages of their cattle.
The approximate age of cattle may be determined by examining the teeth. The tooth method of aging
cattle involves noting the appearance and the degree of wear on the temporary and permanent teeth.
The temporary or the milk teeth,, are easily distinguished from the permanent teeth by their smaller size
and white colour. At maturity, cattle have 32 teeth, 8 of which are incisors in the lower jaw. The two
central incisors are known as pinchers; the third pair are called second intermediates or laterals; and the
outer pair are known as the corners. There are no upper incisor teeth; only the thick, hard dental pad.
Becoming proficient at aging cattle by the tooth method requires practical experience and a lot of
practice.
A second method of aging cattle involves reading the brucellosis tattoo in the right ear of female cattle.
The tattoo (if legible) will reveal the year that the cow was a weaned calf and brucellosis vaccinated. The
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first digit of the tattoo represents the quarter of the year that the animal was vaccinated. For example, a
two would mean the animal was brucellosis vaccinated in April, May or June. The middle portion of the
tattoo is a shield. The last number is the year the animal was vaccinated. For example, a 7 would mean
the animal was vaccinated in 1997, as a calf. The calf could have been born in 1996 or during 1997.
Brucellosis tags do not reveal the year of vaccination. The following are the guide to determining the age
of cattle by the teeth:
Birth to 1 month: Two or more of the temporary incisor teeth present. Within first month, entire 8
temporary incisors appear.
2 years: As a long-yearling, the central pair of temporary incisor teeth or pinchers is replaced by the
permanent pinchers, At 2 years, the central permanent incisors attain full development..
2 ½ years: Permanent first intermediates, one on each side of the pinchers, are cut. Usually, these are
developed at 3 years.
3½ years: The second intermediates or lateral are cut. They are on level with the first intermediates and
begin to wear at 4 years.
4½ years: The corner teeth are replaced. At 5 years, the animal usually has the full complement of
incisors with the corners fully developed.
5 to 6 years: The permanent teeth pinchers are leveled, both pairs of intermediates are partially leveled,
and the corner incisors show wear h show noticeable wear.
7 to 10 years: At 7 or 8 years, the pinchers show noticeable wear, at 8 or 9 years, the middle pairs show
noticeable wear, and at 10 years, the corner teeth.
12 years: After the animal passed the 6th year, the arch gradually loses its rounded contour and
becomes nearly straight by the 12th year. In the meantime, the teeth gradually become triangular in
shape, distinctly separated, and show progressive wearing to stubs. These conditions become more
marked with increasing age.
Handling of Cattle
Handling cattle always involves a risk of injury from crushing, kicking, butting or goring. The risk is
increased if the work involves animals that have not been handled frequently. Certain jobs, such as
veterinary work, may increase the risk further. However, proper handling systems, trained and
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competent staff, and a rigorous culling policy can help ensure that cattle handling can be carried out in
relative safety. Never underestimate the risk from cattle, even with good precautions in place.
The stockman
Everyone handling cattle should be:
 able to use the handling and other safety equipment provided;
 aware of the dangers when handling cattle and be supervised until they are competent;
 able to work calmly with the cattle, with a minimum of shouting, impatience or unnecessary
force;
 in good health and properly trained in safe work methods.
Some work with cattle will need two people – always assess the need for help before beginning the task.
The equipment
Every farm that handles cattle should have proper handling facilities, which are well-maintained and in
good working order. A race and a crush suitable for the animals to be handled are essential. Makeshift
gates and hurdles are not sufficient, and will result in less efficient handling as well as risking injury.
Never attempt to treat or work on any animal that is held by gates alone, or that is otherwise free to
move at will.
The race
Check that:
 animals can readily enter the race, which should have a funnel end, and there is enough room in
the collecting pen for them to feed into the funnel easily.
 animals can see clearly to the crush and beyond, so that they will readily move along the race,
which may be curved, but should not include tight turns. Animals will be more prepared to move
towards a light area than into the dark;
 the sides of the race are high enough to prevent animals from jumping over them, and they are
properly secured to the ground and to each other;
 you can contain the lead animal in the race while it waits its turn in the crush. Hinged or sliding
doors are suitable, but be sure they are operated from the working side of the race so the
operator does not have to reach across it to close the gate. No one should work on an animal in
the crush with an unsecured animal waiting in the race behind.
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The crush
A crush which will allow most straightforward tasks to be carried out in safety (including oral treatments
and work from the rear end, but not belly or foot trimming) will:
 have a locking front gate and yoke (ideally self-locking) to allow the animal's head to be firmly
held. Additional head bars will prevent the animal tossing its head up and injuring people;
 have a rump rail, chain or bar to minimize forward and backward movement of the animal.
Make sure this is always used;
 be secured to the ground or, if mobile, to a vehicle;
 be positioned to allow you to work safely around it, without the risk of contact with other
animals, and have good natural or artificial lighting;
 allow gates to open smoothly with the minimum of effort and noise. Regular maintenance will
help;
 have a slip-resistant floor, made of sound hardwood bolted into place (nails are not suitable),
metal chequer-plate, or with a rubber mat over the base. Consider the need for shedder gates
after the crush to allow animals to be sorted into groups. Work around the crush will be more
convenient if it is under cover with a workbench nearby (for documentation, veterinary
medicines, instruments etc).
Other equipment
Sticks and prods should never be used to strike an animal. Before beginning work on any animal, check
that it will be adequately restrained from kicking. Consider whether you should use an anti-kicking
device.
For specialist tasks such as foot trimming, use a purpose-designed crush, eg with foot restraints, belly
winches and adequate space, especially at the rear end. Check that there are a minimum of trapping
points so that if the animal kicks out, parts of your body will not be trapped against the crush.
Halters and ropes may be useful but will normally require specially instructed users. Always use suitable
ropes - do not improvise.
The animal
Many cattle being handled will be familiar with the process - dairy cattle, for instance, will normally be
handled daily. Make sure that heifers new to the milking herd, which may be less familiar with the
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noises, activity and personnel involved, are allowed to become accustomed to them before they are first
milked.
For an animal that is habitually aggressive or difficult to handle, consider whether you should cull it from
the herd. If this is not an option, ensure your equipment and systems of work are capable of dealing
with it, and that staff, and other people such as vets, are aware of the potential difficulties.
Some tasks may have to be carried out in the field without adequate handling facilities. Ear-tagging may
pose particular problems as it may arouse the dam’s protective instincts, resulting in risks to the
stockperson.
Always make sure:
 there are at least two people present if you have to separate an animal from the herd in the
field, or during ear tagging with the dam unsecured;
 you have a vehicle close to where the task is to be carried out;
 the second person acts to dissuade other animals or the dam from approaching too close to the
task, and warns when it is necessary to take avoiding action, eg entering the vehicle.
 If you use portable or fixed field tethers for bulls in fields, make sure:
 the tether allows free movement with a minimal risk of entangling the bull;
 the connection with the tether passes through the nose-ring regardless of whether or not a
head, collar or chain is used;
 you never make any connection direct to the nose-ring;
 the tether is secured to the ground;
 the bull’s temperament is such that you can approach in safety to attach the handling ropes and
poles before leading him back to the pen.
Controlling the bull out of the pen

When a stock bull has to leave the pen, use suitable equipment to secure and lead him. Consider breed,
past handling and temperament to decide which of the following methods to use:
 two people, one using a bull pole attached to the bull’s nose-ring and the other using a rope or
chain attached to the halter or head chain via the nose-ring;
 two people both using ropes or chains, one rope or chain attached to a halter, the other either
attached directly to the nose-ring or via the nose-ring to the halter;
52
 one person using a bull pole attached to the bull’s nose-ring and a rope or chain attached to a
halter, or head chain, via the nose-ring. Make sure there is a competent person standing by to
help control the bull if necessary.
Bull handlers should:
 hold the bull pole, rope or chain firmly without exerting unnecessary pressure;
 keep the bull under observation;
 walk at a steady, slow pace slightly ahead of the bull; and
 keep the bull's head up at all times.
 check that handling, weighing, veterinary treatment and shedding arrangements are safe and
designed for the often greater strength and volatility of a group of young bulls;
 arrange your race, crush and loading areas so that no one ever needs to be in them with the
animals.
 A properly designed loading area will allow you to keep parts of the fixed handling system or the
lorry tailboard gates between you and the animals at all times.
 Keep yard or farm perimeter gates closed when loading bulls to contain an escaped animal
within the yard or farm.
 Never enter a pen containing, and never allow a lone person to handle, bull-beef animals.
Common Cattle Diseases and Prevention
African Sleeping Sickness (African trypanosomiasis)

It is also called Nagana disease and it’s an infectious disease caused by protozoa (Trypanosoma brucei
and Trypanosoma congolense). They invade the nervous system causing lethargy, drowsiness or
sleepiness and finally death. The trypanosomes are spread from host to host via saliva by blood sucking
tsetse flies. It is difficult to control, because many wild animal serve as a reservoir of trypanosomes.
Prevention is dependent upon control of the tsetse fly vector by means of insect repellents, insecticides
and bush clearing.
53
Heart Water
This is a tick borne disease transmitted by ticks and the causative organism is Rickettisa rumenatum. The
imported cattle are more susceptible to the disease than the indigenous cattle. The disease develops
rapidly within 24 hours and if not quickly treated the animal will die instantly. An intensive spraying
programme with will prevent the animal from coming down with the disease. The tick can create an
open wound on the animal and predispose it to other attacks of agents of disease.
Streptothricosis (Kirchi)
This is a skin disease caused by the fungus Actinomycetes. This disease is very common in the high
plateau areas of the country e.g. Obudu, Mambilla and Plateaux cattle. Usually mortality from the
disease is very low but it has a debilitating effect on the animal thereby reducing their productivity.
Most affected animal are very unthrifty, if lesions are around mammary gland. The animal gradually
waste away. It is also difficult to milk the cow. The imported cattle breeds are highly susceptible. The
N’Dama is known to be resistant to the disease.
Rinderpest (Cattle plague)
This is a highly contagious disease caused by a virus. It is common among the nomadic herds, but with a
programme of immunization, the disease has been brought under control.
Brucellosis (Undulant Malta Fever)
It is a hidden disease but one of the most serious and widespread affecting the livestock industry. It is
caused by Brucella suis, Brucella melitensis and Brucella abortus. The act of abortion is the most
characteristic symptom in cattle. It is rather common in goats but rare in sheep. There is no successful
treatment. It is controlled by eliminating infected animal and vaccination
Tuberculosis
It is a chronic infectious disease caused by Mycobacterium tuberculosis of which these are three kinds
namely: The human, The bovine and The avian (bird) types. Animals usually get tuberculosis of the lungs
and lymph nodes in cows. The udder sometimes becomes infected and swollen in chronic cases. Often,
infected animals show no outward physical signs of the disease. There may be loss in weight, swelling of
joints and a chronic cough and labored breathing. Other seats of infection are genitals, central nervous
system and the digestive system. No known medical treatment is effective with animals. It can be
controlled by disposing of tubercular swine, cattle and poultry, applying strict sanitation and rotating
feedlots and pastures. Also, pasteurization of milk and creamery by-products
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Ruminant Animal Production and Husbandry

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COURSE CODE: APH301

The Ruminant Digestive System

The digestive tract of goats.

Some foreign sheep breeds

Yankasa West African dwarf

Nutrient Requirements of Sheep

Importance of Grazing Sheep

Sheep Production Systems

GOAT PRODUCTION AND HUSBANDRY

Breeds of Goat in Nigeria

Red Sokoto or Maradi goat

West African Dwarf (WAD) goats

Feeding goat from birth to weaning

Management of weaned kids

Feeding goat for meat production

Nutritional Requirements of Meat Goats

Protein (CP) Energy (TDN)

Buck 11% 60%

Dry Doe 10% 55%

Late Gestation 11% 60%

Lactating Doe 11% 60%

High Producing Doe 14% 65%

Weaned Kid 14% 68%

Yearling 12% 65%

Feeding pregnant goats (Does)

Feeding goat for milk production

Animal Identification Methods

Common Diseases of Goats

(1) Breeding animals for the environment:

(3) Modification of the environment:

Cattle Production, Problems and Prospects in Nigeria

Indigenous and Exotic Breeds of Beef and Dairy Cattle

2. Humpless or Non-zebu (resistance to trypanosomiasis, survive in forest areas)

Breeds of Indigenous Cattle

Exotic Breeds of Cattle

Herd of Guernsey Cattle

Jersey cattle being judged at a show in Jersey, home of the breed

Charolais Bull Charolais cow and calf

Mixed herd of Black and Red Angus Angus cattle grazing

Brahman bull Brahman Calves

Cattle Production Systems

Production Parameters of Cattle in Traditional Systems

Smallholder Dairy Systems

Production Parameters of Cattle in Non-traditional Systems

Methods of Determining Age of Cattle

Controlling the bull out of the pen

Common Cattle Diseases and Prevention

African Sleeping Sickness (African trypanosomiasis)

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