generates stress, which subsequently generates deformation of the material. • At this time, the length L of the material extends to L+ΔL if applied force is a tensile force. The ratio of ΔL to L, that is ΔL/L, is called strain. • On the other hand, if compressive force is applied, the length L is reduced to L- ΔL. Strain at this time is (- ΔL)/L Strain gauge • A strain gauge is a device used to measure strain on an object. • Which is when subjected to some force results change in resistance of the material. • The change in resistance is measured in terms of either load or displacement. • The strain gauge was invented in 1938, by Edward E Simmons and Arthur C Ruge. • Strain gauge is a sensor whose resistance varies with applied force; • It converts force, pressure, tension, weight, etc., into a change in electrical resistance which can then be measured. • When an external force is applied on an object, a deformation occurs in the shape of the object. • This deformation in the shape is both compressive or tensile is called strain, and it is measured by the strain gauge. • When an object deforms within the limit of elasticity, either it becomes narrower and longer or it become shorter and broadens. As a result of it, there is a change in resistance end-to-end. • The strain gauge is sensitive to that small changes occur in the geometry of an object. By measuring the change in resistance of an object, the amount of induced stress can be calculated. • that measure strain in underground cavities, tunnels, buildings, concrete, masonry dams, bridges, embedment in soil/concrete. etc. • The stress is the internal resisting capacity of an object while a strain is the amount of deformation experienced by it. • Strain changes in only very minute values, so how is this measured with a strain gauge? • External force applied to a metallic material generates physical deformation and electrical resistance change of the material. • In case that such material is sticked onto test specimen via electrical insulation, the material produces a change of electrical resistance corresponding to the deformation. • Strain gauges consist of electrical resistance material and measure strains proportional to the resistance changes. • Theory of Strain Gauge • Let us take a wire having length ‘L’ and cross- section area ‘D’ • The resistance of the wire will change if the wire is stretched or compressed. This is due to dimensional change and the property of material called the piezo-resistive effect. • Piezo-resistive effect states that change in dimensions of the conductor resultantly changes its resistance. Resistance strain gauges are also known as piezo-resistive gauges. • The resistance is given by
• ρ = resistivity of the material,
• L = length of material, • A = cross-sectional area of material • Gauge factor (GF) or strain factor of a strain gauge is the ratio of relative change in electrical resistance R, to the mechanical strain ε. The gauge factor is defined as • The formula for the gauge factor of a strain gauge is • GF = (ΔR / R) / (ΔL / L) = (ΔR / R) / ε, where:
• GF: The gauge factor
• ΔR/R: The change in resistance of the gauge divided by the nominal resistance • ε: The measured strain Types of Strain Gauge 1. Unbounded metal strain gauge 2. Bonded wire strain gauge. 3. Bonded metal foil strain gauge. 4. Semi-conductor strain gauge Unbounded metal strain gauge. • The arrangement of an unbonded strain gauges consists of the following. Two frames P and Q carrying rigidly fixed insulated pins as shown in diagram. • these two frames can move relative with respect to each other and they are held together by a spring loaded mechanism. • A fine wire resistance strain gauge is stretched around the insulated pins. The strain gauge is connected to a Wheatstone bridge. • Operation of Unbonded strain gauges: • When a force is applied on the structure under study (frames P & Q), frames P moves relative to frame Q, and due to this, strain gauge will change in length and cross section. That is, the strain gauge is strained.
• This strain changes the resistance of the strain
gauge and this change in resistance of the strain gauge is measured using a wheat stone bridge. This change in resistance when calibrated becomes a measure of the applied force and change in dimensions of the structure under study. Advantages of Unbonded strain gauge: • The range of this gauge is +/- 0.15% strain. • This gauge has a very high accuracy. Limitation of unbonded strain gauges • It occupies more space. • Unbonded strain gauge is used in places where the gauge is to be detached and used again and again. • unbonded strain gauges are used in force, pressure and acceleration measurement. 2. Bonded wire strain gauge
• The grid of fine resistance wire is cemented to
carrier. It can be a thin sheet of paper, Bakelite or a sheet of Teflon. 3. Bonded metal foil strain gauge • This category is just an extension of previously defined, bonded metal wire gauge. These metal foil strain gauge uses similar materials to wire strain gauges. These are widely used in stress analysis applications and for many transducers. • The figure below shows a typical bonded metal foil strain gauge- • 3. Bonded metal foil strain gauge • 4. Semi-conductor strain gauge
• The action of a semiconductor strain gauge
depends on piezo-resistive effect i.e., the change in resistance due to resistivity.
• These are mainly used in conditions where high
gauge factor and small envelope are required. The resistance of semiconductor changes with the change in applied strain.