Strain

• External force applied to an elastic material

generates stress, which subsequently
generates deformation of the material.
• At this time, the length L of the material
extends to L+ΔL if applied force is a tensile
force. The ratio of ΔL to L, that is ΔL/L, is called
strain.
• On the other hand, if compressive force is
applied, the length L is reduced to L- ΔL. Strain
at this time is (- ΔL)/L
 Strain gauge
• A strain gauge is a device used to
measure strain on an object.
• Which is when subjected to some force results
change in resistance of the material.
• The change in resistance is measured in terms
of either load or displacement.
• The strain gauge was invented in 1938,
by Edward E Simmons and Arthur C Ruge.
• Strain gauge is a sensor whose resistance varies
with applied force;
• It converts force, pressure, tension, weight, etc.,
into a change in electrical resistance which can then
be measured.
• When an external force is applied on an object, a
deformation occurs in the shape of the object.
• This deformation in the shape is both compressive
or tensile is called strain, and it is measured by the
strain gauge.
• When an object deforms within the limit of
elasticity, either it becomes narrower and longer or
it become shorter and broadens. As a result of it,
there is a change in resistance end-to-end.
• The strain gauge is sensitive to that small
changes occur in the geometry of an object.
By measuring the change in resistance of an
object, the amount of induced stress can be
calculated.
• that measure strain in underground cavities,
tunnels, buildings, concrete, masonry dams,
bridges, embedment in soil/concrete. etc.
• The stress is the internal resisting capacity of
an object while a strain is the amount of
deformation experienced by it.
• Strain changes in only very minute values, so how
is this measured with a strain gauge?
• External force applied to a metallic material
generates physical deformation and electrical
resistance change of the material.
• In case that such material is sticked onto test
specimen via electrical insulation, the material
produces a change of electrical resistance
corresponding to the deformation.
• Strain gauges consist of electrical resistance
material and measure strains proportional to the
resistance changes.
• Theory of Strain Gauge
• Let us take a wire having length ‘L’ and cross-
section area ‘D’
• The resistance of the wire will change if the
wire is stretched or compressed. This is due to
dimensional change and the property of
material called the piezo-resistive effect.
• Piezo-resistive effect states that change in
dimensions of the conductor
resultantly changes its resistance. Resistance
strain gauges are also known as piezo-resistive
gauges.
• The resistance is given by

• ρ = resistivity of the material,

• L = length of material,
• A = cross-sectional area of material
• Gauge factor (GF) or strain factor of a strain
gauge is the ratio of relative change in
electrical resistance R, to the mechanical
strain ε. The gauge factor is defined as
• The formula for the gauge factor of a strain
gauge is
• GF = (ΔR / R) / (ΔL / L) = (ΔR / R) / ε, where:

• GF: The gauge factor

• ΔR/R: The change in resistance of the gauge
divided by the nominal resistance
• ε: The measured strain
 Types of Strain Gauge
1. Unbounded metal strain gauge
2. Bonded wire strain gauge.
3. Bonded metal foil strain gauge.
4. Semi-conductor strain gauge
Unbounded metal strain gauge.
• The arrangement of an unbonded strain
gauges consists of the following. Two frames P
and Q carrying rigidly fixed insulated pins as
shown in diagram.
• these two frames can move relative with
respect to each other and they are held
together by a spring loaded mechanism.
• A fine wire resistance strain gauge is stretched
around the insulated pins. The strain gauge is
connected to a Wheatstone bridge.
• Operation of Unbonded strain gauges:
• When a force is applied on the structure under
study (frames P & Q), frames P moves relative to
frame Q, and due to this, strain gauge will change
in length and cross section. That is, the strain
gauge is strained.

• This strain changes the resistance of the strain

gauge and this change in resistance of the strain
gauge is measured using a wheat stone bridge.
This change in resistance when calibrated
becomes a measure of the applied force and
change in dimensions of the structure under
study.
Advantages of Unbonded strain gauge:
• The range of this gauge is +/- 0.15% strain.
• This gauge has a very high accuracy.
Limitation of unbonded strain gauges
• It occupies more space.
• Unbonded strain gauge is used in places
where the gauge is to be detached and used
again and again.
• unbonded strain gauges are used in force,
pressure and acceleration measurement.
2. Bonded wire strain gauge

• The grid of fine resistance wire is cemented to

carrier. It can be a thin sheet of paper, Bakelite
or a sheet of Teflon.
3. Bonded metal foil strain gauge
• This category is just an extension of previously
defined, bonded metal wire gauge. These
metal foil strain gauge uses similar materials
to wire strain gauges. These are widely used in
stress analysis applications and for many
transducers.
• The figure below shows a typical bonded
metal foil strain gauge-
• 3. Bonded metal foil strain gauge
• 4. Semi-conductor strain gauge

• The action of a semiconductor strain gauge

depends on piezo-resistive effect i.e., the change
in resistance due to resistivity.

• These are mainly used in conditions where high

gauge factor and small envelope are required.
The resistance of semiconductor changes with
the change in applied strain.