Chapter One

Theoretical and Contextual Framework: Ancient Civilizations and Architecture

1.1. Introduction

The oldest established and stable societies, known as ancient civilizations, provided the

impetus for the rise of governments, countries, and empires. In addition, the architectural

buildings of ancient civilizations stand as a testament to the rich fulfillment of human history,

reflecting the cultural, social, and technological advancements of bygone eras. From the majestic

pyramids of Egypt to the grandeur of Greek temples and the intricate city planning of the Indus

Valley, ancient civilizations have left an indelible mark on history

This chapter provides a historical background of ancient civilizations including the

Sumerian, Egyptian and the Roman civilization. It dives into the definitions of the ancient

civilizations and architecture; it also shows architectural and religious characteristics of them.

Accurately, it tackles the early settlements and the formation of cities throughout history;

besides, discusses the development of early architectural styles as well as the evolution of

architectural movements and their impact on building design.

Secondly, as a prerequisite for this research, the groundbreaking ancient civilizations

upon which the influence of Greek architecture on the British architecture is built. Therefore,

this chapter also deals with the introduction of the Greek civilization as well as the British

civilization. It digs deep into the history of Greece and Britain focusing on the economic,

political and architectural growth.

1.2. Introduction to Ancient Civilizations

The foundation of modern cultures is laid by the ancient civilizations, which are

considered the cornerstone of human history. These ancient cultures, which flourished from the

lush fields of Mesopotamia to the splendor of Ancient Egypt, left behind an enduring heritage

that enthralls and inspires us even now. However, Roman, Greek, Chinese and the Indian

civilization are some of the brightest and fruitful ancient civilizations throughout history.

1.2.1. Historical Background

Between 4000 and 3000 BCE, when trade and agriculture flourished, people were able to

have surplus food and stable economies, which led to the emergence of the first civilizations.

Since farming was no longer a requirement for many people, a wide range of occupations and

interests were able to thrive in a comparatively small area. (“Key Components of Civilization”) 1

All things considered, the shift to surplus food production back then was a pivotal

moment in human history that supported a variety of occupations, created economic stability,

and aided in the development of urban centers as hubs for social, cultural, and technological

advancements all of which contributed to the rise of the first civilizations.

The first civilization to ever exist was the Sumerian civilization, it appeared

in Mesopotamia. Few internal geographic borders existed in Mesopotamia, such as difficult-to-

cross rivers or mountain ranges, which may have functioned as natural state borders. This made

it easier for comparatively big empires to expand. Once these empires were established, their

borders were erratic and ever-changing. (Aldrete 10)2

Aldrete also asserts that Israel, Jordan, Syria, Iran, and Iraq were all part of the ancient

Near East. The country between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers is known as Mesopotamia, and it

1
(Key Components of Civilization)
2
(Aldrete)
served as the region’s core (9). Accurately, the first major cities appeared in Mesopotamia

approximately 3100 B.C., following hundreds of years of human habitation and agricultural

production. The Sumerian is the name given to this first urban society (10).

That displays, the contribution of the ancient Sumerian civilization to the human history

as it was the first civilization to create amass and organize people of the group within the same

borders. Also, the resourcefulness of its people gave birth to building cities and focusing on

agriculture to guarantee a better life or survival.

Moreover, the Egyptian civilization is crucial as it is considered to be one of the longest

and strongest civilizations. It has been claimed that ancient Egyptian civilization grew gradually

between 5000 and 3100 BC. Around 3100 BCE, King Narmer brought Upper and Lower Egypt

together (10)1.

This period marked the beginning of the successful ancient Egypt as its attempt to bring

Upper and Lower Egypt together was the starting point to the development and growth.

Egypt’s distinct geography influenced its development just as much as Mesopotamia’s

did for the Near East, however in this instance; Egypt was able to grow independently for

millennia due to natural borders. The Sun’s and the Nile’s natural cycles were reflected in

Egyptian religion, especially in the adoration of the pharaohs. Narmer was the first pharaoh,

bringing the dispersed nomes together to form a one nation. However, Imhotep, an Old Kingdom

vizier, is credited with building Egypt’s most well-known structures, the Pyramids. (Aldrete 23)

The Egyptian civilization is most known for its architecture, Roscoe Lewis Ashley claims

that the so-called early Pharaohs were magnificently constructed and extremely propious, but

they were more known for their enormous tombs that they used for repose after death than for

their palaces during their lifetimes. The majority of what we know about early Egypt comes from
1
(Ancient Civilizations: Prehistory to Egypt)
the tombs of the early Pharaohs and the even earlier predynastic aristocrats. Around five

centuries after Menes, the Pharaohs started constructing their tombs in the shape of enormous

pyramids (Aldrete 35).

On top of that, Roman civilization on the other hand marked a strong history. Paul

Bernabeo claims that Rome’s early history is a mystery. Many legends about the city’s founding

have entwined themselves with historical reality. A number of these tales supported the theory

that the Romans descended from the Trojans. Roman poet Virgil 70–19 BCE collected and

expanded these traditions for his epic poem The Aeneid. The later authors Livy 59 BCE–17 CE

and Plutarch c. 46–120 CE related further tales about the twins Romulus and Remus founding

Rome.(6)1

According to Garrett G. Fagan, the Roman Empire, which at its height spanned from

Syria to Scotland and the Atlantic to the Black Sea and lasted for nearly 700 years, stands as an

imposing monument to scale and stability in the regional, restless, and changeable history of

continental Europe. Rome's creation and upkeep of such a large empire was such a tremendous

accomplishment that the concept of Rome has endured throughout European history. The

modern movement to unite Europe under a single currency and governing bureaucracy, if it

succeeds, will be the first genuine and lasting realization of such emulation in 1,400 years.

Subsequent rulers, such as Charlemagne, Napoleon, and Hitler, were all somewhat motivated by

emulation of the Roman model. (1)2

1.2.2. Definition and Characteristics

1
(Bernabeo)
2
(Fagan)
 Ancient civilizations are sophisticated, multifaceted societies with unique characteristics.

It is important to define them in before diverging into their complex structures. In other words,

ancient civilizations were marked by their unique achievements.

1.2.2.1. Definition of Ancient Civilizations

Scholars and historians claim that in order to understand the main crux of ancient

civilizations, the definition of the concept is needed. It has been claimed that ancient civilizations

contributed to the development of societies at many levels; simply put, it differentiates humans

from other species.

According Collins online dictionary is defined as being a part of a human society that

existed in the ancient past and had its own social structure and culture, particularly during the

time before the Roman Empire fell.1

Moreover, the usual definition of civilization, as given by dictionaries, is the recovery

from barbarism and the teaching of arts and refinements. The common understanding of

civilization today maintains this notion that it is a state superior to barbarism. However,

anthropologists do not believe that civilizations are superior to hunter-gatherer communities or

those of small-scale farmers, yet in a unique way. The alternative conclusion, drawn by

politically inclined critics, may be that hierarchical societies, with their privileged elites and

centralized governments, which were inferior establishments in the eyes of the typical peasant,

farmers and urban residents were both at risk. (Scarre 3)2

That explores the conventional notion of civilization, which emphasizes the teaching of

the arts and refinements as indicators of growth from barbarism. The idea that civilizations are

intrinsically better than hunter-gatherer tribes or small-scale farming cultures is contested by

1
(Ancient Civilization)
2
(Scarre)
anthropologists, even though dictionaries frequently characterize civilization as being in

opposition to barbarism. Rather, they see civilizations as unique and not inevitably superior in

every way.

Based on the definition provided in Britannica Kids Encyclopedia, the level of

advancement at which people coexist peacefully in societies is essentially what is meant to be

understood as civilization. The term “ancient civilization” particularly refers to the earliest

established and stable societies that served as the model for subsequently emerging states,

nations, and empires. (“Ancient Civilization”)1

Nevertheless, as humans started to build networks of urban communities, a complex way

of life known as civilization emerged. It depicts a sophisticated manner of life with metropolitan

settings, common communication channels, organizational structures, and work division.

(“Components of Civilization”)2

In other words, ancient civilizations are defined based on the building of monuments,

writing, record-keeping, centralized government and a social hierarchy. Besides, the division of

labor and specialization were a part of ancient civilizations. Nonetheless, a civilization can also

be defined based on the dense population, the economical systems which are centered on

agriculture, and intricate belief systems.

1.2.2.2. Architectural and Religious Characteristics of a Civilization

One of the best ways to understand ancient civilizations is to into their characteristics of

civilization; hence, tackling the architectural and religious characteristics of early civilizations

and later civilizations is crucial.

1
(Ancient civilization)
2
 Mark Cartwright asserts that the architecture of ancient civilizations has left a lasting

impact on current life, as seen by the monuments that still stand and the modern structures that

are built all over the world. Aspiring rulers built pyramids in Egypt and the Americas, and

numerous Roman cities and sacred Japanese locations had arches of one kind or another.

Another common and frequently essential element of ancient civilizations were walls; the most

well-known examples are the Great Wall of China, the Theodosian Walls of Constantinople, and

Hadrian’s Wall in Britain, but there were many more. (“Architecture in the ancient world”) 1

This emphasizes how the architecture of ancient civilizations continues to influence

contemporary life through the enduring presence of monuments and the design of modern

structures globally. Also, these architectural elements not only serve as a testament to the

ingenuity and engineering prowess of ancient civilizations but also continue to shape current

architectural practices and urban landscapes worldwide.

Nevertheless, K. Kris Hirst contends that Ancient civilizations achieved technological

advancements in the form of social and architectural structures to accommodate expanding

populations. To put is differently, monumental architecture, which dates back to ancient

civilizations, is the existence of significant, non-domestic structures designed for communal use,

like cathedrals, shrines, and plazas. (“Top Characteristics…”)2

Hirst contend that some archeologists do not consider every monumental building as a

construction that was built for religious reasons. Some serve as gathering spots. Since plazas are

huge, open spaces constructed in the center of towns for public use, archaeologists classify them

as a type of monumental architecture. (“Monumental Architecture…”)3

1
(Cartwright)
2
(Hirst)
3
(Hirst, Characteristics of Ancient Monumental Architecture)
 Aqueducts, canal networks, reservoirs, dams, and other water control structures are

examples of intentional structures. Churches, palaces, government buildings, and sports arenas

are just a few examples of the numerous large-scale public undertakings that still exist in modern

society and are occasionally funded by taxes. However, some other historians and archeologists

claim that the monumental architecture in ancient civilizations was built for religious reasons

(“Monumental Architecture…”)

In addition, one cannot discuss the characteristics of ancient civilizations without tackling

the religion. It has been claimed that no civilization in human history is known to have existed

without a religious practice of some kind. In this regard, Justin A. Smith claims that religion is

primary and most important feature of civilization. The only thing that can truly permeate

national lives and deal with man’s higher nature is that which leads to the kind of development

that constitutes civilization (107).1

Joshua J. Mark argues that Religion in the past was essentially the same as what is now

called mythology, with regular rituals based on the belief in higher supernatural forces that

created and maintained the planet and its surroundings. Every nation has created its own god in

its own image and likeness. Religion, both then and now, deals with the spiritual side of the

human condition, gods and goddesses (or a single personal god or goddess), the creation of the

world, a human being’s place in it, life after death, eternity, and how to escape from suffering in

this life or the after life. (“Religion in the Ancient World”)2

1.3. Introduction to Ancient Architecture

The architecture of ancient societies has left a lasting impact on current life, as seen by

the monuments that still stand and the modern structures that are built all over the world.

1
(Smith)
2
(Mark)
Aspiring emperors built pyramids in Egypt and the Americas, and numerous Roman cities and

sacred Japanese locations had arches of one kind or another. Ancient landscapes frequently

featured walls, with the most well-known being Hadrian’s Wall in Britain, the Great Wall of

China, and the Theodosian Walls of Constantinople, among many others. (“Architechecture…”)1

Essentially, historical societies’ architectural legacies transcend space and time, making a

profound mark on the modern world. Also, modern architects and designers are inspired to draw

inspiration from the past while developing new structures that represent the changing

requirements and goals of contemporary society by the monumental structures, inventive ideas,

and engineering marvels of antiquity.

It has been asserted that architectural history involves examining historic structures and

attempting to gain a deeper understanding of them. It aids in deciphering the meaning of

structures for their creators and the reasons behind their design. Today's architects need to know

about this since it provides them with ideas for designing buildings that blend in with the local

culture and society. (“History of Architecture…”)2

In brief, it is crucial to understand the timeline of architecture by diving into the

definition, early settlements and architectural styles throughout history.

1.3.1. Definition of Architecture

Janetius, S.T contends that the term “architecture” in English is a loanword from French,

not an original English term. According to its etymology, the word architecture may have its

origins in the Greek arkhitekton, which combines the words arkhi and tekton, which mean

“master” and “builder”. (7)3

1
(Cartwright, Architecture in the Ancient World)
2
(Introduction to History of Architecture)
3
(Janetius)
 In addition, architectus, a Latin term with the same meaning, was influenced by this

Greek root; nevertheless, a similar French word, “architecte,” which refers to someone who

organizes and carries out building construction, developed from these. In other words, French

provided additional inspiration for the English word architecture; besides, the term was first

employed in reference to building construction, but it is now widely used in a variety of

industries, including software architecture in computers. The book Architecture only discusses

the construction of homes and other living areas. (7)

Architecture is the art and practice of planning and constructing, as opposed to the

construction-related abilities. Architecture is a profession that is used to achieve both utilitarian

and aesthetic goals by satisfying both expressive and practical needs. These two ends can be

identified from one another, but they cannot be divided, and there is a great deal of variation in

the weight assigned to each. Every culture, whether permanent or nomadic, has a spatial

relationship to the natural world and to other societies; therefore, a great deal about their history,

traditions, and creative sensibilities, as well as many facets of daily life, may be learned from the

buildings they create. (“Architecture”)1

Similar definition was provided by Webster’s dictionary as an art or science of building

or construction, or, the art and practice of designing and building structures, especially habitable

ones. According to the dictionary, this simple definition explains some of the basic attributes of

architecture.

However, Janetius argues that defining architecture as just the art or science of building is

insufficient. In other words, discussing architecture from the perspective of human habitation

begs the question of what happens if the structure is not meant to be inhabited for example, a

monument or memorial does it not still qualify as architecture? (Janetius 7) Hence, According to
1
(Peter Collins)
another definition provided by Webster, architecture is the creation or arrangement that comes

from, or appears to come from, a purposeful act.

1.3.2. Overview of Early Human Settlements

The study of prehistoric human settlements’ suitability (SPHE) is a crucial starting point

for examining the interaction between prehistoric people and the land. It can aid in replicating

the features and procedures of prehistoric human settlements.

Bo Tan, Chengbang An, Chao Lu, Lei Tang and Lai Jiang in their article “The Suitability

of Prehistoric Human Settlements from the Perspective of the Residents” argue that Prehistoric

residential sites or settlements and their surrounding settings are the areas with the greatest

frequency of human activity, the greatest amount of human–land interaction, and the most

concentrated space for prehistoric human behavior. These areas serve as the geographical space

for the production and life of prehistoric humans. In addition to media like stone tools,

sediments, bones, carbon particles, profiles, starch, phytoliths, and metal objects that record

information on the natural and social environments of prehistoric humans, residential sites and

their interment serve as reminders of prehistoric human settlements. (1)1

Rural human settlements are defined as communities with significant areas of

undeveloped, wild land surrounding them, which frequently act as barriers between various rural

settlements. The terms villages, small towns, towns, and the countryside are commonly used to

characterize rural settlements. Besides, the economy of rural villages is centered on trade and the

use of natural resources, and they often have a smaller population than urban settlements.

(“Human Settlements…”)2

1
(B. T. al)
2
(al)
 This explains the dynamics and characteristics of rural human settlements, highlighting

how they differ from metropolitan settings. It also focuses on the economy of the early

settlements as well as the population size. In other words, rural settlements are depicted as

distinct entities with unique characteristics that set them apart from urban centers, emphasizing

their reliance on natural resources, trade, and the presence of undeveloped land as defining

elements of rural life.

The social context, the natural environment, and human needs were the three areas where

prehistoric human settlements varied from current ones. Consequently, it is not possible to define

modern human settlements using the same criteria that apply to prehistoric ones. Primitive

human communities, in our opinion, were primarily concerned with meeting the survival

requirements of early humans. Human survival was not guaranteed due to the unstable social and

ecological circumstances of the relatively fragile prehistoric social self-sustainability. Human

social adaptability was also limited and unpredictable variable elements contributed to this risk.

(Bo Tan et al 7)

This draws attention to the important distinctions between modern and prehistoric human

settlements, emphasizing the social context, the natural environment, and human needs as major

areas of diversity. In other words, the need to live in harsh social and ecological environments

throughout prehistoric times influenced human communities.

Nevertheless, Bo Tan, HongweiWang, XiaoqinWang, SuyanYi1, Jing Zhou1, Chen Ma

and Xinyan Dai in “The study of early human settlement preference and settlement prediction in

Xinjiang, China” asserts that Settlement sites are spatial remnants of prehistoric human activity

that preserve and record information about early human adaptation and environmental

transformation. By deciphering and exposing the environmental data associated with settlement
distribution, historians can create conditions that facilitate a deeper understanding of the

interactions that occurred between humans and the environment during this time. (1)1

1.3.2.1 Development of Early Architectural Styles

Humans were building long before the spectacular monuments of ancient Greece and

Rome. The concepts and building styles that originated in distant lands years and even millennia

ago gave rise to the era known as the Classical Era.

Jackie Craven discusses how every new movement builds upon the previous one.

Furthermore, according to her, historical eras do not begin and end at specific points on a map or

calendar. Styles and periods flow together, sometimes combining opposing concepts, sometimes

creating fresh methods, and frequently resurrecting and reinventing previous trends. Dates are

seldom exact because building is a dynamic art. (“Architecture Timeline…”)2

This, in fact, highlights the relationship between historical eras and architectural

movements, emphasizing how each new architectural style or period is affected by and builds

upon its predecessors.

Craven tracks the roots of the architectural styles development throughout history starting

by the prehistoric times 11,600 BCE to 3,500 BCE. She claims that prior to the dawn of recorded

history, people built megaliths, stone circles, earthen mounds, and other constructions that

frequently baffle contemporary archaeologists. Prehistoric architecture includes monumental

constructions such as Stonehenge, American cliff houses, and mud and thatch buildings lost to

time. According to Craven, these buildings represent the earliest days of architecture.

(“Architecture Timeline…”)

1
(B. e. al)
2
(Craven)
 It has also been contended that Southern England has several well-preserved examples of

prehistoric building. One well-known example of an ancient stone circle is Stonehenge near

Amesbury, United Kingdom. Besides, the biggest artificial prehistoric earthen mound in Europe

is the neighboring Silbury Hill, located in Wiltshire. With layers of dirt, mud, and grass, as well

as tunnels and pits made of chalk and clay, the gravel mound is 30 meters high and 160 meters

broad. (History of Silbury Hill)1

On the other hand, the Egyptian builders introduced new architectural styles; hence,

Craven scrutinizes them. She asserts that temples, shrines, and massive pyramids were built by

powerful rulers in ancient Egypt. Huge technical monuments including the pyramids of Giza

were anything but primitive; they were works of pure glory. Accurately, periods of ancient

Egyptian history have been distinguished by scholars. (“Architecture Timeline…”)

1.3.2.2. Evolution of Architectural Movements and their Impact on Building Design

Architectural movements are a projection to the main cruxes of a society including the

culture. They have a significant impact on the building designs, shapes and colours.

Building design is the process by which architectural movements convey the social,

cultural, and economic values of a place, period, and people. Numerous architectural movements

have developed throughout ages to leave a legacy of classic buildings. (“Global Architectural

Movements…”)2 Moreover, humans were creating and building structures long before the

spectacular buildings of classical Greece and Rome. Ideas and building styles that developed in

remote locales decades or even centuries apart gave rise to the era known as the Classical Era.

(“Architecture Timeline…”)3

1
(HISTORY OF SILBURY HILL)
2
(Sharma)
3
(Craven, Architecture Timeline - Western Influences on Building Design)
 That displays the influence of the ancient architectural movements on the building design

in general and the European building styles in specific. Hence; diving deep into the time line of

these movements is crucial to understand the development of architecture.

On top of that, architectural movements like Renaissance, Baroque Beaux-Arts, Neo-

classic and Gothic left a lasting legacy on how buildings are designed and constructed.

A brick building style known for its expansive expanses and superimposed tracery that splits up

the walls is known as Gothic architecture. This architectural movement spanned Europe from the

mid-12th century to the 16th century (“Gothic Architecture...”) 1 According to Marina Zhekova

the beautiful and colossal Gothic churches blossomed throughout Europe at a period of

considerable urbanization and economic success. Historically rooted in the predominantly rural

and monastic Romanesque tradition, Gothic architectural movement and decoration showcase

the significant influence of this style in addition to its remarkable inventiveness. (18) 2

Later, Italy gave birth to the Renaissance architectural movement, which replaced the

Gothic style during the roughly 1400–1600 time frame. Renaissance architecture is characterized

by the application of the classical orders, mathematically exact height-to-width ratios, and an

emphasis on harmony, symmetry, and balance. In all kinds of buildings, creative uses are made

of columns, pediments, arches, and domes. Also, Renaissance masterpieces of art had an impact

on construction around the world. (“Renaissance Architecture”)3

Nevertheless, in the history of western art, the baroque movement flourished from the

early 17th century to the 1750s in the forms of architecture, music, dance, painting, sculpture,

1
(Gothic architecture)
2
(ZHEKOVA)
3
(Cartwright, Renaissance Architecture)
and poetry. The Catholic Counter-Reformation is mostly linked to the Baroque Movement; its

stark realism, which made viewers feel as though they were witnessing an actual event, lively

movement, and immediate emotional appeal made it the ideal medium for conveying the

resurrected spirit of the Catholic Church. (“Baroque Art Period…”)1

In his book, The Architecture of the Ecole Des Beaux-Arts, Arthur Drexler asserts that

from 1819 to 1968, architects were instructed at the Ecole des Beaux-Arts in Paris.

But the school wasn't founded in 1819; rather, it was changed from the Académie Royale

d’Architecture and the Académie Royale de Peinture et de Sculpture schools between 1793 and

1819. A portion of the Ancien Régime's architectural layout for instruction still exists. (61) 2

At Paris’s École des Beaux-Arts, an architectural movement emerged. In the late 19th

century, it was the most popular movement on an international level and quickly gained approval

for many new public buildings that growing cities and their national governments required.

Beaux-Arts structures are usually large and symmetrical, with axially oriented rooms, abundant

Classicist ornamentation, and forward-extending pavilions at the ends and center. The Paris

Opéra is one of the most beloved Beaux-Arts structures. (“Beaux-Arts Styles…”)3

Another crucial architectural movement is Neoclassic which is the 18th and early 19th

century revival of Classical architecture. Unlike Classical revivalism, which tended to reuse

Classical components, the movement was concerned with the logic of complete Classical texts.

Magnificence of scale, geometric form simplicity, Greek or Roman detail, particularly Doric or

Roman detail, dramatic column use, and a predilection for blank walls are the hallmarks of

1
(af5aaf)
2
(Drexler)
3
(Beaux-Arts style summary)
Neoclassical architecture. The widespread response to the excesses of the Rococo style was

reflected in the renewed interest in ancient simplicity. (“Neoclassical Architecture…”) 1

All of the above mentioned architectural movements along with the development of

architecture in Europe, which was a pioneer in Greek and Roman architecture, had a strong

influence on the development of architectural styles.

Imam Faisal Panel and Hilma Tamiami Fachrudin contend that the path of history is

influenced by a variety of hemisphere-wide events. The journey that architecture takes to offer

an era or an era’s appearance and figure of the structure is in line with the journey that history

records. Greek and Roman architecture shaped European architecture, which in turn impacted

other architectural developments (1000)2. For instance, Renaissance, Baroque Beaux-Arts, Neo-

classic and Gothic architecture makes use of classical architecture that is, Greek and Roman

decorative elements in their designs which in return influenced modern and post modern

architectural styles.

1.4. Groundbreaking Ancient Civilizations

Ancient Civilizations are known for their contribution to the modern society at many

levels. However, two of the most strong and influential ones are the Greek and the British

civilization. They have left an indelible mark on the world throughout history, paving the path

of human development and influencing modern society in profound ways.

1.4.1. Greek Civilization

“Of all the small nations of this earth, perhaps only the ancient Greeks surpass the Scots in their

contribution to mankind.”

Winston Churchill
1
(Neoclassical Artiechture)
2
(Fachrudin)
 One of the strongest influential civilizations was the Greek. It stands as the cornerstone of

westerns. Also, its wealthy tapestry of economics, architecture, philosophy, art, literature and

politics offers a glimpse about its success.

Dr. Nalini Taneja claims that when one speaks of the Greek civilization of ancient times,

they are referring to a changing geographical entity centered on the Mediterranean Sea that

once covered a small area before expanding due to conquests, further expansion resulting

from conquest and assimilation, and ultimately becoming a part of a much larger entity as part

of Alexander’s Empire. Influences that may be categorized as external and those that came

with adaptation to newly acquired lands were factors that shaped Greek society at the time.

(Ancient Greece)1

Robert Garland in his book The Greek World: a Study of History and Culture Ancient

Greece has captivated asserts that humans for ages and continues to do so. The Greeks of

antiquity were inquisitive, entrepreneurial, inventive, critical of themselves, contentious, and

fiercely competitive. Hence, the influence of Greek culture has endured over the ages and is

still felt today. (3)2

Logically, the most successful and flourishing civilization are those that were built upon

the way rulers and citizens Hence, Greeks helped developing and preserving their sturdy

civilization due to their critical mind set, competitive spirit and the continued pursue of

knowledge at many notions including philosophy, religion, science, and architecture.

In their book A Brief History of Ancient Greece Politics, Society, and Culture One, Sarah

B. Pomeroy, Walter Donlan, and Jennifer Tolbert Roberts argue that one of the most likely

success stories in global history is the history of the ancient Greeks. A small population living

1
(Taneja)
2
(Garland)
 in a resource-poor nation split up into hundreds of rival mini-states gave rise to one of the

most amazing cultures on the planet. (xiii)1

Strictly speaking, situated at the edge of the Bronze Age societies in Mesopotamia and

Egypt, the Greeks acquired important technical abilities like writing and metallurgy while

creating a culture characterized by incredible ingenuity, adaptability, and tenacity. Ultimately,

Greek culture changed over time as it integrated into Latin, Persian, Arabic, and Byzantine

civilizations after spreading from Spain to the Indian subcontinent. (xiii)

In his lessons “Ancient Civilizations”, Dr. Binod Bihari Satpathy claims that Greece was

not a single nation in antiquity. Greek-speaking people lived in a number of distinct regions.

The Minoans inhabited the vast Greek island of Crete by 3000 B.C; within the Mediterranean

region, the Minoans established a sophisticated society with considerable influence. (228) 2

All things considered, the Minoan civilization of Crete was an advanced society that

prospered due to its artistic accomplishments, commercial networks, and innovative building

designs. Their status as one of the region’s first highly developed civilizations highlights their

crucial influence in forming the cultural environment of classical Greece and the larger

Mediterranean region.

People from the plains around Anatolia and the Black Sea moved and settled in mainland

Greece around the same period. Greece was special because, although being the epicenter of a

vast civilization, it did not grow into an empire or even a politically significant nation with a

sizable territory. Thus, it is necessary to analyze Greece’s historical experience from the

perspective of its uniqueness. (Satpathy 228)

1
(Sarah B. Pomeroy)
2
(Satpathy)
 It was around this same period that people from the plains surrounding Anatolia and the

Black Sea moved to mainland Greece, adding to the cultural diversity of the area. Greece was

unique in the sense that it was the core of a major civilization, even if it never grew into a

powerful empire or a vastly influential political entity. An examination from the standpoint of

its uniqueness is required due to Greece’s exceptional historical experience, which is marked

by cultural diversity without imperial expansion.

Moreover, the written manuscripts are crucial when discussing the ancient Greek as they

enrich the Greek history. Several materials, such as clay, stone, metal, and papyrus (and

parchment starting in the second century BC), were used to inscribe ancient written records.

The Greek alphabet, which was developed in the ninth century BC, was used to write the

majority of the written materials that have survived to this day. However, there exist clay

tablets from a relatively brief period in the second millennium BC that were written in a

syllabic script known as Linear B. (Pomeroy et al 3)

In other words, the importance of written documents in maintaining and transferring the

cultural legacy of ancient Greece is highlighted by the wide variety of materials and scripts

found in Greek manuscripts, ranging from the early Linear B script to the Greek alphabet. These

manuscripts act as historical windows that let us examine the social structures, intellectual

accomplishments, and historical developments that molded one of the most significant

civilizations in recorded history.

Nevertheless, Garland also contends that the Greeks of antiquity scrutinized the state of

humanity and confronted its tragedy head-on. Greek tragedy and drama are their own

inventions. When it came to the universe’s apathy, the ability of humans to commit evil, and

the blackness of the human spirit, they were uncompromising in their criticism. The Greeks
 were exceptionally intelligent despite the lack of a mandatory education system; they were

intelligent for even their fiercest opponents to call them stupid, since they believe they are the

source of many contemporary injustices like misogyny and slavery. (4)

By contrast, Nicholas F. Jones I is book Politics and Society in Ancient Greece contends

that the modern world is familiar with ancient Greece through a variety of mediums, including

the Homeric Iliad's depiction of the Trojan War, the Parthenon atop Athens’ Acropolis,

Plato’s Dialogues, and Alexander the Great conquests. However, such a list would be

incomplete if democracy literally, “rule by the People” was left from the list. (ix) 1

The origins of democracy in Athens, the birthplace of Greece, can be traced back to a

particular historical event that occurred around 2,500 years ago. As a result, it is among the

earliest major city administrations in recorded human history. However, some historians are

interested in Athens for reasons other than its sheer antiquity. In fact, this is not even the main

reason. For the most of antiquity, Athens was the most powerful of the about 1,500 ancient

Greek city-states in terms of the military, economy, and culture. (Jones ix)

On the other hand, their political system, namely the fact that most Greek communities,

including Sparta, Corinth, and Athens, were self-governing institutions (poleis, or city-states)

with a strong devotion to civic principles, had something to do with their brilliance.

Besides, tribal systems or monarchies predominated outside of these centers, but even while

they did not leave much in the way of material culture behind, it did not imply they were

inherently backward. Strictly speaking, nobody could accuse Alexander the Great or his

father, Philip II, of being a bit of a slow learner since Macedon, the country from which he

came, was a monarchy rather than a polis. (Garland 4)

1.4.2. British Civilization

1
(Jones)
 “Farewell to the Highlands, farewell to the North, The birth-place of Valour, the country

of Worth; Wherever I wander, wherever I rove, The hills of the Highlands for ever I love.”

Robert Burns

A thorough introduction to a wide range of topics related to contemporary Britain is given by

British Civilization, covering the nation and its citizens, politics and government, media,

education, the economy, the arts, and religion.

It has been claimed that early in the twenty-first century, stone tools were found in

Norfolk by archaeologists, suggesting that people may have lived in Britain between 800,000

and 1 million years ago. These findings highlighted the degree to which our understanding of

Britain prior to the Roman occupation (which began in 43 CE) comes from archeological

research. Because archaeology rarely provides more than a basic overview or is able to

pinpoint specific dates, individuals, or motives, Britain’s past history is consequently devoid

of information. All that is known about economic development and a picture of succeeding

cultures is that which is already available. (“Ancient Britain”)1

However, Britain was already on the margins of civilization even in Roman times, and

Roman historians mainly give us a framework for that era that fits the findings of

archeological study. It was not until the Saxon settlements in the fifth century CE that Britain

was fully brought into the historical record. (“Ancient Britain”)

In his book British Civilization an Introduction, John Oakland asserts that the United

Kingdom is the exact physical location that a developed society known as the British

civilization resides in. It has been inhabited by many migrant populations whose cultures,

traditions, and evolutionary paths have all contributed in different ways to the institutional

building pieces that together now constitute a whole way of life. Despite its historical
1
(Ancient Britain)
 connotations of imperialism, racial and national dominance, and superiority, the term

“civilization” currently has a more neutral or descriptive meaning. (xviii) 1 In brief, The

variety of migrants who inhabited Britain gives a glimpse about the contribution and impact

on the culture at many levels.

The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland (UK) is the name given to

Britain in the constitution. The country is composed of up of both large and small islands that

are surrounded by the North Sea, the English Channel, the Irish Sea, and the Atlantic Ocean.

The islands are located off the northwest coast of the European mainland. Great Britain, the

largest island, is divided into England, Scotland, and Wales. Northern Ireland has a land

border with the Republic of Ireland, which is the owner of the second-largest island. A key

and contentious component of the UK’s attempt to exit the European Union (EU) is still this

border. (Oakland 3)

Moreover, these regions were frequented by Paleolithic Old, Middle, and New Stone Age

nomads, some of whom made permanent residences. Between 600 BC and 1066 AD, many

groups from mainland Europe settled on the islands and conducted invasions, including

Celtics, Belgic tribes, Romans, Germanic tribes (Anglo-Saxons), Scandinavians (Vikings),

and Normans. A transformative event, William the Conqueror’s Norman Conquest extended

Norman dominance over a large portion of the islands and profoundly altered the social and

political systems of the nation. (Oakland 3)

Accurately, although many European conquered Britain, William the Conqueror’s

Norman Conquest was the most significant historic event that considerably increased Norman

dominance over the islands and had a huge effect on the social and political structures of the

country.
1
(Oakland)
 According to conventional histories of Britain, these early immigrants’ descendants laid

the groundwork throughout time for a multiethnic nation with a diverse range of identities and

cultures. Further, and frequently disputed, identities were generated by varying degrees of

interbreeding between indigenous and outsiders. Additionally, he makes the case that

although some tribes, like the Picts and Scots, are believed to have been isolated for

millennia, research published in Nature in 2015 suggested, for instance, that majority Celtic

areas were more genetically varied than previously believed. (Oakland 3)

This explores the popular accounts of British history, showing how the nation’s current

multiethnic and culturally diversified landscape was greatly influenced by the contributions of

early immigrants and their offspring. The basis of a society with a diverse tapestry of identities

and cultures, reflecting the interactions and gradual intermingling of many ethnic groups, was

laid by these early settlers.

1.5. Conclusion

After discussing the theoretical framework of this study and the historical contexts of

ancient civilizations and architecture, one can extract central themes which are derived from the

ancient history. This will be highlighted by studying early human settlements, which are marked

by the development of early architectural styles and the evolution of architectural movements

and their impact on building design. In other words, Looking at the development of early cities

along with the influence of other aspects of life on it entails the pillars of ancient civilizations

and architecture.

The concept of groundbreaking ancient civilizations has many roots and it can be studied

from different lenses. It is only by high leveraging of critical intelligence, extreme vigilance and

some patterns of behaviours that a civilization can flourish. Even though that some civilizations
collapsed, some of them such as the Sumerian, Egyptian and Roman civilizations were sturdy

and created a bright history caused as a result of an everlasting thirst to achieve power. It drives

historians to write about that in many forms of expository only to deepen the understanding and

projection of such civilizations that pursued success. Therefore, the roots and the timeline of this

concept become a big quandary that stipulates answers.

To that end, the first chapter has attempted to provide a theoretical and contextual

framework that should hopefully assist us in gaining a grasp of the history involved in ancient

Greek and British civilization. Looking at the topic from the perspective of architectural history

shed a new light on our understanding of the influence of ancient civilizations on modern ones