Unit 2:Rock properties and Laboratory tests (4hours)

1. Definition and importance of rock properties in engineering

2.Mechanical properties of rocks: stress-strain behavior, elastic modulus,
Poisson’s ratio and strength
3. Generalized Hoek-Brown failure criterion
4.Introduction to laboratory testing: Uniaxial compression test,Brazilian
tensile strength test, Triaxial compression test,Point load test, Schmidt
hammer test,Direct shear test,slake durability test
5.Introduction to In-Situ stress test: Flat-Jack, Bore-hole over coring
method,
Hydrofracturing
 presentation of this chapter is
prepared by
MahendraBhandari
Sadikshya Nepal
SalinaRupakheti
Sayanakandel
Sumit kamti
 Definition and Importance of Rock Properties in Engineering

Rock properties refer to the physical and mechanical characteristics of rocks that influence their behavior under various
engineering conditions. These properties include but are not limited to density, porosity, permeability, strength, and
deformation characteristics.
 Importance:
 Foundation Design: Rock properties determine the load-bearing capacity of foundations. Understanding these
properties helps engineers design stable foundations for structures.
 Excavation and Tunneling: Knowledge of rock properties aids in assessing the stability of excavations and tunnels,
ensuring safe construction practices.
 Slope Stability: Rock properties are crucial in analyzing the stability of slopes, preventing landslides, and ensuring
the safety of infrastructure built on or near slopes.
 Material Selection: Different rock properties make certain types of rocks suitable for specific engineering purposes.
Understanding these properties enables engineers to select appropriate materials for construction projects.
 Water and Resource Management: Porosity and permeability properties of rocks affect groundwater flow and
storage. Understanding these properties is essential for effective water resource management and environmental
engineering projects.
some of importantof rocks propertiesin engineeringaregivenbelow:

•Evaluation of blasting anddrilling of rocks.

•Analysis of rocksdeformations.
•Analysis of rocksstability .

•Hydraulic fracturing and

• on the basics of rocks property we can design civil engineering
structure.
Mechanical properties of rock:

1.) Stress-strain behaviour:

a.) Stress:
b.) strain:
Factors affecting to strain:

1.) Brittle strain:

Irreversible strain when rocks break in pieces in response to
stress . Any material that breaks into pieces exhibits brittle behaviour.
When a rock deforms brittlely , at the microscopic scale grains can fracture(i.e. grain
fracturing within a single grain or across multiple grains),rotate(i.e. grain rotation), and
slide along grain contacts(i.e. frictional sliding).

Brittle materials change a little and then break suddenly.

2.) Plastic strain:
Ductile materials undergo smooth, continuous plastic deformation and do not spring
back to their original shape when the deforming force is released.
Types of strength:

a.) Compressive strength:

The compressive strength of a
material is a measure of it’s ability to resist uniaxial
compressive loads without yielding or fracture.
b.) Tensile
strength:
Tensile strength of a material is
defined as the maximum tensile stress which a
material can develop.

In nature rock mass is rarely subjected to tensile

stresses. So, rock are weak in tension.
c.)Shear strength:
It mostly deals with the shear
strength and shear behaviour of the
shearing and weakness planes of the rock
which hold together a rock specimen.

It is a vital geomechanics measure, used

for design.
3.) Poisson’s ratio:

In Engineering geology it is a measure of the poisson

effect ,the phenomenon in which a material tends to expand in
directions perpendicular to the direction of compression.

If the material is stretched rather than compressed,it usually

tends to contract in the directions transverse to the direction
of stretching.
It is denoted by σp .

Mathematically ,

σp = (E/2 μ )-1
4 .) Elastic modulus:
Elastic modulus of rock is also
known as modulus of elasticity of rock . It is
represented by Ei . It is an important property
of the rock that is used as an input parameter
in the design stage of engineering projects
such as dam and tunnel construction, mining
excavations, and so forth. Elastic modulus is
used in rock to lengthen or shorten a rock
without actually breaking it, the greater the
value of E, the larger the stress that is needed
to achieve the deformation.
 GENERALIZED HOEK-BROWN FAILURE
CRITERION

The Generalized Hoek-Brown criterion is an empirical failure criterion which

establishes the strength of the rock in terms of major and minor principal
stresses.
The Generalized Hoek-Brown criterion is non-linear and relates the major and
minor effective principal stresses (sigma1 and sigma3) according to the
following equation:
 = minimum effective principle stress at failure

= maximum effective principle stress at failure

= uniaxial compressive strength of the intact rockmass

mb = value of the Hoek-Brown constant mi for the rockmass

mi = material constant.
Geological strength index (GSI) value can be obtained by comparing the
quantitative GSI chart with the condition of the exposed rock mass identified by
visual inspection.

s and a = constant factors, depending on the rock mass

properties, given by:

D=represents a disturbance factor.

 CHAPTER 2
ROCK PROPERTIES AND LABORATORY
TESTS

2.4 Introduction to laboratory testing:

 Introduction:
• The laboratory rock testing is performed to determine the strength,
properties of intact rock sample and assess the potential for degradation and
disintegration of the rock material.
• Factor to be consider while choosing the sample rock are: rock type and
composition, rock size and shape, rock quality and variability rock
compatibility and adaptability .
 Uniaxial Compression Test
• The uniaxial compression test is a mechanical test used to determine the behaviour of a
material under compression along a single axis
• It involves applying a load to a sample in one direction while constraining its movement
in other direction
• Is conducted to characterize a material's response to compressive forces, to determine its
strength, stiffness, and deformation characteristics.
Procedure
1. Prepare a cylindrical or cuboidal rock sample with flat and parallel ends.
2. Mount the sample between platens in a compression testing machine.
3. Measure and record the dimensions of the sample (length, diameter, etc.).
4. Apply a constant axial load to the sample at a specified loading rate.
5. Record data such as applied load and deformation (strain) at regular intervals or
continuously.
6. Monitor the sample for signs of failure, such as cracking or crushing.
7. Note the load at which failure occurs.
8. Calculate the compressive strength of the rock sample using the maximum load
sustained and its cross-sectional area.
9. This test provides essential data for understanding the rock's mechanical properties and
its suitability for various engineering applications
Fig: Compression test machine
 Brazilian tensile strength test
• The Brazilian test in a laboratory test conducted in rock to determine the tensile strength of
rocks, concrete, and other brittle materials.

Procedure
1. A cylindrical or disc shaped sample is prepared from the material being tested. For a rock a
disc shaped sample is usually cut from a larger rock core.
2. The Sample is placed between two platens, with a load being applied diametrically across
the sample. A thin layer of lubricant is often applied between the patens and specimen to
reduce friction.
3. A compressive force is applied, tensile stresses develop perpendicular to the applied force
with in the sample.
4. The sample fails along a tensile stress zone parallel to applied load. This failure typically
occurs across the diameter of the sample.
5. The maximum load applied to the sample before
failure is recorded, along with diameter of the
sample. The tensile strength of the material can
then be calculated using the formula for tensile
stress i.e. Maximum load divided by the cross
sectional area of the sample.

Fig: Brazilian Test Apparatus

 Triaxial Compression Test
• A triaxial compression test is a laboratory technique used to determine the mechanical
properties of rock samples under stress conditions
• On this test , specimens are axially loaded to failure while a confining pressure is constantly
applied from three mutually perpendicular axis.

Procedure
1. Sample preparation
 Test samples are obtained by core drilling and must be selected to be representative of the
rock formation examined.
 The specimens should be tested within 30 days of the drilling date to preserve their initial
conditions.
 The sample shape should be cylindrical of diameter 30 to 54 mm, height to dia ration must
be in between 2 and 3 and the side of the specimen should be smooth .
2. Testing procedure
• Place the rock specimen in the triaxial testing apparatus, ensure proper alignment with
the loading axis. Apply lubricants or grease to contact surface between specimen and
loading plane to reduce friction.
• Then apply confining pressure gradually to the specimen using the pressure control
system by ensuring the pressure is uniformly distributed around the specimen.
• Apply axial stress vertically to the specimen at a controlled rate. Monitor axial
deformation continuously during loading.
• Record axial and radial deformations, axial and confining stresses, and pore pressure (if
applicable) throughout the test.
• Collect data at regular intervals or until failure occurs, whichever comes first.
• End the test either upon reaching a predefined axial strain or upon observing failure of
the specimen.
• Analyse the recorded data to determine the stress-strain behaviour of the rock specimen.
Fig: The principal stresses applied in
a cylindrical rock sample in triaxial
testing (σ1> σ2= σ3)

Fig: Triaxial Testing Apparatus

 Point Load Test
• The Point load test is an index test by which the rock is classified according to the strength.
• A benefit of Point Load tests is that they can be conducted on cylindrical, rectangular or
even irregular shapes.

Procedure
Depending on the shape of the specimen, the Point Load strength index can be derived via 4
different types of tests:
• Diameter test
• Axial test
• Prismatic test
• Test on an irregular sample
Diameter test:
• It is conducted on cylindrical sample.
• The ratio of the specimen’s length to its diameter
(2L/D) should be more than unity.
• The sample is placed in the loading device and is
loaded perpendicular to its core axis so that the platens
make contact along its diameter.
• Then, the distance between the contact points (which
should be equal to the diameter) is recorded and the Fig: Sample’s shape requirements
specimen is loaded to failure for the Diameter PL Test and
loading forces applied by the
apparatus platens.
Axial Test:
• The Axial Point Load Test is conducted on cylindrical
samples that have a relatively smaller length.
• The ratio between the length and the diameter of the
specimen must range between 0.3 and 1.0.
• The specimen is placed so that the loading platens are
parallel to its core axis.
• The distance between the contact points is measured
before initiating the test.

Fig: Sample’s shape requirements

for the Axial PL Test and
loading forces applied by the
apparatus platens.
Prismatic test/block lump test
• It is conducted on rectangular prism samples with a
preferable dimension of 5.0 ± 3.5 cm.
• The sample is placed in the apparatus so that its
smallest dimension makes contact with the loading
platens.
• As shown in Figure, the Diameter to Width ratio
should be between 0.3 and 1.0 and the length between
the contact points and the free end of the sample, must
be greater than 0.5D.

Fig: Sample’s shape requirements

for the block lump PL Test and
loading forces applied by the
apparatus platens.
Test on an irregular sample
• In this case, a cross-section of a certain block is
considered a trapezoid with its top and bottom bases
(W1 and W2) being parallel and its height being
constant (D).
• An average width is calculated (W=(W1+W2)/2) and
the loading process is similar to that of the Block Lump
Test.
• A schematic of the specimen’s geometric characteristics
and the loading forces applied during the PL test is
depicted in Figure .

Fig: Sample’s shape requirements

for the Irregular Lump PL Test
and loading forces applied by the
apparatus platens.
Fig: Point Load Tester For Rock Specimens
 Schmidt Hammer Test
• The Schmidt hammer test, also known as the rebound hammer test, is a widely used
method for assessing the hardness and strength of rock and concrete surfaces,
• This test aims to measure the rebound hardness of the rock, which is correlated with its
compressive strength. This information helps in assessing the quality, durability, and
suitability of rock for various engineering and construction applications.

Procedure
1. Select representative areas on the rock surface for testing. Ensure that the surface is clean,
free from loose debris, and relatively flat
2. Hold the Schmidt hammer perpendicular to the rock surface at the desired test location.
3. Firmly press the hammer against the rock surface to engage the spring-loaded mechanism.
4. Release the hammer, allowing it to strike the rock surface with a defined impact energy.
5. Record the rebound value indicated on the scale or digital display of the Schmidt hammer.
6. Take multiple readings at different locations on the rock surface to obtain representative
data
7. Use a chart or formula specific to the type of rock
being tested.
8. Match the rebound value to its corresponding
compressive strength estimate.
9. Take rebound measurements at different spots on
the rock surface.
10.Look for differences in rebound values, which can
indicate variations in rock hardness or potential
defects.

NOTE: Higher rebound values indicate greater

hardness and potentially higher compressive strength
of the rock. Fig: Schmidt Hammer
 Direct Shear Test
• During the test, shear strength is determined at various applied stresses normal to the
sheared plane and at various shear displacements.
• It id dine to measure the shear strength properties of soil or rock material, or of
discontinuities in soil or rock masses
Procedure
1. The rock specimen is prepared to fit between the two parallel plates, ensuring smooth and
parallel surfaces to minimize shear plane irregularities.
2. The rock specimen is placed between the upper and lower plates of the direct shear
apparatus, and any necessary instrumentation for displacement measurement is attached.
3. A normal stress is applied vertically to the rock specimen, simulating the overlying weight
or stress in the field.
4. Horizontal shear force is gradually applied to the upper plate of the direct shear apparatus,
inducing shear displacement along the predefined failure plane of the rock specimen.
5. Displacement measurements are
recorded continuously during the test to
monitor shear displacement and shear
stress.
6. The test continues until the rock
specimen reaches failure, characterized
by significant shear displacement or
fracture along the failure plane.

Fig: Direct Shear Apparatus.

 Slake Durability Test
• Slake durability of rock is the resistance of the rock against slaking, i.e. disintegration
under cyclic wetting and drying processes.
• measures the resistance of rocks to weathering and disintegration when exposed to
moisture
Procedure
1. Start with a representative sample of the rock you want to test. The sample should be free
from visible cracks or other defects. It's usually recommended to use samples with a size
ranging from gravel to cobble.
2. the sample is dried in an oven to remove any existing moisture. This step ensures that the
starting moisture content is consistent across all samples.
3. After drying, the sample is soaked in water for a specified period, usually between 24 and
48 hours. This ensures that the rock is fully saturated with water.
4. Once saturated, the sample is subjected to a series of wetting and drying cycles. This
involves immersing the sample in water, then exposing it to drying conditions. The
number of cycles can vary depending on the test protocol, but it's typically between 10 and
20 cycles.
5. After each cycle, the sample is examined
for signs of deterioration. This can include
the formation of cracks, spalling, or
disintegration of the rock fragments.
6. The results of the test are typically
reported as a percentage of the original
sample mass that has been lost due to
slaking. This provides a quantitative
measure of the rock's durability

Fig: Instrument Used In Slake Durability Test

INTRO DUCTION TO IN-SITU STRESS TEST

• Stress is the force applied to a rock and may cause deformation. Stress is the concept
fundamental to rock mechanics principles.
• .Rocks are pre-loaded by force that are of unknown magnitude and direction.
• In situ stress state is the original stress status in the rock before excavation.
• In-situ test means the test done in field.
REASONS FOR PERFORMING IN-SITU STRESS TEST

• The values of stress in laboratory test are overestimated whereas stress value will be
practical in filed.
• Enviromental condition will be most suitable when test is performed in field as we need
actual stress value in that environmental condition.
• The discontinuity along which stress strength should be found that load condition or
envirommemtal condition is already setted in field.
IN-SITU STRESS TEST METHO D:

1.Flat-Jack method
2.Bore-hole over coring method
3.Hydrofracturing
FLAT-JACK METHOD

• The flat jack in-situ stress test method is an experimental technique used to measure the
existing stress in a rock mass or concrete structure by inserting a flat hydraulic jack into
a pre-cut slot and pressurizing it to determine the stresses acting perpendicular to the
slot.
FLAT-JACK METHOD

1. Select a location on the rock or concrete surface where the test will be perfo
2. Use a saw or other cutting tool to cut a narrow, flat slot of known dimensions into the rock or concrete.
The depth and orientation of the slot should be carefully controlled.
3. Place displacement measuring devices (such as strain gauges or displacement transducers) across the slot
to measure the width change when the slot is cut.
4. Insert a flat hydraulic jack into the slot.The jack should fit snugly within the slot and be capable of
expanding to exert pressure on the sides of the slot.
5. Gradually increase the pressure in the flat jack using a hydraulic pump.Monitor the pressure and the
corresponding displacement of the slot walls.
6. Record the pressure at which the slot walls return to their original position (the position before the slot
was cut).This pressure is indicative of the in-situ stress acting perpendicular to the slot.
7. Analyze the data to determine the in-situ stress.The flat jack pressure that closes the slot back to its
original width is used to calculate the stress in the rock or concrete.This stress is typically perpendicular
to the plane of the slot.
A DVA N TA G ES A N D LIMITATIO N S

• Advantages:
• Provides direct measurement of in-situ stress.
• C an be used in a variety of rock and concrete materials.
• Relatively simple and straightforward in execution.
• Limitations:
• Requires access to the rock or concrete surface.
• The accuracy of the method depends on the precision of the slot cutting and the flat jack fit.
• The method measures stress only perpendicular to the slot, requiring multiple tests at different
orientations for a complete stress analysis.
.BORE-HOLE OVER CORING METHOD

• This method involves drilling aborehole, installing astress-measuring device, and then
overcoring (drilling a larger concentric hole) around the device to relieve stress, which is
then measured to determine the original in-situ stress state of the rock.
BORE HOLE OVERCORING METHOD

• It involves drilling a large diameter hole (60-150mm) in the volume of rock, sufficiently at a
distance so that the effect of the excavation or ground surface will be negligible.
• It will be followed by the small pilot hole at the end of larger hole,The pilot and large
diameter holes must be as comcentric(commom centre) as possible.
• Pilot ho;e length vary between 300 and 500mm.The larger diameter hole is resumed , partially
or totally relieving stresses and strains within the cylinder of rock that is formed.The changes
in strains or displacements are thyen recorded.
• Followed by overcoring, the recorded overcore is often tested to determine the elastic
properties of rock.
ADVA N TAGES A N D LIMITATIO NS

• Advantages:
• Provides direct measurement of in-situ stress.
• Can measure stress in three dimensions if multiple gauges are used.
• Applicable to a variety of rock types and conditions.
• Limitations:
• Requires specialized equipment and expertise.
• The overcoring process can be time-consuming and expensive.
• The accuracy of the results depends on the precise placement and calibration of the stress measurement devices.
• Stress measurements are localized to the area around the borehole and may not represent regional stress variations.
HYDROFRACTURING

Hydrofracturing process involves injecting fluid into a borehole at high pressure to induce
fractures in the rock, and the resulting data is used to infer the stress state of the
formation.
STEPS IN THE HYDRO FRACTURIN G METHOD

•Drill a borehole to the desired depth in the rock formation.

•Insert packers to isolate the section of the borehole where the test will be conducted.
•Inject fluid (usually water or a viscous gel) into the isolated section at controlled, increasing pressure.
•Continuously monitor and record the injection pressure and volume until a fracture is initiated.
Key parameters to note are:
•Breakdown Pressure: The pressure at which the rock fractures.
•Shut-in Pressure: The pressure when fluid injection is stopped and pressure starts to drop.
•Re-opening Pressure: The pressure needed to re-open the existing fracture.
•Analyze the recorded pressures to determine the in-situ stress components, focusing on the
• breakdown, shut-in, and re-opening pressures to infer the principal stresses.
ADVA N TAGES A N D LIMITATIO NS

• Advantages:
• Provides direct measurement of in-situ stress.
• Can be performed at various depths and in different types of rock formations.
• Limitations:
• Requires specialized equipment and expertise.
• The interpretation of results can be complex and may require calibration with other stress
measurement techniques.
• The method can be expensive and time-consuming.