New Ebook Guide To AI & Data Science

FUTURE-PROOF
CAREERS
YOUR BLUEPRINT IN ARTIFICIAL
INTELLIGENCE & DATA SCIENCE
M O H A M M A D A R S H A D
2 0 2 3 E D I T I O N
Table of Contents
Preface
1. Roadmap to get into Data Science 1-4
2. Basic Python 5-9
3. The Signficance of Python in DS 10-19
4. Numpy Guide 24-29
5. Pandas Guide
30-35
6. Loc and Iloc in Panda
36-47
7. Data Visualization with Seaborn
48-52
8. Matplotlib Guide
53-58
9. Regression Analysis
59-64
10. Logistic Regression Explained
65-69
11. Introduction to Decision Tree
70-73
12. KMeans Cheat Sheet
74-76
13. Hypothesis Testing
77-120
14. Data Science Roadmap
15. SQL Operators 121-130
16. SQL Interview 131-134
17. DAX in PowerBI 135-139
18. Roadmap to Mastering Generative AI 140-142
19. NLP Cheat Sheet 143-144

20. Parameters of OpenAI 145-160
21. AIGuild Premium Community 161-170
Introduction
Welcome to Your Guide to Artificial

Intelligence & Data Science, an all-
encompassing manual created to
guide you through the intricacies and
nuances of Artificial Intelligence (AI)
and Data Science.
This eBook is an indispensable

resource for learners, professionals,
and entrepreneurs keen on leveraging
the transformative capabilities of AI
and Data Science, offering both
foundational knowledge and
advanced insights.
P
Objective
The primary aim of this guide is to simplify

and unravel the often-intimidating
terminologies and concepts associated
with AI and Data Science.
Whether you are an aspiring data analyst, a

machine learning enthusiast, or a decision-
maker in your organization, this eBook
equips you with the conceptual and
practical tools necessary for a fulfilling
journey in this ever-evolving field.
P
Structure and Content
The eBook is organized into the following

sections, each designed to offer in-depth
knowledge and actionable insights:
Roadmap to get into Artificial Intelligence:

Setting the stage for your AI journey.
Numpy and Pandas Cheat Sheets: Quick-

reference guides to these essential libraries.
Loc and Iloc in Panda: A focused look at data

selection techniques in Pandas.
Data Visualization with Seaborn and

Matplotlib Cheat Sheet: Mastering the art of
visualizing data.
Regression Analysis and Logistic Regression

Explained: Fundamental statistical methods
for predictive modeling.
P
Introduction to Decision Tree and KMeans
Cheat Sheet: Exploring classification and
clustering algorithms.
Hypothesis Testing: A primer on inferential

statistics in Data Science.
Hypothesis Testing: A primer on inferential

statistics in Data Science.
Data Science Roadmap: A comprehensive

path for aspiring data scientists.
SQL Operators and SQL Interview: Preparing

you for data manipulation and interviews.
P
DAX in PowerBI: A guide to Data Analysis
Expressions in Power BI.
Roadmap to Mastering Generative AI:

Charting the course for your foray into
Generative AI.
NLP Cheat Sheet: A quick guide to Natural

Language Processing.
Parameters of OpenAI: Understanding the

mechanics of OpenAI platforms.
AIGuild Premium Community: An invitation

to join our exclusive community for further
learning and networking opportunities.
P
Audience
Whether you're a student just starting out, a professional

looking to pivot into AI and Data Science, or a C-level executive
keen on leveraging these technologies for business
advancement, this eBook is tailored for you.
Concluding Remarks
We stand at an unprecedented crossroads in technological

advancement. AI and Data Science are more than just
buzzwords; they are transformative forces capable of
redefining industries, economies, and lives.
Thank you for choosing this eBook as your companion in this

intellectual expedition. We trust it will be a valuable asset on
your path to mastering Artificial Intelligence and Data Science.
P
Roadmap to
Get into
Data Science
1
6 Steps to Master
1. Excel
2. PowerBI
3. SQL for Data Science
4. Python for Data Science
5. Maths & Stats for DS
6. Capstone Project
2
Master Excel
Mastering Excel for Data Science involves learning how to
effectively use Excel as a tool to collect, clean, analyze, and
visualize data.
PowerBI
Power BI is an important tool for Data Science that offers a wide
range of benefits.
It helps Data Scientists to collect, manage, and visualize data,

making it easier to communicate insights to stakeholders and
drive business decisions
SQL For DS
SQL (Structured Query Language) is a programming language that
is widely used for Data Science. It is used to manipulate and
retrieve data stored in relational databases, making it an essential
tool for data analysis
SQL is a fundamental skill that is necessary for anyone working in

Data Science. Here are some of the key benefits of SQL for Data
Science
3
Python For DS
Python is a popular programming language used extensively in the
field of Data Science.
It is a versatile language that offers a wide range of libraries and

tools for Data Scientists to analyze, manipulate and visualize data
Panda , Numpy & Matplotlib
Maths/Stats For DS
Mathematics and statistics are fundamental to the field of Data
Science.
They provide the foundation for data analysis and modeling,

enabling Data Scientists to draw insights from data and make
informed decisions
Capstone Project
Project work is an essential part of Data Science education.
Projects help Data Science students to apply the concepts they

have learned in a practical setting, and gain hands-on experience
working with real-world datasets.
Projects provide a platform for Data Science students to showcase

their skills, and help them to build a strong portfolio of work.
4
The Significance
of Python in Data
Science &
Artificial
Intelligence
Introduction
In the realm of data science, where vast
amounts of information are harnessed
to extract valuable insights and drive
informed decision-making, the choice
of programming language is of
paramount importance. Among the
plethora of languages available, Python
has risen to prominence as the
preferred tool for data scientists. In this
chapter, we delve into the multifaceted
significance of Python in the field of
data science, elucidating why it has
become the lingua franca for data
professionals.
Versatility: A Multifaceted Toolbox
Python's versatility is one of its most

compelling attributes. Data scientists
often need to work with diverse data
formats, from structured databases to
unstructured text and images. Python
seamlessly accommodates this
diversity. Its libraries, such as NumPy
and pandas, provide powerful data
manipulation capabilities, enabling
users to clean, preprocess, and
transform data with ease. Whether your
data resides in a CSV file, a database, or
on the web, Python provides tools to
handle it effectively.
Rich Ecosystem: Libraries Galore
At the heart of Python's dominance in

data science lies its rich ecosystem of
specialized libraries and frameworks.
These tools cater to every facet of the
data science workflow:
NumPy: For numerical computing and

handling multi-dimensional arrays.
pandas: Ideal for data manipulation and

analysis with data structures like
DataFrames.
matplotlib and seaborn: These libraries
facilitate data visualization, helping data
scientists create compelling charts and
graphs.
scikit-learn: A go-to library for machine

learning tasks, offering a wide array of
algorithms and utilities.
TensorFlow and PyTorch: Leading

frameworks for deep learning and neural
network development.
These libraries substantially reduce the time

and effort required to perform essential
data science tasks, enabling rapid
development of models and analysis.
Basic Python
for
Data Science
Python Basics:
Syntax and Structure: Learn
Python's clean and straightforward
syntax, making it ideal for
beginners.
Variables and Data Types:
Understand how to work with
different data types including
integers, floats, strings, and lists.
Control Structures: Master the use
of if-else statements, loops (for and
while), and conditional expressions
in Python.
Functions and Modules:
Creating Functions: Discover how to
define and call your own functions
to streamline repetitive tasks.
Using Python Modules: Explore

essential modules like math,
datetime, and how to import them
into your projects.
Working with Data:
File Handling: Learn to read and
write files, a critical skill for
handling datasets.
Basic Data Processing: Get started

with data cleaning and basic
transformations using Python.
Module:
Data Types
NAS.IO/ARTIFICIALINTELLIGENCE
Basic Data Types
1. Integer (int)
• Definition: Represents whole numbers.
Characteristics:
No decimal points, can be positive or
negative.
Size is only limited by available memory.
Typical Operations: Arithmetic operations,
bitwise operations. Methods: bit_length(),
to_bytes().
Use Cases: Counting, indexing, mathematical
calculations in discrete mathematics.
Join AI Community nas.io/artificialintelligence

Extended Examples

2. Floating Point Number (float)
Definition: Represents real numbers including
decimals.
Characteristics: • Contains a decimal point,
precision is implementation-dependent.
Typical Operations: All arithmetic operations
applicable.
Methods: is_integer(), hex().
Use Cases: Scientific calculations,
measurements, financial calculations.

Extended Examples:

4. Boolean (bool
Definition: Represents truth values.
Characteristics:
• Derived from integers (True is 1, False is 0).
Typical Operations: Logical operations,
comparisons.
Use Cases: Control flow, decision making,
flagging conditions.

Extended Examples:

Complex Data Types
1. List (list)
Definition: An ordered collection of items.
Characteristics:
• Mutable, items can be of mixed types.
Typical Operations: Indexing, slicing,
appending, sorting.
Methods: append(), remove(), sort().
Use Cases: Dynamic data storage, iteration,
collections of items

Extended Examples:

3. Dictionary (dict)
Definition: A collection of key-value pairs.
Characteristics:
• Mutable, keys must be unique and
immutable.
Typical Operations: Accessing, updating,
removing key-value pairs.
Methods: keys(), values(), items().
Use Cases: Data lookup, flexible data
representation, JSON-like structures.

Extended Examples:

4. Set (set)
Definition: An unordered collection of unique
items.
Characteristics:
• Mutable, eliminates duplicate values.
Typical Operations: Adding, removing elements,
set operations (union, intersection).
Methods: add(), remove(), union().
Use Cases: Removing duplicates, set theory
operations.

Extended Examples:

NUMPY
Guide
1. Basic Commands
Importing NumPy and checking its version:
2. Array Creati on
Creating NumPy arrays from lists and with initial placeholders:
6
3. Array Att ri but es
Getting an array's shape and data type:
4. Indexing and Sli ci ng

Indexing and slicing one-dimensional and multi-dimensional arrays:
7
5. Array Mani pulati on
Various ways to manipulate arrays such as reshaping, stacking, and
splitting:
6. Arithmeti c Operati ons

Performing addition, subtraction, multiplication, division, and dot
product on arrays:
8
7. Statistical Operati ons
Calculating the mean, median, and standard deviation of an array:
9
PANDAS
Cheat Sheet
1. Basic Commands
Pandas is a software library for Python that provides tools for data
manipulation and analysis. It's important to ensure that the correct
version of pandas is installed for
compatibility with your code.
- Importing Pandas:
- Checking Pandas Version:
2. Dataframe Creati on
Dataframes are two-dimensional labeled data structures with
columns potentially of different types.
You can think of it like a spreadsheet or SQL table.
- From a list:
11
- From a Dictionary:
3. Data Select i on
Pandas provides different methods for data selection.
- Selecting a column:
12
- Selecting multiple columns:
- Selecting rows:
- Selecting specific value:
13
4. Data Mani pulati on
Pandas provide various ways to manipulate a dataset.
- Adding a column:
- Deleting a column:
- Renaming columns:
14
- Applying a function to a column:
5. Data Cleani ng
Data cleaning is detecting and correcting (or removing) corrupt or
inaccurate records from a dataset.
- Checking for null values:
- Dropping null values:
15
- Filling null values:
- Replacing values:
6. Grouping & Aggregat i on

Grouping involves combining data based on some criteria, while
aggregation is the process of turning the results of a query into a
single row.
- Group by:
16
- Aggregation:
7. Merging, Joi ni ng, and Conca t enat i ng

Pandas provides various ways to combine DataFrames including
merge and join.
- Concatenating:
- Merging:
17
- Joining:
8. Working wi t h Dat es
Pandas provides powerful functionalities for working with dates.
- Convert to datetime:
- Extracting date parts:
18
9. File I/O
Pandas can seamlessly read from and write to a variety of file
formats.
- Reading a CSV file:
- Writing to a CSV file:
- Similarly for other file formats like
19
ILOC AND
LOC IN
PANDA
Loc allows you to select data based
on the label or name of the row or
column, while iloc uses the number
or index of the row or column.
Understanding the difference

between these two methods is
crucial for effectively working with
data in Python.
Whether you're a seasoned data

analyst or just starting out,
understanding how to use loc and 2
ilocwill give you the skills you need

to effectively analyze data in
Python.
21
LOC
THE LOC() FUNCTION IS LABEL BASED DATA SELECTING METHOD
WHICH MEANS THAT WE HAVE TO PASS THE NAME OF THE ROW OR
COLUMN WHICH WE WANT TO SELECT.
ILOC
THE ILOC() FUNCTION IS AN INDEXED-BASED SELECTING METHOD

WHICH MEANS THAT WE HAVE TO PASS AN INTEGER INDEX IN THE
METHOD TO SELECT A SPECIFIC
ROW/COLUMN.
22
5
23
Data
Visualization
with Seaborn
Introduction to Seaborn, its various
functionalities, and sample graphs using
the provided dataset.
25
2. Distribution Plots
Description:
Distribution plots are used to visualize the distribution of a
dataset. Common distribution plots in Seaborn include the
histogram, KDE (Kernel Density Estimation), and the rug plot.
Code Snippet:
3. Categorical Plots
Description:
Categorical plots are used to visualize categorical data.
Examples include bar plots, box plots, and violin plots.
Code Snippet:
26
4. Matrix Plots
Description:
Matrix plots are used to display data in a matrix format.
The heatmap is a common matrix plot used to represent data in a
color-encoded matrix format.
Code Snippet:
27
5. Pair Plots
Description:
Pair plots are used to visualize relationships between multiple
variables in a dataset.
It plots pairwise relationships in a dataset.
Code Snippet:
6. Regression Plots
Description:
Regression plots are used to visualize the relationship between two
variables and fit a regression line.
Code Snippet:
28
7. Styling and Themes
Description:
Seaborn allows for the customization of plots using various styles
and themes.
This ensures that plots are both informative and aesthetically
pleasing.
Code Snippet:
29
MATPLOTLIB
Cheat Sheet
1. Basic Commands
Matplotlib is a plotting library for the Python programming language
and its numerical mathematics extension NumPy.
- Importing Matplotlib:
- Checking Matplotlib version:
2. Basic Plot t i ng
Matplotlib provides functionalities for various types of plots.
31
3. Figure and Axes
A figure in matplotlib means the whole window in the
user interface. Axis are the number-line-like objects and
they take care of generating the graph limits.
- Creating Figure and Axes:
- Setting Figure Size:
-Setting Axis Labels and Title:
32
4. Customizi ng Plot s
Matplotlib allows you to customize various aspects of your
plots.
- Changing Line Style and Color:
- Adding Grid:
- Setting Axis Limits:
33
5. Multiple Plot s
Matplotlib provides functionalities to create multiple plots in a single
figure.
- Subplots:
- Sharing Axis:
6. Text and Annot ati ons

Matplotlib provides functionalities to add text and
annotations to the plots.
- Adding Text:
34
- Adding Annotations:
7. Saving Figures
Matplotlib provides the savefig() function to save the
current figure to a file.
- Saving Figures as PNG, PDF, SVG, and more:
35
REGRESSION
ANALYSIS
Agenda
Introduction to Regression Analysis
–What is Regression Analysis
–Why do we need Regression
Analysis in Business
– Introduction to Modeling
Introduction to OLS Regression
Introduction to Modeling Process
37
What is Regression Analysis?
Regression Analysis captures the relationship between one or more response
variables (dependent/predicted variable –denoted by Y) and the its predictor
variables (independent/explanatory variables –denoted by X) using historical
observations of both.
Hence its estimates the functional relationship between a set of independent

variables X1, X2, …, Xpwith the response variable Y which estimate of the
functional form best fits the historical data.
Historical Data Predict Future Events

Statistical Analy ses
Bad
Your
Company
38
Types of Regression Analysis
There are various kinds of Regressions based on the nature
of : - •the functional form of the relationship
•the residual
•the dependent variable
•the independent variables
Functional Form Residual Dependent Var Independent Var

▪ Linear Based on the Single Numerical
▪ Non-Linear –Out
of scope for this
distribution of the
residual –normal,
Continuous Discrete
Discrete Continuous
presentation binomial, poisson,
Binary Categorical
exponential
Multiple – Out of Ordinal
scope for this
presentation Nominal
39
Types of Linear Regression
Dependent Variable Type Residual Distribution Types of Regression
Continuous Normal (with constant Ordinary Least Squares

variance)
Continuous (OLS)
Normal (without constant
variance) Generalized Least Square
Binary
Binomial
Logistic Regression
Discrete
Poisson Poisson Regression
Rational
Exponential Family of Generalized Least Squares
Distributions
Other Types of Regression Related Techniques

Simultaneous Equation Models
–When both X & Y are dependent on each other
Structural Equation Modeling / Pathways
–Captures the inter-relations between Xs i.e. captures how Xs affect each
other before affecting Y
Survival Analysis
–Predicts a decay curve for a probability of an event
Hierarchal Bayesian
–Estimates a non-linear equation
40
Agenda
Introduction to Regression Analysis
–What is Regression Analysis
–Why do we need Regression Analysis
in Business – Introduction to Modeling
Introduction to OLS Regression
Introduction to Modeling Process
41
What is Modeling?
Is based on Regression Analysis. It can be used
for the following two distinct but related
purposes
1. Predict certain events
2. Identify the drivers of certain events based
on some explanatory variables
Isolates individual effects and then quantifies
the magnitude of that driver to its impact on the
dependent variable. It is required because
1.Knowledge of Y is crucial for decision
making but is not deterministic
2. X is available at the time of decision
making and is related to Y
Volume = Base Sales + b2 (GRPs) + b3 (Dist) … + bn (Price)
Example of Modeling in Business

Predict the sales that a customer would contribute, given a
certain set of attributes like demographic information, credit
history, prior purchase behavior, etc.
Predict the probability of response from a direct mail thus
saving cost and acquire potential customers.
Identify high responsive and high profit segments and targeting
only these segments for direct mail campaigns
Identify the most effective marketing levers & quantify their
impact
To find out what differentiates between buyers and non buyers
based on their past 3 months usage of the product and the age
group
42
Agenda
•Introduction to Regression Analysis
•Introduction to OLS Regression
•Introduction to Modeling Process
43
Introduction to Ordinary Least Squares
Dependent Variable Type Residual Distribution Types of Regression
Continuous Normal (with Ordinary Least

constant variance) Squares (OLS)
Continuous Normal (without constant variance)Generalized Least Square
Binary Binomial Logistic Regression
Discrete Poisson Poisson Regression
Rational Exponential Family of DistributionsGeneralized Least Squares
Introduction to Ordinary Least Squares – Simple

Regression
Advertising Sales
$120 $1,503
$160 $1,755
$205 $2,971
$210 $1,682
$225 $3,497
$230 $1,998
$290 $4,528
$315 $2,937
$375 $3,622
$390 $4,402
$440 $3,844
$475 $4,470
$490 $5,492
$550 $4,398
Goal: characterize relationship between advertising and sales
44
Introduction to Ordinary Least Squares –
Simple Regression
Result: equation that

predicts sales dollars
based on advertising
dollars spent
Sales = B0+ B1*Adv.
Minimizes Error sum of squares ,Hence the name “Ordinary Least

Square Regression”
Introduction to Ordinary Least Squares –

Multiple Regression
•Credit card balances
–payment amount – years
–gender (0/1) •Minimizes
squared error
in N-dimensional space
Balances = 2.1774 +.0966*Payment + 1.2494*Months + .4412*Gender
45
OLS Model Assumptions
1. Linearity -Model is
Yi=a+b1X1i+b2X2i+…+bpXpi+ei
linear in parameters
2. Spherical Errors - Error
distribution is Normal e2i ~ Normal(0, σ)
with mean 0 & constant
variance
3. Zero Expected Error - E(ei)=0 for all i
The expected value (or
mean) of the errors is
Variance(ei)=constant for all i
always zero
4. Homoskedasticity - The
errors have constant corr(ei, ej)=0 for all i≠j
variance
5. Non-Autocorrelation -
The errors are
Covariance (Xi,Xj) = 0
statistically
independent from one
another. This implies
the data is a random
sample of the
population
6. Non-Multicollinearity -
The independent
variables are not
collinear
46
Steps in OLS Regression
Assume all OLS assumptions hold
Run regression in software (R/Python)
Check if assumptions really hold
Check if Fit is good
Check Hypothesis testing results

i.e. variable significance
Iterate to make “BEST” model
Applications of OLS Regression in Business
Sales Marketing Ad.

Prediction Effectiveness Effectiveness
Profitability
Models Models Models Models
Just a few
of them
Capital Claims Chare-off Macro
Expenditure Forecasting Prediction Economic
Model Models Models Models
47
Logistics
Regression
Explained
Logistic Regr essi on – Int roduct i on
In Linear regression, the outcome variable is continuous and the
predictor variables can be a mix of numeric and categorical. But often
there are situations where we wish to evaluate the effects of multiple
explanatory variables on a binary outcome variable
For example, the effects of a number of factors on the development or

otherwise of a disease. A patient may be cured or not; a prospect may
respond or not, should we grant a loan to particular person or not, etc.
When the outcome or dependent variable is binary, and we wish to

measure the effects of several independent variables on it, we uses
Logistic Regression
►The binary outcome variable can be coded as 0 or 1.

►The logistic curve is shown in the figure below:
We estimate the probability

of success by the equation:
49
Process Flow
Data Factor
Data In Preparation/ Identification Analysis or
Python of Variables
Cleaning Correlation
Data is Missing Value Independent ▪FA is done in order to

obtained in Imputation and dependent get the variables into
pandas variables groups
dataframe
Trash value
Outlier
should be ▪ Good to choose factor
identified solution near the Eigen
Treatment value of 1
▪ As a further Check
Correlation Analysis is
done
Creation of Logistic KS
Validate Output
Modeling Regression in Statistic
Output
Dataset Python
Divide data into Assume all Validate the Results will be

Development assumptions hold output on the presented in
and Validation Check for the Validation PowerPoint
Sample in ratio significance of the sample , by
70:30 or 80:20 variables running the
Run Regression on same model on
Development the Validation
sample sample
50
Python code
Step 1: Importing the dataset
Step 2: Splitting the dataset into the Training set and Test set
Step 3: Feature Scaling
Step 4 : Training the Logistic Regression model on the Training set
51
Step 5:Predicting a new result
Step 6: Predicting the Test set results
Step 7: Making the Confusion Matrix
Practice
For location of code and dataset
https://github.com/arshad831/Modelling-
Exercise/blob/main/logistic_regression.ipynb
52
INTRODUCTION
TO
DECISION TREE
1
Decision Trees
A decision tree is a decision support tool that uses a tree-like model
of decisions and their possible consequences, including chance
event outcomes, resource costs, and utility. It is one way to display
an algorithm that only contains conditional control statements.
What is Decision Trees ?

A decision tree is a flowchart-like tree structure where an internal
node represents a "test" on an attribute (e.g.whether a coin flip
comes up heads or tails), each branch represents the outcome of the
test, and each leaf node represents a class label (decision taken
after computing all attributes).
54
Importance of decision tree:
Decision trees are a popular method for various classification and
regression tasks. For example, in medical diagnosis, decision trees
have been used to classify diseases based on symptoms. In credit
scoring, decision trees are used to predict the probability of default.
Decision tree learning is a predictive modelling approach

that can be used for both classification and regression
tasks. The goal is to create a model that predicts the
value of a target variable based on
several input variables.
Decision Trees
We were creating a decision tree to predict whether or not someone
is likely to go to the beach.
Predictors Outcome
Sky Arshad goes to the
Weekend beach?
Wind Speed
55
Data
Decision Tree Outcome
56
Advantages of decision trees:
1. Decision trees are easy to interpret and explain.
2. They can handle both numeric and categorical data.
3. They are resistance to overfitting.
4. They can be used for feature selection.
5. They are non-parametric, meaning they make no
assumptions about the underlying data distribution.
Disadvantages of decision trees

1. They are prone to overfitting with large amounts of data.
2. They can be unstable because small changes in the
data can result in large changes in the structure of the
tree.
3. They are not as accurate as some other methods, such
as neural networks.
4. They can be difficult to tune, especially when there
are many parameters to consider.
57
58
K-Means
Clustering
Detailed
Steps
with Code
Introduction to K-Means Clustering
Definition and Description of K-Means Clustering: K- Means is a type
of partitioning clustering that separates the data into K non-
overlapping subsets (or clusters) without any cluster-internal
structure.
Overview of Unsupervised Learning: In unsupervised learning, the
goal is to identify useful patterns and structure from the input data.
K-Means is an unsupervised learning algorithm as it forms clusters
based on the input data without referring to known, or labelled,
outcomes.
Use Cases for K-Means Clustering: Applications in various fields like
market segmentation, image segmentation, anomaly detection, etc.
The K-Means Clustering Algorithm

Explanation of the K-Means Algorithm:
Detail the iterative process of assigning each data point to the
nearest centroid, updating the centroids based on the data points
assigned, and repeating until convergence. Choice of K (the number
of clusters): Discuss methods to choose the optimal number of
clusters, like the Elbow Method, Silhouette Analysis, etc.
Centroid Initialization Methods: Discuss different methods for
initializing centroids, including random initialization, k-means++ and
their impact on the final result.
60
Python setup and data preparation
Required Python Libraries: Detail libraries such as pandas for data
manipulation, numpy for numerical operations, matplotlib and
seaborn for visualization, and scikit-learn for the K-Means algorithm.
Data Preparation: Discuss the importance of data cleaning,
normalization, and dealing with missing values. Include code
examples of these tasks using pandas and scikit-learn.
61
Implementing K-Means Clustering in Python
Detailed Code Example: Provide a step-by-step walkthrough of a
Python implementation of the K- Means algorithm using scikit-
learn. Discuss each step in detail, including the importance of
setting the random seed for reproducibility.
62
Evaluating K-Means Clustering
Evaluation Metrics: Discuss how to evaluate the clustering result
using metrics like Within Cluster Sum of Squares (WCSS), between
cluster sum of squares (BCSS), and silhouette score.
The Elbow Method: Explain and provide a code snippet to
demonstrate the Elbow Method, a visual tool to estimate the optimal
number of clusters by plotting the explained variation as a function
of the number of clusters.
63
Visualizing K-Means Clustering
Visualization Techniques: Discuss and provide Python code
examples for visualizing K-Means Clustering results. This could
include scatter plots of the data points colored by cluster and
indicating the centroids, as well as pair plots for multi-dimensional
data.
Limitations and Considerations

Limitations of K-Means: Discuss limitations, such as sensitivity to
initialization and difficulty handling clusters of different shapes and
sizes. Considerations: Discuss considerations for using K- Means
effectively, such as preprocessing steps (normalization, PCA for
dimensionality reduction) and the importance of understanding your
data before clustering.
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Hypothesis
Testing
Why Significance Testing ?
-Significance testing allows us to examine results from a sample

of people, and make inferences about the total population.
-Significance tests ask: Given the differences observed in our

sample, what are the odds that there are no true differences in
the population?
Why Hypothesis Testing ?

https://youtu.be/hq40GN4HmP4
Video Explaining the

scenarios where we
need to use it
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Hypothesis Testing
Medicine
Experiment
Questions
How to test a hypothesis in four steps
Medicine Next
Sample 14
Experiment Men
36 Women
Step 1a) Design Hypothesis
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Scenarios for hypothesis testing
A recent national studyfound that the average
Americanbetween the ages of 18 and 24checks their phone 74
times per day.A mobile service provider questions these results
As you can see,we have two rejections areas here,one rejection

area in the positive direction,greater than the mean.The other in
the negative direction,less than the mean.This is considered a two
tailed testbecause the null hypothesis is tested in both directions
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Data
Science
Road Map
71
72
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SQL
OPERATORS
SQL OPERATORS
Operators are used to specify conditions in an SQL statement
and to serve as conjunctions for multiple conditions in a
statement.
OPERATORS
ARITHMETIC
LOGICAL
ARITHMETIC OPERATORS
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LOGICAL OPERATORS
AND AND operator is generally used in the WHERE Clause to

OR apply multiple filters on the records returned by
NOT SELECT Statement.
BETWEEN •This operator returns values only if all the conditions
LIKE are satisfied.
NOT LIKE
IFNULL
Syntax:
IN
AND()
IS
Example:
NOT IN SELECT First_Name
FROM customers
ISNULL
AND Yearly_Income> 75000 WHERE Profession LIKE '%Developer'
IS NOT NULL
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SQL
IMPORTANT
INTERVIEW
QUESTIONS
Answers taken from online portal for education persons .
Not for commercial use.
SQL INTERVIEW QUESTIONS
1.What is database normalization?

Ans: It is a process of analyzing the given relation schemas based on their
functional
dependencies and primary keys to achieve the following desirable properties:
1)Minimizing Redundancy
2) Minimizing the Insertion, Deletion, And Update Anomalies
Relation schemas that do not meet the properties are decomposed into smaller
relation
schemas that could meet desirable properties.
2.What is SQL?
SQL is Structured Query Language designed for inserting and modifying in a
relational
database management system.
3.What are the differences between DDL, DML and DCL in SQL?
Ans: Following are some details of three.
DDL stands for Data Definition Language. SQL queries like CREATE, ALTER,
DROP and
RENAME come under this.
DML stands for Data Manipulation Language. SQL queries like SELECT, INSERT
and
UPDATE come under this.
DCL stands for Data Control Language. SQL queries like GRANT and REVOKE
come under
this.
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4.What is the difference between having and where clause? Ans: HAVING is used to
specify a condition for a group or an aggregate function used in select statement. The
WHERE clause selects before grouping. The HAVING clause selects rows after grouping.
Unlike HAVING clause, the WHERE clause cannot contain aggregate functions.
5.What is Join?
Ans: An SQL Join is used to combine data from two or more tables, based on a
common
field between them. For example, consider the following two tables.
Student Table
EnrollNo StudentName Address
1000 geek1 geeksquiz1
StudentCourse Table
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CourseID EnrollNo
1 1000
2 1000
3 1000
1 1002
2 1003
Following is join query that shows names of students enrolled in different

courseIDs.
SELECT StudentCourse.CourseID, Student.StudentName

FROM StudentCourse
INNER JOIN Customers
ON StudentCourse.EnrollNo = Student.EnrollNo
ORDER BY StudentCourse.CourseID;
The above query would produce following result.
CourseID StudentName
1 geek1
1 geek2
2 geek1
2 geek3
3 geek1
14.What is Identity?
Ans: Identity (or AutoNumber) is a column that automatically generates numeric
values. A start and increment value can be set, but most DBA leave these at 1. A
GUID column also generates numbers; the value of this cannot be controlled.
Identity/GUID columns do not need to be indexed.
15. What is a view in SQL? How to create one

Ans: A view is a virtual table based on the result set of an SQL statement. We can
create using the create view syntax.
CREATE VIEW view_name AS
SELECT column_name(s)
FROM table_name WHERE
condition
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16. What are the uses of view?
1. Views can represent a subset of the data contained in a table; consequently, a
view can Limit the degree of exposure of the underlying tables to the outer world: a
given user
may have permission to query the view, while denied access to the rest of the base
table.
2. Views can join and simplify multiple tables into a single virtual table
3. Views can act as aggregated tables, where the database engine aggregates data
(sum, average etc.) and presents the calculated results as part of the data
4. Views can hide the complexity of data; for example, a view could appear as
Sales2000 or Sales2001, transparently partitioning the actual underlying table.
5. Depending on the SQL engine used, views can provide extra security.
17. What is a Trigger?

Ans: A Trigger is a code that is associated with insert, update, or delete operations.
The
code is executed automatically whenever the associated query is executed on a
table. Triggers can be useful to maintain integrity in a database.
18. What is a stored procedure?

Ans: A stored procedure is like a function containing a set of operations. It contains
a set of operations that are commonly used in an application to do
some common database tasks.
19.What is the difference between Trigger and Stored Procedure?

Ans: Unlike Stored Procedures, Triggers cannot be called directly. They can only be
associated with queries.
20.What is a transaction? What are ACID properties?

Ans: A Database Transaction is a set of database operations that must be treated as
whole, means either all operations are executed or none of them.
An example can be bank transaction from one account to another account. Either both
debit and credit operations must be executed or none of them.
ACID (Atomicity, Consistency, Isolation, Durability) is a set of properties that

guarantee that database transactions are processed reliably.
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21.What are indexes?
Ans: A database index is a data structure that improves the speed of data retrieval
operations on a database table at the cost of additional writes and the use of more
storage space to maintain the extra copy of data.
Data can be stored only in one order on disk. To support faster access according to
different values, faster search like binary search for different values is desired, For this
purpose, indexes are created on tables. These indexes need extra space on disk, but
they allow faster search according to different frequently searched values.
22.What are clustered and non-clustered Indexes?

Ans: Clustered indexes is the index according to which data is physically stored on disk.
Therefore, only one clustered index can be created on a given database table.
Non-clustered indexes don’t define physical ordering of data, but logical ordering.
Typically, a tree is created whose leaf point to disk records. B-Tree or B+ tree are used
for this purpose.
23.What are Primary Keys and Foreign Keys?

Ans: Primary keys are the unique identifiers for each row. They must contain unique
values and cannot be null. Due to their importance in relational databases, Primary
keys are the most fundamental aspect of all keys and constraints. A table can have only
one primary
key. Foreign keys are a method of ensuring data integrity and manifestation of the
relationship between tables.
24.What is SQL ?
Ans: Structured Query Language(SQL) is a language designed specifically for
communicating with databases. SQL is an ANSI (American National Standards
Institute) standard .
25. What are the different type of SQL or different commands in SQL?
Ans: Frequently Asked SQL Interview Questions
1.DDL – Data Definition Language. DDL is used to define the structure that holds the data.
2. DM– Data Manipulation Language DML is used for the manipulation of the data itself. Typical
operations are Insert, Delete, updating, and retrieving the data from the table
3. DCL–Data Control Language DCL is used to control the visibility of data like grantingdatabase
access and setting privileges to create tables etc.
4.TCL-TransactionControl Language
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26. What are the Advantages of SQL?
1. SQL is not a proprietary language used by specific database vendors. Almost every
Major DBMS supports SQL, so learning this one language will enable programmers to
interact with any database like ORACLE, SQL, MYSQL, etc.
2. SQL is easy to learn. The statements are all made up of descriptive English words, and
there aren't that many of them.
3. SQL is actually a very powerful language and by using its language elements you
can perform very complex and sophisticated database operations.
27. What is a field in a database?

A field is an area within a record reserved for a specific piece of data.
Examples: Employee Name, Employee ID, etc
28. What is a Record in a database?

A record is the collection of values/fields of a specific entity: i.e. a Employee, Salary etc.
29. What is a Table in a database ?

A table is a collection of records of a specific type. For example, employee table , salary
table etc.
30. What is a database transaction?

Database transactions take a database from one consistent state to another. At the end
of the transaction, the system must be in the prior state if the transaction fails or the
status of the system should reflect the successful completion if the transaction goes
through.
31. What are the properties of a transaction?

Properties of the transaction can be summarized as ACID Properties.
1. Atomicity
A transaction consists of many steps. When all the steps in a transaction are completed,
it will get reflected in DB or if any step fails, all the transactions are rolled back.
2. Consistency
The database will move from one consistent state to another if the transaction succeeds
and remain in the original state if the transaction fails.
3. Isolation
Every transaction should operate as if it is the only transaction in the system
4. Durability
Once a transaction has been completed successfully, the updated rows/records must be
available for all other transactions on a permanent basis
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32. What is a Database Lock?
Database lock tells a transaction if the data item in question is currently being
used by other transactions.
33. What are the types of locks?
1. Shared Lock
When a shared lock is applied on data item, other transactions can only read the
item, but can't write into it.
2. Exclusive Lock
When a exclusive lock is applied on data item, other transactions can't read or
write into the data item.
34.What are the different type of normalization?

Frequently asked SQL Interview Questions
In database design, we start with one single table, with all possible columns. Lot of
redundant data would be present since it’s a single table. The process of removing the
redundant data, by splitting up the table in a well-defined fashion is called normalization.
1. First Normal Form (1NF)

A relation is said to be in first normal form if and only if all underlying domains contain
atomic values. After 1NF, we can still have redundant data
2. Second Normal Form (2NF)
A relation is said to be in 2NF if and only if it is in 1NF and every non-key attribute is fully
dependent on the primary key. After 2NF, we can still have redundant data
3. Third Normal Form (3NF)
A relation is said to be in 3NF, if and only if it is in 2NF and every non-key attribute is
nontransitively dependent on the primary key
35. What is a primary key?

Frequently Asked SQL Interview Questions
A primary key is a column whose values uniquely identify every row in a table. Primary key
values can never be reused. If a row is deleted from the table, its primary key may not be
assigned to any new rows in the future. To define a field as a primary key, the following
conditions had to be met :
1. No two rows can have the same primary key value.
2. Every row must have a primary key value
3. Primary key field cannot be null
4. Values in primary key columns can never be modified or updated
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36.What is a Composite Key ?
A Composite primary key is a type of candidate key, which represents a set of columns
whose values uniquely identify every row in a table.
For example - if "Employee_ID" and "Employee Name" in a table is combined to
uniquely identifies a row its called a Composite Key.
37. What is a Composite Primary Key?

A Composite primary key is a set of columns whose values uniquely identify every row in
a table. What it means is that, the table which contains a composite primary key will be
indexed based on columns specified in the primary key. This key will be referred in
Foreign Key tables.
For example - if the combined effect of columns, "Employee_ID" and "Employee Name"
in a table is required to uniquely identify a row, it’s called a Composite Primary Key. In
this
case, both columns will be represented as primary keys.
38. What is a Foreign Key?

Frequently Asked SQL Interview Questions
When a "one" table's primary key field is added to a related "many" table in order to
create The common field that relates the two tables, is called a foreign key in the "many"
table.
For example, the salary of an employee is stored in a salary table. The relation is
established via foreign key column “Employee_ID_Ref” which refers “Employee_ID” field
in an Employee table
39. What is a Unique Key?

The unique key is the same as the primary with the difference being the existence of null.
Unique key field
allows one value as a NULL value.
40. Define SQL Insert Statement?

SQL INSERT statement is used to add rows to a table. For a full row insert, SQL Query
should start with “insert into “ statement followed by a table name and values
command, followed by the values that need to be inserted into the table. Insert can be
used in several ways:
1. To insert a single complete row
2. To insert a single partial row
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41. Define SQL Update Statement ?
SQL Update is used to update data in a row or set of rows specified in the filter
condition. The basic format of an SQL UPDATE statement is ,Update command
followed by table to be updated and SET command followed by column names and
their new values followed by filter condition that determines which rows should be
updated
42. Define SQL Delete Statement ?

SQL Delete is used to delete a row or set of rows specified in the filter condition.
The basic format of an SQL DELETE statement is, DELETE FROM command followed by
table name followed by filter condition that determines which rows should be updated.
43.What are wild cards used in database for Pattern Matching ?
SQL Like operator is user for pattern matching. SQL 'Like' command takes more time to
process. So before using like operator, consider suggestions given below on when and
where to use wild card search.
1) Don't overuse wild cards. If another search operator will do, use it instead.
2) When you do use wild cards, try not to use them at the beginning of the search
pattern,
unless absolutely necessary. Search patterns that begin with wild cards are the slowest
to process.
3) Pay careful attention to the placement of the wild card symbols. If they are
misplaced,
you might not return the data you intended
44. Define Join and explain different type of joins?

In order to avoid data duplication, data is stored in related tables . Join keyword is
used to fetch data from related table. Join return rows when there is at least one match
in both tables. Type of joins are
Right Join
Return all rows from the right table, even if there are no matches in the left table
.Outer Join Left Join
Return all rows from the left table, even if there are no matches in the right table .
Full Join
Return rows when there is a match in one of the tables .
45.What is Self-Join?
Self-join is query used to join a table to itself. Aliases should be used for the same table
comparison.
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46. What is Cross Join?
Cross Join will return all records where each row from the first table is combined with each
row from the second table.
SQL Interview Questions and answers on Database Views
47. What is a view?

Views are virtual tables. Unlike tables that contain data, views simply contain queries that
dynamically retrieve data when used.
48. What is a materialized view?

Materialized views is also a view but are disk based. Materialized views get updated on
specific duration, base upon the interval specified in the query definition. We can index
materialized view.
49. What are the advantages and disadvantages of views in a database?

Advantages:
1. Views doesn't store data in a physical location.
2. View can be use to hide some of the columns from the table
3. Views can provide Access Restriction, since data insertion, update and deletion is not
possible on the view.
Disadvantages:
1. When a table is dropped, associated view become irrelevant.
2. Since view are created when a query requesting data from view is triggered, its bit slow
3. When views are created for large tables, it occupy more memory .
SQL Interview Questions and answers on Stored Procedures and Triggers
50. What is a stored procedure?

Stored Procedure is a function which contain collection of SQL Queries. Procedure can
take inputs , process them and send back output.
51.What are the advantages a stored procedure?

Stored Procedures are pre-complied and stored in database. This enable the database to
execute the queries much faster. Since many queries can be included in a stored
procedure, round trip time to execute multiple queries from source code to database and
back is avoided.
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52.What is a trigger?
Database are set of commands that get executed when an event(Before Insert, After
Insert, On Update, On delete of a row) occurs on a table, views.
53. Explain the difference between DELETE , TRUNCATE and DROP commands?
Once delete operation is performed, Commit and Rollback can be performed to retrieve
data.
Once truncate statement is executed, Commit and Rollback statement cant be
performed. Where condition can be used along with delete statement but it cant be used
with truncate statement.
Drop command is used to drop the table or keys like primary,foreign from a table.
54. What is the difference between Cluster and Non cluster Index?
A clustered index reorders the way records in the table are physically stored. There can
be only one clustered index per table. It make data retrieval faster.
A non clustered index does not alter the way it was stored but creates a complete
separate object within the table. As a result insert and update command will be faster.
55. What is Union, minus and Interact commands?

MINUS operator is used to return rows from the first query but not from the second query.
INTERSECT operator is used to return rows returned by both the queries.
56.What's the difference between a primary key and a unique key?

Both primary key and unique enforce uniqueness of the column on which they are
defined. But by default primary key creates a clustered index on the column, where are
unique creates a non clustered index by default. Another major difference is that,
primary key doesn't allow NULLs, but unique key allows one NULL only.
62. What is a transaction and what are ACID properties?

A transaction is a logical unit of work in which, all the steps must be performed or none.
ACID stands for Atomicity, Consistency, Isolation, Durability. These are the properties of
a transaction. For more information and explanation of these properties, see SQL Server
books online or any RDBMS fundamentals text book.
63.Explain different isolation levels

An isolation level determines the degree of isolation of data between concurrent
transactions. The default SQL Server isolation level is Read Committed. Here are the
other isolation levels (in the ascending order of isolation): Read Uncommitted, Read
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Committed, Repeatable Read, Serializable. See SQL Server books online for an
explanation of the isolation levels. Be sure to read about SET TRANSACTION ISOLATION
LEVEL, which lets you customize the isolation level at the connection level.
64.CREATE INDEX myIndex ON myTable(myColumn)

What type of Index will get created after executing the above statement?
Non-clustered index. Important thing to note: By default a clustered index gets created
on the primary key, unless specified otherwise.
65.What's the maximum size of a row?

8060 bytes. Don't be surprised with questions like 'what is the maximum number of
columns per table'. Check out SQL Server books online for the page titled: "Maximum
Capacity Specifications".
66. Explain Active/Active and Active/Passive cluster configurations

Hopefully you have experience setting up cluster servers. But if you don't, at least be
familiar with the way clustering works and the two clustering configurations
Active/Active and Active/Passive. SQL Server books online has enough information on
this topic and there is a good white paper available on Microsoft site.
67. Explain the architecture of SQL Server

This is a very important question and you better be able to answer it if consider yourself
a DBA. SQL Server books online is the best place to read about SQL Server architecture.
Read up the chapter dedicated to SQL Server Architecture.
68. What is lock escalation?

Lock escalation is the process of converting a lot of low level locks (like row locks, page
locks) into higher level locks (like table locks). Every lock is a memory structure too many
locks would mean, more memory being occupied by locks. To prevent this from
happening,
SQL Server escalates the many fine-grain locks to fewer coarse-grain locks. Lock
escalation
threshold was definable in SQL Server 6.5, but from SQL Server 7.0 onwards it's
dynamically managed by SQL Server.
69.What is the difference between DELETE TABLE and TRUNCATE TABLE

commands?
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DELETE TABLE is a logged operation, so the deletion of each row gets logged in the
transaction log, which makes it slow. TRUNCATE TABLE also deletes all the rows in a table,
but it won't log the deletion of each row, instead, it logs the de-allocation of the data
pages of the table, which makes it faster. Of course, the TRUNCATE TABLE can be rolled
back.
70. Explain the storage models of OLAP

Check out MOLAP, ROLAP, and HOLAP in SQL Server books online for more information.
71. What are the new features introduced in SQL Server 2000 (or the latest release of
SQL Server at the time of your interview)?
What changed between the previous version of SQL Server and the current version? This
question is generally asked to see how current is your knowledge. Generally there is a
section in the beginning of the books online titled "What's New", which has all such
information. Of course, reading just that is not enough, you should have tried those things to
better answer the questions. Also check out the section titled "Backward Compatibility" in
books online which talks about the changes that have taken place in the new version.
72. What are constraints?

Explain different types of constraints
Constraints enable the RDBMS enforce the integrity of the database automatically, without
needing you to create triggers, rule or defaults.
Types of constraints: NOT NULL, CHECK, UNIQUE, PRIMARY KEY, FOREIGN KEY
For an explanation of these constraints see books online for the pages titled: "Constraints"
and "CREATE TABLE", "ALTER TABLE"
73. What is an index? What are the types of indexes? How many clustered indexes
can be created on a table?
I create a separate index on each column of a table. what are the
advantages and disadvantages of this approach?
Indexes in SQL Server are similar to the indexes in books. They help SQL Server retrieve the
data quicker. Indexes are of two types. Clustered indexes and non-clustered indexes. When
you createe a clustered index on a table, all the rows in the table are stored in the order of
the clustered index key. So, there can be only one clustered index per table. Non-clustered
indexes have their own storage separate from the table data storage. Non-clustered indexes
are stored as B-tree structures (so do clustered indexes), with the leaf level nodes having
the index key and it's row locater. The row located could be the RID or the Clustered index
key, depending up on the absence or presence of clustered index on the table. If you create
an index on each column of a table, it improves the query performance, as the query
optimizer can choose from all the existing indexes to come up with an efficient execution
plan. At the same time, data modification operations (such as INSERT, UPDATE, DELETE)
will become slow, as every time data changes in the table, all the indexes need to be
updated. Another disadvantage is that, indexes need disk space, the more indexes you have,
more disk space is used.
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74. What is RAID and what are different types of RAID configurations?
RAID stands for Redundant Array of Inexpensive Disks, used to provide fault tolerance to
database servers. There are six RAID levels 0 through 5 offering different levels of
performance, fault tolerance. MSDN has some information about RAID levels and for
detailed information, check out the RAID advisory board's homepage.
75. What are the steps you will take to improve performance of a poor performing
query?
This is a very open ended question and there could be a lot of reasons behind the
poor performance of a query. But some general issues that you could talk about
would be: No indexes, table scans, missing or out of date statistics, blocking,
excess recompilations of stored procedures, procedures and triggers without SET
NOCOUNT ON, poorly written query with unnecessarily complicated joins, too
much normalization, excess usage of cursors and temporary tables.
Some of the tools/ways that help you troubleshooting performance problems are: SET
SHOWPLAN_ALL ON, SET SHOWPLAN_TEXT ON, SET STATISTICS IO ON, SQL Server Profiler,
Windows NT /2000 Performance monitor, Graphical execution plan in Query Analyzer.
76. What are the steps you will take, if you are tasked with securing an SQL Server?
Again this is another open ended question. Here are some things you could talk about:
Preferring NT authentication, using server, database and application roles to control access
to the data, securing the physical database files using NTFS permissions, using
an unguessable SA password, restricting physical access to the SQL Server, renaming
the Administrator account on the SQL Server computer, disabling the Guest account, enabling
auditing, using multiprotocol encryption, setting up SSL, setting up firewalls, isolating SQL
Server from the web server etc.
77. What is a deadlock and what is a live lock? How will you go about resolving deadlocks?
Deadlock is a situation when two processes, each having a lock on one piece of data, attempt
to acquire a lock on the other's piece. Each process would wait indefinitely for the other to
release the lock, unless one of the user processes is terminated. SQL Server
detects deadlocks and terminates one user's process.
A live lock is one, where a request for an exclusive lock is repeatedly denied because a series
of overlapping shared locks keeps interfering. SQL Server detects the situation after four
denials and refuses further shared locks. A live lock also occurs when read transactions
monopolize a table or page, forcing a write transaction to wait indefinitely
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78. What is blocking and how would you troubleshoot it?
Blocking happens when one connection from an application holds a lock and a second
connection requires a conflicting lock type. This forces the second connection to wait,
blocked on the first.
79. Explain CREATE DATABASE syntax

Many of us are used to creating databases from the Enterprise Manager or by just issuing
the command: CREATE DATABAE MyDB. But what if you have to create a database with
two file groups, one on drive C and the other on drive D with log on drive E with an initial
size of 600 MB and with a growth factor of 15%? That's why being a DBA you should be
familiar with the CREATE DATABASE syntax. Check out SQL Server books online for
moreinformation.
80. How to restart SQL Server in single user mode? How to start SQL Server in minimal
configuration mode?
SQL Server can be started from command line, using the SQLSERVR.EXE. This EXE has
some very important parameters with which a DBA should be familiar with. -m is used
for starting SQL Server in single user mode and -f is used to start the SQL Server in
minimal configuration mode. Check out SQL Server books online for more parameters
and their explanations.
81. As a part of your job, what are the DBCC commands that you commonly use for
database maintenance?
DBCC CHECKDB, DBCC CHECKTABLE, DBCC CHECKCATALOG, DBCC CHECKALLOC, DBCC
SHOWCONTIG, DBCC SHRINKDATABASE, DBCC SHRINKFILE etc. But there are a whole
load of DBCC commands which are very useful for DBAs. Check out SQL Server books
online for more information.
82. What are statistics, under what circumstances they go out of date, how do you
update them?
Statistics determine the selectivity of the indexes. If an indexed column has unique
values then the selectivity of that index is more, as opposed to an index with non-unique
values. Query optimizer uses these indexes in determining whether to choose an index or
not while executing a query.
Some situations under which you should update statistics:
1) If there is significant change in the key values in the index
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2) If a large amount of data in an indexed column has been added, changed, or removed
(that is, if the distribution of key values has changed), or the table has been truncated
using the TRUNCATE TABLE statement and then repopulated
3) Database is upgraded from a previous version
108.Define constraints.
Constraints enforce integrity of the database. Constraints can be of following types Not Null
Check
Unique
Primary key Foreign key
109.Define stored procedure.

Stored procedure is a set of pre-compiled SQL statements, executed when it is called in
the program.
110.Define Trigger.
Triggers are similar to stored procedure except it is executed automatically when any
operations are occurred on the table.
111. What is RDBMS?

Relational Data Base Management Systems (RDBMS) are database management
systems that maintain data records and indices in tables. Relationships may be created
and maintained across and among the data and tables. In a relational database,
relationships between data items are expressed by means of tables. Interdependencies
among these tables are expressed by data values rather than by pointers. This allows a
high degree of data independence. An RDBMS has the capability to recombine the data
items from different files, providing powerful tools for data usage.
112. What are the properties of the Relational tables?

Relational tables have six properties:
1. Values are atomic.
2. Column values are of the same kind.
3. Each row is unique.
4. The sequence of columns is insignificant.
5. The sequence of rows is insignificant.
6. Each column must have a unique name.
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113. What is Normalization
?Database normalization is a data design and organization process applied to data
structures based on rules that help building relational databases. In relational
database design, the process of organizing data to minimize redundancy is called
normalization. Normalization usually involves dividing a database into two or
more tables and defining relationships between the tables. The objective is to
isolate data so that additions, deletions, and modifications of a field can be made
in just one table and then propagated through the rest of the database via the
defined relationships.
114. What is De-normalization?

De-normalization is the process of attempting to optimize the performance of a
database by adding redundant data. It is sometimes necessary because current
DBMSs implement the relational model poorly. A true relational DBMS would allow
for a fully normalized database at the logical level, while providing physical
storage of data that is tuned for high performance. De-normalization is a
technique to move from higher to lower normal forms
of database modeling in order to speed up database access.
115. What are different normalization forms?

1. 1NF: Eliminate Repeating Groups Make a separate table for each set of related
attributes, and give each table a primary key. Each field contains at most one
value
from its attribute domain.
2. 2NF: Eliminate Redundant Data If an attribute depends on only part of a
multivalued key, remove it to a separate table.
3. 3NF: Eliminate Columns Not Dependent On Key If attributes do not contribute to
a description of the key, remove them to a separate table. All attributes must be
directly dependent on the primary key.
4. BCNF: Boyce-Codd Normal Form If there are non-trivial dependencies between
candidate key attributes, separate them out into distinct tables.
5. 4NF: Isolate Independent Multiple Relationships No table may contain two or
more
1:n or n:m relationships that are not directly related.
6. 5NF: Isolate Semantically Related Multiple Relationships There may be
practical constrains on information that justify separating logically related many-
to-many relationships.
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7. ONF: Optimal Normal Form A model limited to only simple (elemental) facts, as
expressed in Object Role Model notation.
8. DKNF: Domain-Key Normal Form A model free from all modification anomalies is
said to be in DKNF.
Remember, these normalization guidelines are cumulative. For a database to be in 3NF,
it must first fulfill all the criteria of a 2NF and 1NF database.
116. What is Stored Procedure?

A stored procedure is a named group of SQL statements that have been previously
created and stored in the server database. Stored procedures accept input parameters
so that a single procedure can be used over the network by several clients using different
input
data. And when the procedure is modified, all clients automatically get the new version.
Stored procedures reduce network traffic and improve performance. Stored procedures
can be used to help ensure the integrity of the database. e.g. sp_helpdb, sp_renamedb,
sp_depends etc.
117. What is Trigger?

A trigger is a SQL procedure that initiates an action when an event (INSERT, DELETE or
UPDATE) occurs. Triggers are stored in and managed by the DBMS. Triggers are used to
maintain the referential integrity of data by changing the data in a systematic fashion. A
trigger cannot be called or executed; DBMS automatically fires the trigger as a result of a
data modification to the associated table. Triggers can be viewed as similar to stored
procedures in that both consist of procedural logic that is stored at the database level.
Stored procedures, however, are not event-drive and are not attached to a specific table
as triggers are. Stored procedures are explicitly executed by invoking a CALL to the
procedure while triggers are implicitly executed. In addition, triggers can also execute
stored procedures.
118. What is Nested Trigger?

A trigger can also contain INSERT, UPDATE and DELETE logic within itself, so when the
trigger is fired because of data modification it can also cause another data modification,
thereby firing another trigger. A trigger that contains data modification logic within itself
is called a nested trigger.
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119. What is View?
A simple view can be thought of as a subset of a table. It can be used for retrieving data, as
well as updating or deleting rows. Rows updated or deleted in the view are updated or
deleted in the table the view was created with. It should also be noted that as data in the
original table changes, so does data in the view, as views are the way to look at part of the
original table. The results of using a view are not permanently stored in the database. The
data accessed through a view is actually constructed using standard T-SQL select command
and can come from one to many different base tables or even other views.
120. What is Index?

An index is a physical structure containing pointers to the data. Indices are created in an
existing table to locate rows more quickly and efficiently. It is possible to create an index
on one or more columns of a table, and each index is given a name. The users cannot see
the indexes; they are just used to speed up queries. Effective indexes are one of the best
ways to improve performance in a database application. A table scan happens when
there is no index available to help a query. In a table scan SQL Server examines every
row in the table to satisfy the query results. Table scans are sometimes unavoidable, but
on large tables, scans have a terrific impact on performance.
121. What is a Linked Server?

Linked Servers is a concept in SQL Server by which we can add other SQL Server to a
Group and query both the SQL Server dbs using T-SQL Statements. With a linked server,
you can create very clean, easy to follow, SQL statements that allow remote data to be
retrieved, joined and combined with local data. Stored Procedure sp_addlinkedserver,
sp_addlinkedserverlogin will be used add new Linked Server.
122. What is Cursor?

Cursor is a database object used by applications to manipulate data in a set on a row-
by- row basis, instead of the typical SQL commands that operate on all the rows in the
set at one time. In order to work with a cursor we need to perform some steps in the
following order: 1. Declare cursor
2. Open cursor
3. Fetch row from the cursor
4. Process fetched row
5. Close cursor 6. De-allocate cursor
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123. What is Collation?
Collation refers to a set of rules that determine how data is sorted and compared.
Character data is sorted using rules that define the correct character sequence, with
options for specifying case sensitivity, accent marks, kana character types and character
width.
124. What is Difference between Function and Stored Procedure?

UDF can be used in the SQL statements anywhere in the WHERE/HAVING/SELECT section
where as Stored procedures cannot be. UDFs that return tables can be treated as another
row set. This can be used in JOINs with other tables. Inline UDF's can be thought of as
views that take parameters and can be used in JOINs and other Row set operations.
125. What is sub-query? Explain properties of sub-query?

Sub-queries are often referred to as sub-selects, as they allow a SELECT statement to be
executed arbitrarily within the body of another SQL statement. A sub-query is executed
by enclosing it in a set of parentheses. Sub-queries are generally used to return a single
row as an atomic value, though they may be used to compare values against multiple
rows with the IN keyword. A subquery is a SELECT statement that is nested within
another T-SQL statement. A subquery SELECT statement if executed independently of the
T-SQL statement, in which it
is nested, will return a resultset. Meaning a subquery SELECT statement can standalone
and is not depended on the statement in which it is nested. A subquery SELECT
statement
can return any number of values, and can be found in, the column list of a SELECT
statement, a FROM, GROUP BY, HAVING, and/or ORDER BY clauses of a T-SQL
statement.
A Subquery can also be used as a parameter to a function call. Basically a subquery can
be used anywhere an expression can be used.
126. What are different Types of Join?

1. Cross Join A cross join that does not have a WHERE clause produces the Cartesian
product of the tables involved in the join. The size of a Cartesian product result set
is the number of rows in the first table multiplied by the number of rows in the second
table. The common example is when company wants to combine each
product with a pricing table to analyze each product at each price.
2. Inner Join A join that displays only the rows that have a match in both joined tables is
known as inner Join. This is the default type of join in the Query and View
Designer.
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3. Outer Join A join that includes rows even if they do not have related rows in the joined
table is an Outer Join. You can create three different outer join to specify the
unmatched rows to be included:
1. Left Outer Join: In Left Outer Join all rows in the first-named table i.e. "left"
table, which appears leftmost in the JOIN clause are included. Unmatched rows
in the right table do not appear.
2. Right Outer Join: In Right Outer Join all rows in the second-named table i.e.
"right" table, which appears rightmost in the JOIN clause are included.
Unmatched rows in the left table are not included.
3. Full Outer Join: In Full Outer Join all rows in all joined tables are included,
whether they are matched or not.
4. Self Join This is a particular case when one table joins to itself, with one or two
aliases to avoid confusion. A self join can be of any type, as long as the joined
tables are the same. A self join is rather unique in that it involves a relationship
with only one table. The common example is when company has a hierarchal
reporting structure whereby one member of staff reports to another. Self Join
can be Outer Join or Inner Join.
127. What are primary keys and foreign keys?

Primary keys are the unique identifiers for each row. They must contain unique values
and cannot be null. Due to their importance in relational databases, Primary keys are the
most fundamental of all keys and constraints. A table can have only one Primary key.
Foreign keys are both a method of ensuring data integrity and a manifestation of the
relationship between tables.
128. What is User Defined Functions? What kind of User-Defined Functions can be
created?
User-Defined Functions allow defining its own T-SQL functions that can accept 0 or more
parameters and return a single scalar data value or a table data type. Different Kinds of
User-Defined Functions created are:
1. Scalar User-Defined Function A Scalar user-defined function returns one of the
scalar data types. Text, image and timestamp data types are not supported. These are
the type of user-defined functions that most developers are used to in other
programming languages. You pass in 0 to many parameters and you get a return value.
2. Inline Table-Value User-Defined Function An Inline Table-Value user-defined function
returns a table data type and is an exceptional alternative to a view as the user-defined
function can pass parameters into a T-SQL select command and in essence provide us
with a parameterized, non-updateable view of the underlying tables.
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3. Multi-statement Table-Value User-Defined Function A Multi-Statement TableValue
user- defined function returns a table and is also an exceptional alternative to a view as
the function can support multiple T-SQL statements to build the final result where the
view is limited to a single SELECT statement. Also, the ability to pass parameters into a
TSQL select command or a group of them gives us the capability to in essence create a
parameterized, non-updateable view of the data in the underlying tables. Within the
create function command you must define the table structure that is being returned. After
creating this type of user-defined function, It can be used in the FROM clause of a T-SQL
command unlike the behavior found when using a stored procedure which can also
return record sets.
129. What is Identity?

Identity (or AutoNumber) is a column that automatically generates numeric values. A
start and increment value can be set, but most DBA leave these at 1. A GUID column also
generates numbers; the value of this cannot be controlled. Identity/GUID columns do not
need to be indexed.
130. Which TCP/IP port does SQL Server run on? How can it be changed?
SQL Server runs on port 1433. It can be changed from the Network Utility TCP/IP
properties.
131. What are the difference between clustered and a non-clustered index?
1. A clustered index is a special type of index that reorders the way records in the
table are physically stored. Therefore table can have only one clustered index. The
leaf nodes of a clustered index contain the data pages.
2. A non clustered index is a special type of index in which the logical order of the
index does not match the physical stored order of the rows on disk. The leaf node of a
non clustered index does not consist of the data pages. Instead, the leaf nodes
contain index rows.
132. What are the different index configurations a table can have?
A table can have one of the following index configurations:
1. No indexes
2. A clustered index
3. A clustered index and many nonclustered indexes
4. A non clustered index
5. Many non clustered indexes
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134. What are different types of Collation Sensitivity?
1. Case sensitivity - A and a, B and b, etc.
2. Accent sensitivity
3. Kana Sensitivity - When Japanese kana characters Hiragana and Katakana are
treated differently, it is called Kana sensitive.
4. Width sensitivity - A single-byte character (half-width) and the same character
represented as a double-byte character (full-width) are treated differently than it is
width sensitive.
135. What is OLTP (Online Transaction Processing)?

In OLTP - online transaction processing systems relational database design use the
discipline of data modeling and generally follow the Codd rules of data normalization in
order to ensure absolute data integrity. Using these rules complex information is broken
down into its most simple structures (a table) where all of the individual atomic level
elements relate to each other and satisfy the normalization rules.
136. What's the difference between a primary key and a unique key?
Both primary key and unique key enforces uniqueness of the column on which they are
defined. But by default primary key creates a clustered index on the column, where are
unique creates a non clustered index by default. Another major difference is that, primary
key doesn't allow NULLs, but unique key allows one NULL only.
137. What is difference between DELETE and TRUNCATE commands?

Delete command removes the rows from a table based on the condition that we provide
with a WHERE clause. Truncate will actually remove all the rows from a table and there will
be no data in the table after we run the truncate command.
1. TRUNCATE:
1. TRUNCATE is faster and uses fewer system and transaction log resources
than DELETE.
2. TRUNCATE removes the data by deallocating the data pages used to store
the table's data, and only the page deallocations are recorded in the
transaction log.
3. TRUNCATE removes all rows from a table, but the table structure, its
columns, constraints, indexes and so on, remains. The counter used by an
identity for new rows is reset to the seed for the column.
4. You cannot use TRUNCATE TABLE on a table referenced by a FOREIGN KEY
constraint. Because TRUNCATE TABLE is not logged, it cannot activate a
trigger.
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5. TRUNCATE cannot be rolled back.
6. TRUNCATE is DDL Command.
7. TRUNCATE Resets identity of the table
2. DELETE:
1. DELETE removes rows one at a time and records an entry in the transaction
log for each deleted row.
2. If you want to retain the identity counter, use DELETE instead. If you want to
remove table definition and its data, use the DROP TABLE statement.
3. DELETE Can be used with or without a WHERE clause
4. DELETE Activates Triggers.
5. DELETE can be rolled back.
6. DELETE is DML Command.
7. DELETE does not reset identity of the table.
Note: DELETE and TRUNCATE both can be rolled back when surrounded by
TRANSACTION if the current session is not closed. If TRUNCATE is written in Query Editor
surrounded by TRANSACTION and if session is closed, it can not be rolled back but
DELETE can be rolled back.
138. When is the use of UPDATE_STATISTICS command?

This command is basically used when a large processing of data has occurred. If a large
amount of deletions any modification or Bulk Copy into the tables has occurred, it has to
update the indexes to take these changes into account. UPDATE_STATISTICS updates
the indexes on these tables accordingly.
139. What is the difference between a HAVING CLAUSE and a WHERE CLAUSE?
They specify a search condition for a group or an aggregate. But the difference is that
HAVING can be used only with the SELECT statement. HAVING is typically used in a
GROUP BY clause. When GROUP BY is not used, HAVING behaves like a WHERE clause.
Having Clause is basically used only with the GROUP BY function in a query whereas
WHERE
Clause is applied to each row before they are part of the GROUP BY function in a query.
140. What are the properties and different Types of Sub-Queries?

1. Properties of Sub-Query
1. A sub-query must be enclosed in the parenthesis.
2. A sub-query must be put in the right hand of the comparison operator, and
3. A sub-query cannot contain an ORDER-BY clause.
4. A query can contain more than one sub-query.
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2. Types of Sub-Query
1. Single-row sub-query, where the sub-query returns only one row.
2. Multiple-row sub-query, where the sub-query returns multiple rows,. and 3.
Multiple column sub-query, where the sub-query returns multiple columns
141. What is SQL Profiler?

SQL Profiler is a graphical tool that allows system administrators to monitor events in
an instance of Microsoft SQL Server. You can capture and save data about each event to
a file or SQL Server table to analyze later. For example, you can monitor a production
environment to see which stored procedures are hampering performances by executing
too slowly. Use SQL Profiler to monitor only the events in which you are interested. If
traces are becoming too large, you can filter them based on the information you want,
so that only a subset of the event data is collected. Monitoring too many events adds
overhead to the server and the monitoring process and can cause the trace file or trace
table to grow very large, especially when the monitoring process takes place over a
long period of time.
142. What are the authentication modes in SQL Server? How can it be changed?
Windows mode and Mixed Mode - SQL and Windows. To change authentication mode in
SQL Server click Start, Programs, Microsoft SQL Server and click SQL Enterprise
Manager to run SQL Enterprise Manager from the Microsoft SQL Server program group.
Select the server then from the Tools menu select SQL Server Configuration Properties,
and choose the Security page.
143. Which command using Query Analyzer will give you the version of SQL server
and operating system?
SELECT SERVERPROPERTY ('productversion'), SERVERPROPERTY ('productlevel'),
SERVERPROPERTY ('edition').
144. What is SQL Server Agent?

SQL Server agent plays an important role in the day-to-day tasks of a database
administrator (DBA). It is often overlooked as one of the main tools for SQL Server
management. Its purpose is to ease the implementation of tasks for the DBA, with its
full- function scheduling engine, which allows you to schedule your own jobs and
scripts.
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145. Can a stored procedure call itself or recursive stored procedure? How much
level SP nesting is possible?
Yes. Because Transact-SQL supports recursion, you can write stored procedures
that call themselves. Recursion can be defined as a method of problem solving
wherein the solution is arrived at by repetitively applying it to subsets of the
problem. A common application of recursive logic is to perform numeric
computations that lend themselves to repetitive evaluation by the same processing
steps. Stored procedures are nested when one stored procedure calls another or
executes managed code by referencing a CLR routine, type, or aggregate. You can
nest stored procedures and managed code references up to 32 levels
.
146. What is Log Shipping?
Log shipping is the process of automating the backup of database and transaction
log files on a production SQL server, and then restoring them onto a standby server.
Enterprise Editions only supports log shipping. In log shipping the transactional log
file from one server is automatically updated into the backup database on the other
server. If one server fails, the other server will have the same db and can be used
this as the Disaster Recovery plan. The key feature of log shipping is that it will
automatically backup transaction logs throughout the day and automatically
restore them on the standby server at defined interval.
147. Name 3 ways to get an accurate count of the number of records in a table?
SELECT * FROM table1
SELECT COUNT(*) FROM table1
SELECT rows FROM sysindexes WHERE id = OBJECT_ID(table1) AND indid < 2
148. What does it mean to have QUOTED_IDENTIFIER ON? What are the
implications of having it OFF?
When SET QUOTED_IDENTIFIER is ON, identifiers can be delimited by double
quotation marks, and literals must be delimited by single quotation marks. When
SET QUOTED_IDENTIFIER is OFF, identifiers cannot be quoted and must follow all
TransactSQL rules for identifiers.
149. What is the difference between a Local and a Global temporary table?
1. A local temporary table exists only for the duration of a connection or, if defined
inside a compound statement, for the duration of the compound statement.
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2. A global temporary table remains in the database permanently, but the rows exist only
within a given connection. When connection is closed, the data in the global temporary
table disappears. However, the table definition remains with the
database for access when database is opened next time.
150. What is the STUFF function and how does it differ from the REPLACE function?
STUFF function is used to overwrite existing characters. Using this syntax, STUFF
(string_expression, start, length, replacement_characters), string_expression is the string
that will have characters substituted, start is the starting position, length is the number
of characters in the string that are substituted, and replacement_characters are the new
characters interjected into the string. REPLACE function to replace existing characters of
all occurrences. Using the syntax REPLACE (string_expression, search_string,
replacement_string), where every incidence of search_string found in the
string_expression will be replaced with replacement_string.
151. What is PRIMARY KEY?

A PRIMARY KEY constraint is a unique identifier for a row within a database table. Every
table should have a primary key constraint to uniquely identify each row and only one
primary key constraint can be created for each table. The primary key constraints are
used to enforce entity integrity.
152. What is UNIQUE KEY constraint?

A UNIQUE constraint enforces the uniqueness of the values in a set of columns, so no
duplicate values are entered. The unique key constraints are used to enforce entity
integrity as the primary key constraints.
153. What is FOREIGN KEY?

A FOREIGN KEY constraint prevents any actions that would destroy links between tables
with the corresponding data values. A foreign key in one table points to a primary key in
another table. Foreign keys prevent actions that would leave rows with foreign key values
when there are no primary keys with that value. The foreign key constraints are used to
enforce referential integrity.
154. What is CHECK Constraint?

A CHECK constraint is used to limit the values that can be placed in a column. The check
constraints are used to enforce domain integrity.
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155. What is NOT NULL Constraint?
A NOT NULL constraint enforces that the column will not accept null values. The not null
constraints are used to enforce domain integrity, as the check constraints.
156. How to get @@ERROR and @@ROWCOUNT at the same time?

If @@Rowcount is checked after Error checking statement then it will have 0 as the value
of @@Recordcount as it would have been reset. And if @@Recordcount is checked before
the error-checking statement then @@Error would get reset. To get @@error and
@@rowcount at the same time do both in same statement and store them in local
variable. SELECT @RC = @@ROWCOUNT, @ER = @@ERROR
157. What is a Scheduled Jobs or What is a Scheduled Tasks?

Scheduled tasks let user automate processes that run on regular or predictable cycles.
User can schedule administrative tasks, such as cube processing, to run during times of
slow business activity. User can also determine the order in which tasks run by creating
job steps within a SQL Server Agent job. E.g. back up database, Update Stats of Tables.
Job steps give user control over flow of execution. If one job fails, user can configure SQL
Server Agent to continue to run the remaining tasks or to stop execution.
158. What are the advantages of using Stored Procedures?

1. Stored procedure can reduced network traffic and latency, boosting application
performance.
2. Stored procedure execution plans can be reused, staying cached in SQL Server's
memory, reducing server overhead.
3. Stored procedures help promote code reuse.
4. Stored procedures can encapsulate logic. You can change stored procedure code
without affecting clients.
5. Stored procedures provide better security to your data.
159. What is a table called, if it has neither Cluster nor Non-cluster Index? What is it
used for?
Unindexed table or Heap. Microsoft Press Books and Book on Line (BOL) refers it as
Heap. A heap is a table that does not have a clustered index and, therefore, the pages
are not linked by pointers. The IAM pages are the only structures that link the pages in a
table together. Unindexed tables are good for fast storing of data. Many times it is better
to drop all indexes from table and then do bulk of inserts and to restore those indexes
after that.
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160. Can SQL Servers linked to other servers like Oracle?
SQL Server can be linked to any server provided it has OLE-DB provider from Microsoft to
allow a link. E.g. Oracle has an OLE-DB provider for oracle that Microsoft provides to add
it as linked server to SQL Server group.
161. How to implement one-to-one, one-to-many and many-to-many relationships

while designing tables?
One-to-One relationship can be implemented as a single table and rarely as two tables
with primary and foreign key relationships. One-to-Many relationships are implemented
by splitting the data into two tables with primary key and foreign key relationships.
Manyto-Many relationships are implemented using a junction table with the keys from
both the tables forming the composite primary key of the junction table.
162. What are the basic functions for master, msdb, model, tempdb and resource
databases?
1. The master database holds information for all databases located on the SQL Server
instance and is theglue that holds the engine together. Because SQL Server cannot start
without a functioning masterdatabase, you must administer this database with care.
2. The msdb database stores information regarding database backups, SQL Agent
information, DTS packages, SQL Server jobs, and some replication information such
as for log shipping.
3. The tempdb holds temporary objects such as global and local temporary tables and
stored procedures.
4. The model is essentially a template database used in the creation of any new user
database created in the instance.
5. The resoure Database is a read-only database that contains all the system objects
that are included with SQL Server. SQL Server system objects, such as sys.objects,
are physically persisted in the Resource database, but they logically appear in the
sys schema of every database. The Resource database does not contain user data
or user metadata.
163. What is Service Broker?

Service Broker is a message-queuing technology in SQL Server that allows developers to
integrate SQL Server fully into distributed applications. Service Broker is feature which
provides facility to SQL Server to send an asynchronous, transactional message. it allows
a database to send a message to another database without waiting for the response, so
the application will continue to function if the remote database is temporarily
unavailable.
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164. Where SQL server user names and passwords are stored in SQL server?
They get stored in System Catalog Views sys.server_principals and sys.sql_logins.
165. What is Policy Management?

Policy Management in SQL SERVER 2008 allows you to define and enforce policies for
configuring and managing SQL Server across the enterprise. Policy-Based Management is
configured in SQL Server Management Studio (SSMS). Navigate to the Object Explorer and
expand the Management node and the Policy Management node; you will see the Policies,
Conditions, and Facets nodes.
166. What is Replication and Database Mirroring?

Database mirroring can be used with replication to provide availability for the publication
database. Database mirroring involves two copies of a single database that typically
reside on different computers. At any given time, only one copy of the database is
currently available to clients which are known as the principal database. Updates made
by clients to the principal database are applied on the other copy of the database, known
as the mirror database. Mirroring involves applying the transaction log from every
insertion, update, or deletion made on the principal database onto the mirror database.
167. What are Sparse Columns?

A sparse column is another tool used to reduce the amount of physical storage used in a
database. They are the ordinary columns that have an optimized storage for null values.
Sparse columns reduce the space requirements for null values at the cost of more
overhead to retrieve nonnull values.
168. What does TOP Operator Do?

The TOP operator is used to specify the number of rows to be returned by a query. The
TOP operator has a new addition in SQL SERVER 2008 that it accepts variables as well
as literal values and can be used with INSERT, UPDATE, and DELETES statements.
169. What is CTE?

CTE is an abbreviation of Common Table Expression. A Common Table Expression (CTE)
is an expression that can be thought of as a temporary result set which is defined within
the execution of a single SQL statement. A CTE is similar to a derived table in that it is
not stored as an object and lasts only for the duration of the query.
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170. What is MERGE Statement?
MERGE is a new feature that provides an efficient way to perform multiple DML
operations. In previous versions of SQL Server, we had to write separate statements to
INSERT, UPDATE, or DELETE data based on certain conditions, but now, using MERGE
statement we can include the logic of such data modifications in one statement that even
checks when the data is matched then just updates it and when unmatched then inserts
it. One of the most important advantages of a MERGE statement is all the data is read
and processed only once.
171. What is a Filtered Index?

A filtered Index is used to index a portion of rows in a table which means it applies filter
on INDEX which improves query performance, reduces index maintenance costs, and
reduce index storage costs compared with full-table indexes. When we see an Index
created with somewhere clause then that is actually a FILTERED INDEX.
172. Which are new data types introduced in SQL SERVER 2008?
1. The GEOMETRY Type: The GEOMETRY data type is a system .NET common language
runtime (CLR) data type in SQL Server. This type represents data in a
two-dimensional Euclidean coordinate system.
2. The GEOGRAPHY Type: The GEOGRAPHY datatype’s functions are the same as with
GEOMETRY. The difference between the two is that when you specify GEOGRAPHY,
you are usually specifying points in terms of latitude and longitude.
3. New Date and Time Datatypes: SQL Server 2008 introduces four new datatypes
related to date and time: DATE, TIME, DATETIMEOFFSET, and DATETIME2.
1. DATE: The new DATE type just stores the date itself. It is based on the
Gregorian calendar and handles years from 1 to 9999.
2. TIME: The new TIME (n) type stores time with a range of 00:00:00.0000000
through 23:59:59.9999999. The precision is allowed with this type. TIME
supports seconds down to 100 nanoseconds. The n in TIME (n) defines this
level of fractional second precision, from 0 to 7 digits of precision.
3. The DATETIMEOFFSET Type: DATETIMEOFFSET (n) is the time-zone aware
version of a datetime datatype. The name will appear less odd when you
consider what it really is: a date + a time + a time-zone offset. The offset is based on how
far behind or ahead you are from Coordinated Universal Time
(UTC) time.
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4. The DATETIME2 Type: It is an extension of the datetime type in earlier
versions of SQL Server. This new datatype has a date range covering dates
from January 1 of year 1 through December 31 of year 9999. This is a
definite improvement over the 1753 lower boundary of the datetime datatype.
DATETIME2 not only includes the larger date range, but also has a
timestamp and the same fractional precision that TIME type provides
173. What are the Advantages of using CTE?

1.Using CTE improves the readability and makes maintenance of complex queries easy.
2. The query can be divided into separate, simple, logical building blocks which can be
then used to build more complex CTEs until final result set is generated.
3. CTE can be defined in functions, stored procedures, triggers or even views.
4. After a CTE is defined, it can be used as a Table or a View and can SELECT, INSERT,
UPDATE or DELETE Data.
74. How would you handle error in SQL SERVER 2008?

SQL Server now supports the use of TRY...CATCH con handling. TRY...CATCH lets us build
error handling at the level we need, in the way w to, by setting a region where if any error
occurs, it will break out of the region and head to an error handler.
The basic structure is as follows:
BEGIN TRY stmts..
END TRY BEGIN
CATCH stmts..
END CATCH
175. What is Aggregate Functions?

Aggregate functions perform a calculation on a set of values and return a single value.
Aggregate functions ignore NULL values except COUNT function. HAVING clause is used,
along with GROUP BY, for filtering query using aggregate values. Following functions are
aggregate functions. AVG, MIN CHECKSUM_AGG, SUM, COUNT, STDEV, COUNT_BIG,
STDEVP, GROUPING, VAR, MAX. VARP
176. What do you mean by Table Sample?

TABLESAMPLE allows you to extract a sampling of rows from a table in the FROM clause.
The rows retrieved are random and they are not in any order. This sampling
can be based on a percentage of number of rows. You can use TABLESAMPLE when only
a sampling of rows is necessary for the application instead of a full result set.
109
177. What is the difference between UNION and UNION ALL?
1. UNION The UNION command is used to select related information from two
tables, much like the JOIN command. However, when using the UNION command
all selected columns need to be of the same data type. With UNION, only distinct
values are selected.
2. UNION ALL The UNION ALL command is equal to the UNION command, except that
UNION ALL selects all values.
The difference between Union and Union all is that Union all will not eliminate duplicate
rows, instead it just pulls all rows from all tables fitting your query specifics and
combines them into a table.
178. What is B-Tree?

The database server uses a B-tree structure to organize index information. B-Tree
generally has following types of index pages or nodes:
1. root node: A root node contains node pointers to branch nodes which can be only
one.
2. branch node: A branch node contains pointers to leaf nodes or other branch nodes
which can be two or more.
3. leaf nodes: A leaf node contains index items and orizantal pointers to other leaf
nodes which can be many.
179. What is a foreign key, and what is it used for?

A foreign key is used to establish relationships among relations in the relational model.
Technically, a foreign key is a column (or columns) appearing in one relation that is (are)
the primary key of another table. Although there may be exceptions, the values in the
foreign key columns usually must correspond to values existing in the set of primary key
values. This correspondence requirement is created in a database using a referential
integrity constraint on the foreign key.
180. What does it mean when we say that a relation is in Boyce-Codd Normal Form
(BCNF)?
A relation is in BCNF when every determinant in the relation is a candidate key. This
means that any possible primary key can determine all other attributes in the relation.
Attributes may not be determined by non-candidate key attributes or part of a composite
candidate key. Thus it is said "I swear to construct my tables so that all nonkey columns
are dependent on the key, the whole key and nothing but the key, so help me Codd!"
110
181. You have been given a set of tables with data and asked to create a new database
to store them. When you examine the data values in the tables, what are you looking
for?
(1) Multivalued dependencies, (2) Functional dependencies, (3) Candidate keys, (4)
Primary keys and (5) Foreign keys.
182. Explain the difference between attributes and identifiers.

Entities have attributes. Attributes are properties that describe the entity's
characteristics. Entity instances have identifiers. Identifiers are attributes that name, or
identify, entity instances.
183. Name and describe three types of binary relationships.

1:1 - a single-entity instance of one type is related to a single-entity instance of another
type. 1:N - a single entity instance of one type is related to many-entity instances of
another type. M:N - many-entity instances of one type relate to many-entity instances of
another type.
184. What are stored procedures, and how do they differ from triggers?
A stored procedure is a program that is stored within the database and is compiled when
used. They can receive input parameters and they can return results. Unlike triggers,
their scope is database-wide; they can be used by any process that has permission to
use the database stored procedure.
185. What are the advantages of using stored procedures?

The advantages of stored procedures are (1) greater security, (2) decreased network
traffic, (3) the fact that SQL can be optimized and (4) code sharing which leads to less
work, standardized processing, and specialization among developers.
186. What is the relationship of ODBC, OLE DB, and ADO?

Developed first, the ODBC standard is for relational databases; while the OLE DB
standard provides functionality for both relational and other databases. Finally, ADO
was developed
to provide easier access to OLE DB data for the non-object-oriented programmer.
111
187. Explain the differences between structured data and unstructured data.
Structured data are facts concerning objects and events. The most important structured
data are numeric, character, and dates. Structured data are stored in tabular form.
Unstructured data are multimedia data such as documents, photographs, maps, images,
sound, and video clips. Unstructured data are most commonly found on Web servers and
Web-enabled databases.
188.What are dimension tables and definition of Fact tables?
These two questions are most commonly asked database interview questions. Fact
tables are mainly central tables that are an integral part of data warehousing and
dimension tables are used for describing the attributes of the fact tables. Both of these
tables are important and play an important role in maintaining the database
management system.
189.What is Data Warehouse?

A data warehouse is a subject-oriented, integrated, time-variant and non-volatile
collection
of data in support of management's decision making process.
Subject-Oriented: A data warehouse can be used to analyze a particular subject area.
For example, "sales" can be a particular subject.
Integrated: A data warehouse integrates data from multiple data sources. For example,
source A and source B may have different ways of identifying a product, but in a data
warehouse, there will be only a single way of identifying a product.
Time-Variant: Historical data is kept in a data warehouse. For example, one can retrieve
data from 3 months, 6 months, 12 months, or even older data from a data warehouse.
This contrasts with a transactions system, where often only the most recent data is kept.
For example, a transaction system may hold the most recent address of a customer,
where a data warehouse can hold all addresses associated with a customer.
Non-volatile: Once data is in the data warehouse, it will not change. So, historical data
in a data warehouse should never be altered.
190.What is Data Mining?

Data mining is a term from computer science. Sometimes it is also called knowledge
discovery in databases (KDD). Data mining is about finding new information in a lot of
data. The information obtained from data mining is hopefully both new and useful.
112
MOST FREQUENTLY ASKED SQL QUERIES
1.SQL Query to find second highest salary of Employee
Answer : There are many ways to find second highest salary of Employee in SQL, you can
either use SQL Join or Subquery to solve this problem. Here is SQL query using Subquery
:
1. select MAX(Salary) from Employee WHERE Salary NOT IN (select MAX(Salary) from
Employee );
2. SQL Query to find Max Salary from each department. Answer :
SELECT DeptID, MAX(Salary) FROM Employee GROUP BY DeptID.
3.Write SQL Query to display current date.
Ans:SQL has built in function called GetDate() which returns current timestamp.
SELECT GetDate();
4.Write an SQL Query to check whether date passed to Query is date of given
format or not. Ans: SQL has IsDate() function which is used to check passed value is
date or not of
specified format ,it returns 1(true) or 0(false) accordingly.
SELECT ISDATE('1/08/13') AS "MM/DD/YY";

It will return 0 because passed date is not in correct format.
5. Write a SQL Query to print the name of distinct employee whose DOB is between
01/01/1960 to 31/12/1975.
Ans:
SELECT DISTINCT EmpName FROM Employees WHERE DOB BETWEEN ‘01/01/1960’
AND
‘31/12/1975’;
6.Write an SQL Query find number of employees according to gender whose DOB is
between 01/01/1960 to 31/12/1975.
Answer : SELECT COUNT(*), sex from Employees WHERE DOB BETWEEN ‘01/01/1960 '
AND ‘31/12/1975’ GROUP BY sex;
7.Write an SQL Query to find employee whose Salary is equal or greater than 10000.
Answer : SELECT EmpName FROM Employees WHERE Salary>=10000;
113
8.Write an SQL Query to find name of employee whose name Start with ‘M’
Ans: SELECT * FROM Employees WHERE EmpName like 'M%';
9. find all Employee records containing the word "Joe", regardless of

whether it was stored as JOE, Joe, or joe.
Answer : SELECT * from Employees WHERE upper(EmpName) like upper('joe%');
10. Write a SQL Query to find year from date.

Answer : SELECT YEAR(GETDATE()) as "Year";
11.To fetch ALTERNATE records from a table. (EVEN NUMBERED) select * from emp
where rowid in (select decode(mod(rownum,2),0,rowid, null) from emp);
12.To select ALTERNATE records from a table. (ODD NUMBERED) select * from emp
where rowid in (select decode(mod(rownum,2),0,null ,rowid) from emp);
13.Find the 3rd MAX salary in the emp table. select distinct sal from emp e1 where 3
= (select count(distinct sal) from emp e2 where e1.sal <= e2.sal);
14.Find the 3rd MIN salary in the emp table. select distinct sal from emp e1 where 3
= (select count(distinct sal) from emp e2where e1.sal >= e2.sal);
15.Select FIRST n records from a table. select * from emp where rownum <= &n;
16.Select LAST n records from a table select * from emp minus select * from emp
where rownum <= (select count(*) - &n from emp);
17.List dept no., Dept name for all the departments in which there are no employees
in the department.
select * from dept where deptno not in (select deptno from emp);
alternate solution: select * from dept a where not exists (select * from emp b where
a.deptno = b.deptno);
altertnate solution: select empno,ename,b.deptno,dname from emp a, dept b where
a.deptno(+) = b.deptno and empno is null;
18.How to get 3 Max salaries ? select distinct sal from emp a where 3 >= (select
count(distinct sal) from emp b where a.sal <= b.sal) order by a.sal desc;
19.How to get 3 Min salaries ?

select distinct sal from emp a where 3 >= (select
count(distinct sal) from emp b where a.sal >= b.sal);
114
20.How to get nth max salaries? select distinct hiredate from emp a where &n =
(select count(distinct sal) from emp b where a.sal >= b.sal);
21.Select DISTINCT RECORDS from emp table.

select * from emp a where rowid = (select max(rowid) from emp b where
a.empno=b.empno);
22.How to delete duplicate rows in a table? delete from emp a where rowid != (select
max(rowid) from emp b where a.empno=b.empno);
23.Count of number of employees in department wise.

select count(EMPNO), b.deptno, dname from emp a, dept b where
a.deptno(+)=b.deptno group by b.deptno,dname;
24. Suppose there is annual salary information provided by emp table. How to fetch
monthly salary of each and every employee? select ename,sal/12 as monthlysal from
emp;
25.Select all record from emp table where deptno =10 or 40.
select * from emp where deptno=30 or deptno=10;
26.Select all record from emp table where deptno=30 and sal>1500.
select * from emp where deptno=30 and sal>1500;
27.Select all record from emp where job not in SALESMAN or CLERK.
select * from emp where job not in ('SALESMAN','CLERK');
28. Select all record from emp where ename in 'BLAKE','SCOTT','KING'and'FO

select * from emp where ename
RD'.
in('JONES','BLAKE','SCOTT','KING','FORD');
select * from emp where ename like'S____';
29. Select all records where ename starts with ‘S’ and its lenth is 6 ch
30. Select all records where ename may be any no of character but it should end with
ar.
select * from emp where ename like'%R';
‘R’.
31. Count MGR and their salary in emp table.
select ename,(sal+nvl(comm,0)) as totalsal from emp;
115
33. Select any salary <3000 from emp table.
select * from emp where sal> any(select sal from emp where sal<3000);
34. Select all salary <3000 from emp table.

select * from emp where sal> all(select sal from emp where sal<3000);
35. Select all the employee group by deptno and sal in descending order.
select ename,deptno,sal from emp order by deptno,sal desc;
36. How can I create an empty table emp1 with same structure as emp?
Create table emp1 as select * from emp where 1=2;
37.How to retrive record where sal between 1000 to 2000?

Select * from emp where sal>=1000 And sal<2000
38.Select all records where dept no of both emp and dept table matches.
select * from emp where exists(select * from dept where
emp.deptno=dept.deptno)
39.If there are two tables emp1 and emp2, and both have common record. How canI fetc
h all the recods but common records only once?
(Select * from emp) Union (Select * from emp1)
40.How to fetch only common records from two tables emp and emp1?
(Select * from emp) Intersect (Select * from emp1)
41. How can I retrive all records of emp1 those should not present in emp2?
(Select * from emp) Minus (Select * from emp1)
42.Count the totalsa deptno wise where more than 2 employees exist.
SELECT deptno, sum(sal) As totalsal
FROM emp
GROUP BY deptno
HAVING COUNT(empno) > 2
43.Display the names of employees who are working in the company for the
past 5 years
. select ename from emp where sysdate-hiredate>5*365;
116
44.Display the list of employees who have joined the company before 30th June 90
or after 31st dec 90
.select * from emp where hiredate between ‘30-jun-1990’ and ‘31-dec-1990’;
45.Display the names of employees working in department number 10 or 20 or 40

or employees working as clerks, salesman or analyst.
select ename from emp where deptno in (10,20,40) or job in
(‘CLERK’,’SALESMAN’,’ANALYST’);
46.Display the names of employees whose name starts with alphabet

S.
select ename from emp where ename like ‘S%’;
47.Display employee names for employees whose name ends with alphab
select ename from emp where ename like
et.
‘%S’;
1. What is the difference between “Stored Procedure” and “Function”?
1. A procedure can have both input and output parameters, but a function can only
have input parameters.
2. Inside a procedure we can use DML (INSERT/UPDATE/DELETE) statements. But
inside a function we can't use DML statements.
3. We can't utilize a Stored Procedure in a Select statement. But we can use a function
in a Select statement.
4. We can use a Try-Catch Block in a Stored Procedure but inside a function we can't
use a Try-Catch block.
5. We can use transaction management in a procedure but we can't in a function.
6. We can't join a Stored Procedure but we can join functions.
7. Stored Procedures cannot be used in the SQL statements anywhere in the
WHERE/HAVING/SELECT section. But we can use a function anywhere.
8. A procedure can return 0 or n values (max 1024). But a function can return only 1
value that is mandatory.
9. A procedure can't be called from a function but we can call a function from a
procedure.
2.What is difference between “Clustered Index” and “Non Clustered Index”?

1. A Clustered Index physically stores the data of the table in the order of the keys
values and the data is resorted every time whenever a new value is inserted or a
value is updated in the column on which it is defined, whereas a non-clustered
index creates a separate list of key values (or creates a table of pointers) that points
towards the location of the data in the data pages.
117
2. A Clustered Index requires no separate storage than the table storage. It forces the
rows to be stored sorted on the index key whereas a non-clustered index requires
separate storage than the table storage to store the index information.
3. A table with a Clustered Index is called a Clustered Table. Its rows are stored in a
BTree structure sorted whereas a table without any clustered indexes is called a
nonclustered table. Its rows are stored in a heap structure unsorted.
4. The default index is created as part of the primary key column as a Clustered Index.
5. In a Clustered Index, the leaf node contains the actual data whereas in a
nonclustered index, the leaf node contains the pointer to the data rows of the table.
6. A Clustered Index always has an Index Id of 1 whereas non-clustered indexes have
Index Ids > 1.
7. A Table can have only 1 Clustered Index whereas prior to SQL Server 2008 only
249 non-clustered indexes can be created. With SQL Server 2008 and above 999
nonclustered indexes can be created.
8. A Primary Key constraint creates a Clustered Index by default whereas A Unique Key
constraint creates a non-clustered index by default.
3.What is the difference between the “DELETE” and “TRUNCATE” commands?

1. The DELETE command is used to remove rows from a table based on a WHERE
condition whereas TRUNCATE removes all rows from a table.
2. So we can use a where clause with DELETE to filter and delete specific records
whereas we cannot use a Where clause with TRUNCATE.
3. DELETE is executed using a row lock, each row in the table is locked for deletion
whereas TRUNCATE is executed using a table lock and the entire table is locked for
removal of all records.
4. DELETE is a DML command whereas TRUNCATE is a DDL command.
5. DELETE retains the identity of the column value whereas in TRUNCATE, the Identify
column is reset to its seed value if the table contains any identity column.
6. To use Delete you need DELETE permission on the table whereas to use Truncate
on a table you need at least ALTER permission on the table.
7. DELETE uses more transaction space than the TRUNCATE statement whereas
Truncate uses less transaction space than DELETE statement.
8. DELETE can be used with indexed views whereas TRUNCATE cannot be used with
indexed views.
9. The DELETE statement removes rows one at a time and records an entry in the
transaction log for each deleted row whereas TRUNCATE TABLE removes the data
by deallocating the data pages used to store the table data and records only the
page deallocations in the transaction log.
10. Delete activates a trigger because the operation is logged individually whereas
TRUNCATE TABLE can't activate a trigger because the operation does not log
individual row deletions.
118
4. What is the difference between the “WHERE” clause and the “HAVING” clause?
1. WHERE clause can be used with a Select, Update, and Delete Statement Clause but
the HAVING clause can be used only with a Select statement.
2. We can't use an aggregate functions in the WHERE clause unless it is in a sub-query
contained in a HAVING clause whereas we can use an aggregate function in the
HAVING clause. We can use a column name in the HAVING clause but the column
must be contained in the group by clause.
3. WHERE is used before the GROUP BY clause whereas a HAVING clause is used to
impose a condition on the GROUP Function and is used after the GROUP BY clause
in the query.
4. A WHERE clause applies to each and every row whereas a HAVING clause applies to
summarized rows (summarized with GROUP BY).
5. In the WHERE clause the data that is fetched from memory depends on a
condition whereas in HAVING the completed data is first fetched and then
separated depending on the condition.
5. What is the difference between “Primary Key” and “Unique Key”?

1. We can have only one Primary Key in a table whereas we can have more than one
Unique Key in a table.
2. The Primary Key cannot have a NULL value whereas a Unique Key may have only
one null value.
3. By default, a Primary Key is a Clustered Index whereas by default, a Unique Key is a
unique non-clustered index.
4. A Primary Key supports an Auto Increment value whereas a Unique Key doesn't
support an Auto Increment value.
6. What is the difference between a “Local Temporary Table” and a “Global

Temporary Table”?
1. A Local Temporary Table is created by giving it a prefix of # whereas a Global
Temporary Table is created by giving it a prefix of ##.
2. A Local Temporary Table cannot be shared among multiple users whereas a Global
Temporary Tables can be shared among multiple users.
3. A Local Temporary Table is only available to the current DB connection for the
current user and are cleared when the connection is closed whereas a Global
4. Temporary Table is available to any connection once created. They are cleared when
the last connection is closed.
119
7.What are super, primary, candidate and foreign keys?
Ans: A super key is a set of attributes of a relation schema upon which all attributes of
the schema are functionally dependent. No two rows can have the same value of super
key attributes.
A Candidate key is minimal super key, i.e., no proper subset of Candidate key attributes
can be a super key.
A Primary Key is one of the candidate keys. One of the candidate keys is selected as
most important and becomes the primary key. There cannot be more that one primary
keys in a table.
Foreign key is a field (or collection of fields) in one table that uniquely identifies a row of
another table.
8.What is the difference between primary key and unique constraints?

Ans: Primary key cannot have NULL value, the unique constraints can have NULL values.
There is only one primary key in a table, but there can be multiple unique constrains.
120
Introduction
to DAX in
PowerBI
Overview: Data Analysis
Expressions (DAX) is a formula
language primarily used in Power
Pivot, Analysis Services, and Power
BI. It enables users to harness the
power of dynamic calculations and
deep data insights.
Importance: By enabling custom

calculations, DAX becomes an
essential tool for data professionals
striving for deeper data insights.
122
DAX Fundamentals
- Syntax Distinctions: While bearing similarities to Excel, DAX offers
a more powerful and dynamic formula structure.
- Data Types: Beyond basic types like Decimal and Integer, DAX
introduces complex types that support intricate data operations.
- Contexts: Grasping the concept of Row and Filter Context is vital

for accurate data representation and calculation.
Core DAX Functions – Aggregation

- Key Functions: These are the cornerstone of data analysis.
Functions like SUM, AVERAGE, and COUNT allow for primary
data aggregation.
1. **SUM**
- The `SUM` function calculates the sum of a column's values. -
Example:
- Given a table `Sales` with a column `Revenue`.
- DAX Formula:
- This formula will calculate the total revenue from

all sales.
2. **AVERAGE**
- The ÀVERAGE` function returns the average (arithmetic mean) of a column's values. -
Example:
- Given the same `Sales` table with a column `Revenue`.
- DAX Formula:
- This formula will calculate the average revenue

from all sales.
123
3. **COUNT**
- The `COUNT` function counts the number of rows in a table where the values in the specified
column are not blank.
- Example:
- Using a table Òrders` with a column ÒrderID`.
- DAX Formula: `Total Orders = COUNT(Orders[OrderID])`
- This formula will count the total number of orders.
4. **MIN & MAX**

- The `MIN` and `MAX` functions return the smallest and largest values in a column, respectively.
- Example:
- Using the `Sales` table with a column `Revenue`.
- DAX Formula for Minimum Revenue: `Min Revenue = MIN(Sales[Revenue])`
- DAX Formula for Maximum Revenue: `Max Revenue = MAX(Sales[Revenue])`
- These formulas will find the smallest and largest revenue values, respectively.
5. **COUNTA**
- The `COUNTA` function counts the number of rows in a table where the values in the specified
column are not blank, and it works on non-numeric data as well.
- Example:
- Using a table `Customers` with a column `Name`.
- DAX Formula: `Total Customers = COUNTA(Customers[Name])`
- This formula will count the total number of customers with a valid name.
Core DAX Functions - Date and Time

- Temporal Calculations: With functions such as DATE, NOW, and
TODAY, DAX provides robust support for time-based data
operations.
1. **DATE**
- The `DATE` function returns a date in date-time format.
- Example:
- If you want to create a date from year, month, and day values.
- DAX Formula: `Custom Date = DATE(2023, 8, 29)`
- This formula will return a date value of August 29, 2023.
2. **NOW**
- The `NOW` function returns the current date and time.
- Example:
- DAX Formula: `Current DateTime = NOW()`
- This formula will show the current date and time at the moment of execution.
124
3. **TODAY**
- The `TODAY` function returns the current date.
- Example:
- DAX Formula: `Current Date = TODAY()`
- This formula will return the current date without the time component.
4. **MONTH**
- The `MONTH` function returns the month as a number (1 for January, 2 for February, etc.) from a
date.
- Example:
- Given a date column `Sales[Date]`.
- DAX Formula: `Sale Month = MONTH(Sales[Date])`
- This formula will extract the month number from the sale date.
5. **YEAR**
- The `YEAR` function extracts the year from a date.
- Example:
- Given a date column `Sales[Date]`.
- DAX Formula: `Sale Year = YEAR(Sales[Date])`
- This formula will provide the year of the sale date.
6. **DATEDIFF**
- The `DATEDIFF` function returns the difference between two dates, based on a specified
interval (day, month, year, etc.).
- Example:
- Given two date columns Òrders[StartDate]` and Òrders[EndDate]`.
- DAX Formula: `Duration in Days = DATEDIFF(Orders[StartDate], Orders[EndDate], DAY)`
- This formula will calculate the number of days between the start and end dates.
125
Advanced DAX Concepts
- Dynamic Context: Functions like CALCULATE
and CALCULATETABLE give users the power to modify existing
contexts and create new ones.
- Time Intelligence: Explore historical data trends with
functions like DATESYTD and TOTALYTD.
1. **Dynamic Context**
- Dynamic context in DAX enables the modification of existing filter contexts or the creation of new
ones.
- **CALCULATE**
- This function evaluates an expression in a modified filter context.
- Example:
- Given a `Sales` table and a need to calculate total sales only for a specific
product category, say "Electronics".
- DAX Formula: `
Electronics Sales = CALCULATE(SUM(Sales[Revenue]), Sales[Category] = "Electronics")`
- This formula calculates the total revenue for only the "Electronics" category.
- **CALCULATETABLE**
- This function evaluates a table expression in a modified filter context.
- Example:
- If you want to produce a table that only includes sales data for the year 2023. - DAX Formula: `Sales
2023 = CALCULATETABLE(Sales, YEAR(Sales[Date]) = 2023)`
- This formula provides a table containing sales data exclusively from the year 2023.
2. **Time Intelligence**
- Time intelligence functions in DAX are critical for analyzing data over time, especially for
understanding historical trends and making future projections.
- **DATESYTD**
- Returns dates from the beginning of the year to a specified date.
- Example:
- If you're analyzing sales data and need to consider dates from the start of the year to the current
date.
- DAX Formula: `Year to Date = DATESYTD(Sales[Date])`
- This formula gives a list of dates from the start of the year to the present date.
126
- **TOTALYTD**
- Calculates the cumulative total for a measure from the beginning of the year to a specified date.
- Example:
- To compute the cumulative sales from the start of the year to the current date.
- DAX Formula: `Cumulative Sales = TOTALYTD(SUM(Sales[Revenue]), Sales[Date])`
- This formula calculates the total revenue accumulated from the start of the year to
the present date.
DAX in Action
- Calculated Columns: Enhance your data models by defining new
columns using DAX.
Calculated columns allow you to add new data to your tables in Power BI. The formula for the
column is calculated for each row of data.
1. **Profit Column**
- Let's say you have a sales table with columns "Revenue" and "Cost." You can create a new
calculated column called "Profit" using DAX.
2. **Full Name Column**

- If you have a table with "First Name" and "Last Name" columns, you can combine them
into a "Full Name" column.
- DAX Formula: `Full Name = [First Name] & " " & [Last Name]`
3. **Age Group Column**

- Given a column "Age," you can categorize individuals into age groups.
- DAX Formula:
```
Age Group =
IF([Age] < 18, "Child",
IF([Age] < 60, "Adult", "Senior"))
127
- Measures: These custom aggregations, defined using DAX, provide
more profound insights into datasets.
Measures perform calculations on data based on user interactions in reports. They aggregate data as
users interact with visuals.
1. **Total Revenue Measure**

- Sum up the revenue from a "Revenue" column in the sales table.
- DAX Formula: `Total Revenue = SUM(Sales[Revenue])`
2. **Average Monthly Sales Measure**

- Calculate the average sales for each month.
- DAX Formula: Àvg Monthly Sales = AVERAGE(Sales[Monthly Sales])`
3. **Sales Growth Rate Measure**

- If you have "Current Year Sales" and "Last Year Sales" columns, you can compute the
growth rate.
- DAX Formula:
128
- KPIs: Monitor business health and trajectory using DAX-
defined Key Performance Indicators.
KPIs (Key Performance Indicators)

KPIs provide a clear view of current performance and how it stacks against desired
outcomes.
1. **Monthly Sales Target KPI**

- Let's say you have a target of $100,000 in sales every month.
- DAX Formula for Actual Sales: `Total Sales = SUM(Sales[Revenue])`
- DAX KPI Definition: If `Total Sales` is greater than $100,000, the indicator is green. If it's
between $90,000 and $100,000, it's yellow. Otherwise, it's red.
2. **Customer Satisfaction KPI**

- You've conducted a survey, and your goal is to achieve a satisfaction rating of above 4.5 out
of 5.
- DAX Formula for Average Rating: Àvg Rating = AVERAGE(Survey[Rating])`
- DAX KPI Definition: If Àvg Rating` is greater than 4.5, the indicator is green. If it's between
4.0 and 4.5, it's yellow. Otherwise, it's red.
3. **Inventory Turnover KPI**

- You aim to have an inventory turnover ratio of at least 6 times a year, ensuring products are
sold and replaced efficiently.
- DAX Formula: `Turnover Ratio = SUM(Sales[Items Sold]) / AVERAGE(Inventory[Items in

Stock])`
- DAX KPI Definition: If `Turnover Ratio` is greater than or equal to 6, the indicator is green.
If it's between 5 and 6, it's yellow. Otherwise, it's red.
129
Performance and Optimization
- Efficiency Tips: Writing optimal DAX formulas ensures faster report
rendering.
- Monitoring Techniques: Using query plans and server timings can
help pinpoint and resolve performance bottlenecks.
Best Practices in DAX
- Naming Conventions: Adopting a consistent naming strategy

enhances formula clarity and maintainability.
- Documentation: Always document complex formulas for

future reference and team collaboration.
- Structure: Decompose intricate formulas into smaller components

for better readability and debugging.
130
RoadMap to
Mastering
Generative
AI
To develop proficiency in Generative AI, the following 5 skills are
essential for a comprehensive understanding and practical
application of the field.
Fundamentals of Machi ne Lea rni ng

and Deep Lear ni ng:
Understand the basics of machine learning algorithms, such as
supervised and unsupervised learning.
Gain knowledge of deep learning

concepts, including neural
networks, activation functions,
and optimization techniques.
Familiarize yourself with

common deep learning
frameworks like TensorFlow or
PyTorch.
Probability and St ati st i cs:

Acquire a strong
foundation in probability theory,
including concepts like random
variables, probability distributions, and
Bayesian inference.
132
Natural Language Processi ng (NLP) :
Learn the basics of NLP, including tokenization, text preprocessing,
and language modeling.
Understand techniques for text

generation, such as recurrent neural
networks (RNNs) and sequence-to-
sequence models.
Explore advanced topics in NLP, such

as attention mechanisms,
transformer models (e.g., GPT, BERT),
and language generation.
Computer Vi si on:
Develop a solid understanding of computer vision concepts, including
image classification, object detection, and image segmentation.
Learn about deep learning architectures

for computer vision tasks, such as
convolutional neural networks (CNNs).
Gain hands-on experience with popular

computer vision frameworks like OpenCV
and PyTorch's torchvision.
133
Generative Adversar i al Net works
(GANs):
Study the fundamentals of GANs, including their architecture and
training process.
Explore various GAN variants, such as

conditional GANs, cycle-consistent GANs,
and style transfer GANs.
Gain practical experience by implementing

GANs for tasks like image synthesis, style
transfer, and text-to-image generation.
134
NLP
Cheat Sheet
1. Tokenization
Tokenization is the process of breaking up text into words, phrases,
symbols, or other meaningful elements, which are called tokens.
- NLTK Word Tokenization:
- Spacy Word Tokenization:
2. Stemming and Lemmatization

Stemming and Lemmatization are techniques used to extract the
base form of the words by removing its inflection.
- NLTK Stemming:
136
- Spacy Lemmatization:
3. Part-of-Speech (POS) Tagging

POS tagging is the task of labeling the words in a
sentence with their appropriate part of speech.
- NLTK POS Tagging:
- Spacy POS Tagging:
137
4. Named Entity Recognition (NER)
NER is the process of locating named entities in text and
classifying them into predefined categories.
- NLTK NER:
- Spacy NER:
5. Stopword Removal
Stopwords are the most common words in a language that are to be
filtered out before processing the text data.
- NLTK Stopword Removal:
138
- Spacy Stopword Removal:
6. Sentiment Analysis
Sentiment Analysis is the process of
determining the sentiment or emotion of a piece of text.
- TextBlob Sentiment Analysis:
7. Topic Modeling
Topic Modeling is the process of identifying topics
in a set of documents.
- Gensim LDA Topic Modeling:
139
Parameters of
OPENAI GPT
Models
One
Imagine you’re playing a game where you have to come up with
words that start with the letter ‘A’. You can think of many words, like
‘apple’, ‘ant’, ‘alligator’, and so on. But, you want to make the game
more interesting, so you add some rules.
Temperature:
This rule decides how creative or unusual the words you come up
with can be. If the temperature is low, you’ll mostly come up with
common words like ‘apple’ or ‘ant’. But if the temperature is high,
you might come up with more unusual words like ‘abacus’ or
‘aardvark’.
Two
Top_P
This rule decides how many of the most likely words you can choose
from. If top_p is 5, then you can only choose from the 5 most likely
words that start with ‘A’. If top_p is 10, then you can choose from
the 10 most likely words. More the choice, the chances of
randomness increases
Three
Frequency Penalty:
This rule decides how often you can use the same word. If the
frequency penalty is high, then you can’t use the same word too
many times. So if you’ve already used the word ‘apple’ a few times,
it’ll become less likely for you to use it again.
141
Four
Presence Penalty (topic)
This rule decides how closely your words have to be related to a

certain topic. If the topic penalty is high and the topic is ‘animals’,
then you’ll mostly come up with animal names that start with ‘A’,
like ‘ant’ or ‘alligator’. But if the topic penalty is low, then you might
also come up with non-animal words like ‘apple’ or ‘airplane’.
142
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16. SQL Interview 131-134

17. DAX in PowerBI 135-139

18. Roadmap to Mastering Generative AI 140-142

19. NLP Cheat Sheet 143-144

Welcome to Your Guide to Artificial

This eBook is an indispensable

The primary aim of this guide is to simplify

Whether you are an aspiring data analyst, a

The eBook is organized into the following

Roadmap to get into Artificial Intelligence:

Numpy and Pandas Cheat Sheets: Quick-

Loc and Iloc in Panda: A focused look at data

Data Visualization with Seaborn and

Regression Analysis and Logistic Regression

Hypothesis Testing: A primer on inferential

Hypothesis Testing: A primer on inferential

Data Science Roadmap: A comprehensive

SQL Operators and SQL Interview: Preparing

Roadmap to Mastering Generative AI:

NLP Cheat Sheet: A quick guide to Natural

Parameters of OpenAI: Understanding the

AIGuild Premium Community: An invitation

Whether you're a student just starting out, a professional

We stand at an unprecedented crossroads in technological

Thank you for choosing this eBook as your companion in this

It helps Data Scientists to collect, manage, and visualize data,

SQL is a fundamental skill that is necessary for anyone working in

It is a versatile language that offers a wide range of libraries and

Panda , Numpy & Matplotlib

They provide the foundation for data analysis and modeling,

Projects help Data Science students to apply the concepts they

Projects provide a platform for Data Science students to showcase

Python's versatility is one of its most

At the heart of Python's dominance in

NumPy: For numerical computing and

pandas: Ideal for data manipulation and

scikit-learn: A go-to library for machine

TensorFlow and PyTorch: Leading

These libraries substantially reduce the time

Using Python Modules: Explore

Basic Data Processing: Get started

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4. Indexing and Sli ci ng

6. Arithmeti c Operati ons

Calculating the mean, median, and standard deviation of an array:

- Checking Pandas Version:

- Selecting specific value:

Balances = 2.1774 +.0966Payment + 1.2494Months + .4412*Gender