Food Security: Postharvest Losses

MC Bourne, Cornell University, Geneva, NY, USA

r 2014 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

Glossary greatest amount possible (saturation) at the same

Relative humidity The ratio of the amount of water temperature.
vapor present in the air expressed as percent of the

Introduction Developed countries have abundant food at reasonable cost. It

is easy for their people to overeat, which leads to obesity and
There are two kinds of food security that require completely associated medical problems such as high blood pressure, dia-
different approaches to resolution: betes, and coronary heart disease. In these countries large
quantities of good edible food are discarded because of the
Type 1: Postharvest loss covers the technologies needed to
demands for convenience and perfect appearance. These losses
preserve food in safe and edible condition between the time of
are defined as ‘food waste.’ In contrast most developing coun-
harvest and the moment it is prepared for consumption by
tries have insufficient food and food is high in cost in relation to
people. The time can range from minutes to years. It is the
income. Their problem is undernutrition, which leads to stun-
subject of this article.
ted growth, impaired ability to fight infectious diseases and
Type 2: Food biosecurity or food defense describes intentional
starvation. There are approximately a billion people in this
contamination or destruction of the food system for warfare,
category. Families in developed countries typically spend
political coercion, unfair economic gain, or exacting revenge.
15–25% of their income on food whereas families in de-
This topic will be covered in the accompanying article by
veloping countries (DCs) spend 50–80% of their income on
N. Fredrickson.
food. In DCs a food loss is a huge economic blow whereas in a
The world production of food is enormous and the amount developed country wasting food has a trivial cost. Insufficient
increases every year because of great efforts by many in the food and high cost of food is a major contribution to the ele-
agricultural production sector. Some illustrative data are given vated rate of morbidity and mortality in developing countries.
in Table 1, which lists worldwide production of the major The publication ‘2012 Global Hunger Index’ jointly pro-
foods in 1989 and 2009. duced by The International Food Policy Research Institute in
This is sufficient to provide 100% of the nutritional re- Washington, DC, Welt Hunger Hilfe in Bonn and Concern
quirements of every living human being. Worldwide in Dublin describes in detail the severity of hunger
It needs to be pointed out that the data in Table 1 lists around the world (http://www.ifpri.org/publication/2012-
production, not consumption. A substantial portion of the global-hunger-index). A brief history of the development of
foods listed in Table 1 is not consumed because it is lost or postharvest food loss reduction activities can be found in
becomes unfit to eat after harvest. These are known as ‘post- Bourne, 2013.
harvest food losses.’
Another aspect of world food production statistics is that
the production is not evenly distributed among populations. Increasing Food Supply

The projected increases in the world population in the next 50

Table 1 World production of major foods 1989 and 2009 years means that there must be concomitant growth in food
production. There are four main avenues by which the supply
World food production (million tons) in 1989 and 2009 of food can be increased:
Year 1989 2009 1. Increase the area of production: This includes activities such
as clearing and developing new land, introduction of irri-
Cereals 1880 2489
Starchy roots and tubers 599 753 gation systems, developing salt-tolerant cultivars of crops,
Vegetables 438 941 etc.
Fruits 345 588 2. Increase the yield of crops harvested per unit area: This
Cow milk 471 697 includes activities such as the development of higher-
Beef and buffalo 52 62 yielding cultivars, greater use of fertilizers, breeding plants
Pork 68 106 and animals that are resistant to diseases, and controlling
Eggs 36 67 field losses resulting from insects, rusts, and rodents.
Source: Data taken from FAO, 1990. FAO Yearbook, vol. 44. Rome: Food and 3. Produce more crops per year: Multiple cropping systems in
Agriculture Organization of United Nations and FAO, 2010. FAO Statistical Yearbook. which several crops per annum are harvested are activities
Rome: Food and Agriculture Organization of United Nations. Available at http://www. that can be utilized where length of growing season and
fao.org/docrep/015/am081m/am081m00.htm (accessed 29.10.13). water availability are suitable.

338 Encyclopedia of Agriculture and Food Systems, Volume 3 doi:10.1016/B978-0-444-52512-3.00035-8

 Food Security: Postharvest Losses 339

4. Reduce postharvest loss and waste: It is wasted effort to does not cover inefficiencies in human metabolism and uti-
increase food production if this increase does not fulfill its lization of the food.
nutritional destiny by getting into the stomach. This
fourth avenue to increase food availability has never re- ‘Food’ means wholesome edible material that would normally be
ceived the attention and resources that have been directed consumed by humans.
to the first three items mentioned above. Spurgeon (1976)
has aptly called the reduction of postharvest food losses Inedible portions such as hulls, stalks, leaves, skins, bones,
the ‘hidden harvest.’ This fourth avenue is a less obvious and shells are not food. Two critical nutrients, oxygen and water,
strategy than increasing production but it is an essential, are excluded because they are normally not considered as foods.
and often overlooked part of ameliorating hunger in the Potential food (e.g., mycoprotein or leaf protein) are not foods;
world. they do not become food until they are accepted and consumed
by large populations. Feed (intended for consumption by ani-
There are good reasons to concentrate on increasing food
mals) is not food. Crops grown for fuel production are not food.
production because these avenues have an ‘open-end’
The method of measuring the quantity of food in the postharvest
potential – increases of 50%, 100%, or more are possible. In
chain should be on the basis of weight expressed on a moisture-
contrast, postharvest food loss reduction has a ‘closed-end’
free basis or a specified moisture basis because changes in
potential. For example, if postharvest losses are 15% then the
moisture content are not a food loss or food gain. For example, if
maximum increase that can be obtained from this avenue is
100 tons of rice at 20% moisture is dried to 90 tons at 10%
15%. Although this may seem to be a small item, it carries
moisture there is no food loss because only water is lost.
more weight than appears at first sight as the formula to
There will be times when information on losses in nutritional
calculate the increase in production needed to affect a post-
units and economic losses will also be needed but these are not
harvest food loss shows:
the primary means of measuring postharvest food losses.
Production increase needed to offset postharvest loss
¼ amount of consumable grain ‘Loss’ means any change in the availability, edibility, wholesome-
ness, or quality of the food that prevents it from being consumed by
people.
100%

100  % postharvest loss Food losses may be direct or indirect. A direct loss is dis-
appearance of food by spillage, or consumption by rodents or
Suppose 100 tons of grain are harvested and there is a loss of birds. An indirect loss is the lowering of quality to the point
20 tons (20%) in the postharvest system. There are two ways where people refuse to eat it. If the food is consumed by
to regain 100 tons of consumable grain: people it is not lost; if it is not consumed by people for any
reason at all then it is considered a postharvest food loss.
1. Eliminate the 20% postharvest loss.
‘Food waste’ was originally defined as edible material in-
2. Increase production to 125 tons (a 25% increase) so that
tended for human consumption, arising at any point in the
after losing 20% of the 125 tons there will remain 100 tons
food supply chain that is instead discarded, lost, degraded, or
for consumption. In other words, it requires a 25% increase
consumed by pests (FAO, 1981). Over the past decade or so
in production to offset a 20% postharvest loss. Similarly, it
the term ‘food waste’ has come to mean wholesome edible
would require a 100% increase in production to offset a
food that is thrown out because of consumer demand for
50% postharvest loss.
perfect appearance and convenience. This has become a
problem in affluent countries where the cost of food in re-
lation to income is low and people can afford to discard
Some Definitions wholesome food if they are sated or it does not meet their high
expectations for appearance, texture, or flavor. This meaning is
It is necessary to precisely define what is meant by the term in contrast to food loss, which means the food is unavailable
‘postharvest food loss’ in order to prevent confusion and to or has become unfit to eat. A 2011 report from FAO gives
establish boundaries so the term does not cover every aspect of extensive data on food loss and food waste (FAO, 2011). It
the food chain. The following three-part definition from shows that food waste is high and food loss low in developed
Bourne (1977) has been widely used. countries whereas food waste is low and food loss is high in
developing countries.
‘Postharvest’ means after separation from the medium and site of The motivation to reduce food waste is to reduce stress on
immediate growth or production of the food. the environment and requires a modification of human be-
havior. In contrast, reducing food loss requires the application
Postharvest begins when the process of collecting or sep- of food preservation technologies and the motivation is to
arating food of edible quality from its site of immediate pro- bring more food to those who are malnourished and poor.
duction has been completed. The food need not be removed This article addresses the problems of food loss and how to
any great distance from the harvest site, but it must be separ- reduce them. It will not address the problems of food waste
ated from the medium that produced it by a deliberate human and their reduction. Recent articles addressing food waste can
act with the intention of starting it on its journey to the table. be found in Parfitt et al. (2010), Gunders (2012), Beddington
The postharvest time ends when the food enters the mouth; it et al. (2012), and Institution of Mechanical Engineers (2013).
340 Food Security: Postharvest Losses

New York production of wheat

Annual production ranges between 140 000 and 230 000 tons
100

90
Production
80

70

Quantity (%)
60

50
40

30 Demand

20

10

0
J F M A M J J A S O N D
Month
Figure 1 Production of wheat in New York state – a year's supply is harvested in a 3-week period.

Nature of the Problem over a short period of time and then nothing until the next
crop matures. The time when the harvest is ready can be any
Within a given region the daily demand for food is constant month of the year depending on the climate and nature of the
over the course of a year (excluding any changes in popu- crop but the pattern of a large harvest followed by a period of
lation) but the supply of food for that region is very uneven no harvest is the common feature. In some locations, where
from day to day over the course of the year. Food preservation, climate and water supply permit there is more than one har-
storage, and transportation are the mechanisms by which vest per year. In those cases there are two or more peaks of
humankind matches the uneven day-to-day supply of food production with nothing in between.
with the even day-to-day demand for food. This problem of Foods obtained from domestic animals are not seasonal.
matching the uneven food supply to the even demand has With good management, the time of harvest can be controlled
been a problem throughout recorded history. to become uniform throughout the year. Milk and eggs can be
The problem is that although humankind grows or hunts harvested daily. Animals and birds can be kept alive and
food for their own personal consumption, there are many other slaughtered as needed. Some fish harvests are seasonal because
living organisms that try to use this food. This includes organ- wild fish cannot be managed like domestic animals. Therefore,
isms ranging from large animals, through small forms of life apart from fish, foods of animal origin are not given attention
such as insects down to microscopic forms of life such as bac- in postharvest loss reduction programs (but they do receive a
teria. These produce direct losses – the food is no longer there. lot of attention in food waste prevention programs).
Moreover, there is a natural tendency for food, which is
built up principally from inorganic carbon, nitrogen, and
water sources into complex energy-rich organic compounds, to
Causes of Losses
degrade again to the simple inorganic compounds from which
There are many causes of postharvest food losses and they can
it was produced in the first place. These biochemical and
be grouped under the headings of primary and secondary
chemical reactions occur spontaneously and lower the quality
causes. Examples of loss are given for each cause.
of the food. These produce indirect losses – the food is no
longer fit to eat.
These problems are illustrated in Figure 1, which shows the Primary Causes
production of wheat in New York State for each month of the 1. Biological and microbiological: Consumption or damage
year. The farms in New York produce no wheat from January by insects, mites, rodents, birds, larger animals, and by
to June or from August to December. All the wheat is harvested microbes such as fungi and bacteria.
in the month of July as shown by the vertical bars. In fact, 90% 2. Chemical and biochemical: Undesirable reactions between
of the wheat is harvested in 1 week, usually the third week of chemical compounds that are present in the food such as
July. However, the demand for bread, macaroni, donuts, and the Maillard reaction, fat oxidation, and enzyme-activated
all other nice foods made from wheat is very uniform reactions; contamination with harmful substances such as
throughout the year as shown by the dashed line parallel to pesticides, or obnoxious substances such as lubricating oil.
the horizontal axis of Figure 1. 3. Mechanical: Spillage, abrasion, bruising, excessive polish-
Most of the world food supply is seasonal – cereals, leg- ing, peeling or trimming, puncturing of containers, de-
umes, fruits, vegetables, roots, and tubers produce a large crop fective seals on cans, or other containers.
 Food Security: Postharvest Losses 341

4. Physical: Excessive or insufficient heat or cold, improper Meat, milk, poultry, and fish – growth of microbes.
atmosphere. Dry fish – fungi and insects.
5. Physiological: Sprouting of grains and tubers, senescence in
Food preservation technologies that control each of these
fruits and vegetables, and changes caused by respiration
causes of food loss are well known in developed countries. Un-
and transpiration.
fortunately, the technologies are not so well known in de-
6. Psychological: Human aversion, such as “I don’t fancy
veloping countries nor are the equipments for storage, transport,
eating that today.” This is the major cause of food waste,
and handling facilities readily available and reasonable in cost.
but is a minor cause of food loss.
Societies that suffer the worst hunger and malnutrition are the
Some of the causes of losses interact. For example, ones with the least knowledge of food preservation technologies
respiration generates heat which if not dissipated will acce- and have the poorest infrastructure to preserve their food.
lerate biochemical and chemical changes. If the tempera-
ture continues to rise the point is reached in stored grain
where the grain blackens and eventually burns (spontaneous
Factors Affecting Losses
combustion).
In some cases more than one of these causes may be re-
Nature of the Product
sponsible for food loss. Multiple causes may work simul-
taneously or sequentially. Simultaneous action is the growth Moisture content
of mold and insects at the same time. An example of se- Foods with high-moisture content (fruit, vegetables, foods of
quential action would be first the growth of mold which is animal origin) generally have higher perishability and suffer
stopped by drying, followed by biochemical reaction caused higher losses than foods with a lower moisture content (e.g.,
by the enzymes elaborated by the mold that results in un- cereal grains)
acceptably soft texture, rancid flavor, or inferior color.
Texture
Hard items such as cereal grains do not bruise easily whereas
Secondary Causes
soft items do bruise easily (mangoes, peaches). Items with a
Secondary causes lead to conditions that enable a primary tough or thick outer skin (coconut, grapefruit) are more re-
cause of loss to occur. These usually are the result of in- sistant to invasion by rotting organisms than those with a thin
adequate human input. Examples include or tender skin (tomatoes, plums). Brittle foods fracture more
easily than nonbrittle foods. For example, wheat at 25%
1. inadequate drying equipment or poor drying season;
moisture is somewhat pliable and does not fracture easily
2. inadequate storage facilities to protect food from insects,
during handling but when dried to 10% moisture it becomes
rodents, birds, rain, and high humidity;
brittle and fractures easily.
3. inadequate transportation to get the food to market before
it spoils;
4. inadequate refrigerated or frozen storage (for perishables); Respiration rate
5. marketing system that fails to connect potential buyers with Much of our food is still living when harvested and, therefore,
producers; and respiring by absorbing oxygen from the surrounding air and
6. legislation: The presence or absence of legal standards can giving off carbon dioxide and water vapor. High respiration
affect the eventual retention or rejection of a food for rates shorten shelf life. For example, asparagus (respiration rate
human use. at 9700 BTU ton−1 day−1 at 0 °C and 49 000 BTU ton−1 day−1
at 21 °C) has a much shorter shelf life than onion (respiration
There are times where it is possible to use a primary cause rate 650 BTU ton−1 day−1 at 0 °C and 3650 BTU ton−1 day−1
to offset a secondary cause and vice versa. For example, at 21 °C) (see Table 2).
the problem of a poor transportation system can be partially
overcome by drying of grain so that it does not become moldy Table 2 Heat generation vs. storage temperature for some fruits
so quickly, or by growing a variety of a tuber that has longer and vegetables
keeping properties. Conversely, insufficiently dried grain can
be rushed to market and sold before it molds if good trans- Heat generation by fresh fruits and vegetable (B.T.U. per ton per day)
portation and marketing services are available.
0 °C 5 °C 15 °C 21 °C 27 °C

Apples 700 1 350 4 900 5 700 –

Cause – Commodity Link Asparagus 9 700 18 000 39 000 49 000 92 000
Lettuce 2 500 3 650 8 500 12 200 18 100
Cantaloupes 1 200 2 100 7 900 12 000 14 700
The causes of food loss depend on the type of food, which are
Onions 650 750 2 400 3 650 6 200
summarized below: Green peas (shelled) 13 500 19 400 – 99 500 –
Cereals – fungi, insects, vertebrate pests, and poor milling. Source: Reproduced from Hardenburg, R.E., Watada, A.E., Wang, C.Y., 1986. The
Fruits and vegetables – bruising, rotting, senescence, and wilting. commercial storage of fruits, vegetables, and flowers and nursery stock. US Department
Roots and tubers – sprouting, rotting, senescence, and wilting, of Agriculture Handbook Number 66. Washington, DC: United States Department of
insects. Agriculture.
342 Food Security: Postharvest Losses

Table 3 Comparison of cereals with horticultural crops

Comparison of horticultural crops vs. cereals

Cereals and oilseeds Horticultural crops

Low moisture content, typically 10–15% High-moisture content, typically 80–95%

Small unit size, typically less than 1 g Large unit size, typically from 5 g to 10 Kg
Very low respiration rate with very small generation of heat. Heat High to very high respiration rate. Heat production, typically 0.5–
production, typically 0.05 MJ ton−1 day−1 for dry grain 10 MJ ton−1 day−1 at 0 °C and 5–70 MJ ton−1 day−1 at 20 °C
Hard texture Soft texture, easily bruised
Stable, natural shelf life, several years Perishable, natural shelf life, several days to several months
Losses usually caused by molds, insects, and rodents Losses usually caused by senescence, sprouting, rotting (bacteria and fungi),
and bruising
Losses in DCs usually 10–20% Losses in DCs usually 15–50%

Cereals have a very low respiration rate. However, the res- highly perishable. Refrigerating beer moves it from highly
piration of mold or insects within the grain mass releases perishable to perishable.
carbon dioxide, water vapor, and heat which can damage the Changes in perishability are shown schematically in
grain quality. Table 3 summarizes differences between cereal Figure 2, where preservation technologies shown by the
grains and horticultural crops. arrows on the left side decrease perishability and many pro-
cessing technologies shown by the arrows on the right side
increase perishability.

Perishability
Climate
The inherent perishability of food as harvested determines
what technologies are needed to maintain it in excellent con- Temperature
dition. Perishable foods are prone to higher losses than During storage changes in food may be caused by
stable foods. The level of perishability can be assigned to three
• microbial action (yeasts, fungi, bacteria);
levels:
• chemical reactions within the food (fat oxidation,
• Highly perishable foods remain in edible condition for a browning);
few hours to a week unless some preservation technology is • biochemical reactions from enzyme activities;
promptly applied. Foods such as milk, meat, fish, poultry, • physiological changes (respiration, sprouting); and
and some fruits and vegetables fall into this class. • biological agents (insects, rodents, birds).
• Perishable foods remain in edible condition for a week to
All of these cause deterioration of quality (appearance,
several months unless treated. Some fruits and vegetables,
flavor, texture, nutritional value) and sometimes complete loss
tubers and roots, and oils are in this class.
of the food. Most of these deteriorative changes occur at a
• Stable foods remain in edible condition for several months
faster rate as the temperature increases.
to many years. This class includes cereal grains, oilseeds,
many nuts, and honey.
Example 1
Preservation technologies stabilize, safeguard, and maintain Microbial growth: Table 4 shows the effect of temperature on the
the harvest from land and sea in a condition suitable and safe rate of increase in the number of bacteria in unpasteurized milk.
for human consumption. The technologies selected for any At 0 °C the total count slowly decreases. The count increases at all
food depend on the level of perishability and how much ex- temperatures above zero until at 30 °C (a normal day in a tro-
tension of shelf life is required. Refrigeration and pasteurization pical country) the count becomes enormous within 24 h.
bring highly perishable foods into the perishable class whereas
freezing, dehydration, and thermal sterilization enable them to Example 2
be kept for months or years. Similarly, refrigeration, controlled Chemical reactions: Most foods naturally contain hundreds of
or modified atmosphere storage, and chemical preservatives different chemical components, most of which have reactive
convert perishable foods into stable forms. groups such as alcohols (–OH), aldehydes (–CHO), amines
Processing technologies convert edible food materials into (–NH2), carboxylic acids (–COOH), ketones (–CO), thiols
another form with higher acceptability and they usually make (–SH), and double bonds (Q). These allow numerous
the food more perishable. For example, wheat is stable and chemical reactions to occur many of which are not well
keeps for years but when made into flour it becomes a per- understood but the rate of these reactions accelerates as the
ishable product because of oxidation. However, when flour is temperature increases.
made into bread it becomes highly perishable because of
staling and/or molding. However, bread can be changed from The Q10 factor expresses the rate of change of a chemical
highly perishable to perishable by including preservatives and reaction caused by a 10 °C increase in temperature. Chemical
antistaling agents, or even back to stable condition by freezing. reactions performed in the chemistry laboratory frequently
Similarly, barley is stable but when made into beer it becomes have a Q10 of approximately 2, that is, a 10 °C increase in
 Food Security: Postharvest Losses 343

Perishability of food

Highly perishable

(Keeps for hours to 1 week)

Milk, fish, meat, poultry, cassava Fruit

Refrigeration Many fruits and vegetables, melons juices
Pasteurization

Canning Perishable Brewing

Baking
Freezing (Keeps for 1 week to several months)

Dehydration Apples, citrus, dates, fats and oils, potatoes,

sweet potatoes, root vegetables, pumpkins
Oil pressing
Refrigeration
Flour milling
Controlled
atmosphere
Preservatives

Stable

(Keeps for several months to years)

Cereal grains, oilseeds, sugar, nuts, honey
Figure 2 Levels of perishability in foods and changes caused by preservation technologies (LHS arrows) and processing technologies (RHS
arrows).

Table 4 Growth of bacteria in unpasteurized milk

Growth of bacteria in unpasteurized milk (number of organisms per milliliter of milk)

Temperature (°C) 24 h 48 h 96 h 168 h

0 2 400 2 100 1 850 1 400

4 2 500 3 600 218 000 4 200 000
8 3 100 12 000 1 480 000 –
10 11 600 540 000 – –
15 180 000 28 000 000 – –
30 1 400 000 000 – – –

Source: Personal communication from F. Shipe.

temperature will double the rate of the chemical reaction. 12 800 cal mol−1. Activation energies for reactions in food are
Chemical reactions occurring in foods usually have a higher often much higher than 12 800 cal mol−1. The accepted rule
Q10 in the 3–8 range. That is, a 10 °C increase in storage that chemical reaction rates double for every 10 °C in tem-
temperature will increase the rate of the chemical reactions perature usually underestimates the rate of loss caused by
that are spontaneously occurring three-fold to eight-fold. deteriorative chemical reactions in foods. Even a small increase
A more fundamental description of the effect of tempera- in temperature will markedly increase the rate of most de-
ture on reaction rates is the Arrhenius equation: teriorative chemical reactions in foods.
Figure 3 shows the rate of nonenzymatic browning of
Ea freeze-dried onion measured as the absorbance of a water
log10 K ¼ A 
4:6T extract measured in a spectrophotometer. Onion stored at 5 °C
showed no browning after 160 days whereas onion stored at
where K equals the rate constant, A equals a constant, Ea 45 °C showed considerable browning.
equals the activation energy, and T equals the absolute tem- Figure 4 shows the loss of thiamine in canned meats stored
perature in Kelvin A Q10 factor of 10 is equal to Ea for 3 years at 0 °F (−18 °C), 32 °F (0 °C), 70 °F (21 °C), and
344 Food Security: Postharvest Losses

3.5

3.0

Absorbance ( = 420 nm)

2.5

2.0

1.5

1.0

0.5

0.0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160
Time (days)
Figure 3 Nonenzymatic browning of freeze-dried onion equilibrated to Aw ¼ 0.53 and stored at 0°, 15°, 25°, 35°, and 45 °C. Reproduced with
permission from Sá, M.M., Sereno, A.M., 1999. Kinetics of browning measured during the storage of onion and strawberry. International Journal
of Food Science Technology 34, 343–349.

found in stored food. None of these insects grow below 15 °C

(except mites) and the optimum temperatures are typical of
0 °F
90 the temperatures found in the tropics.
32
32
0 To sum up
80
70 • High storage temperatures accelerate most deteriorative
70 changes that occur in stored food. Even stable foods such as
cereal grains deteriorate more quickly as the temperature
Retention (percent)

100 increases.
60 • Hence, tropical zones have a more difficult problem in
maintaining food quality than do temperate zones. Arctic
zones have little problem with food spoilage other than
50
freezing injury. The rapid growth of plants in the humid
70
tropics is matched by a rapid rate of decay.
40 • Shelf life for all foods is shorter in the tropics than in the
temperate zones. One cannot expect to get as long a shelf
life in a hot climate as in a cold climate.
30 • All foods, even stable foods, should be stored in the coolest
place possible. Always store away from heat such as direct
20 rays of sun, near boilers, or cooking stoves.

100 Exposing foods or storage structures to direct sunlight in-

10 creases the temperature and the activity of all spoilage vectors.
6 12 18 24 30 36 In temperate climates, most foods are stored out of the sun. In
Storage (months) contrast, in tropical climates one often sees food products ex-
Figure 4 Retention of thiamine (solid line) and sensory quality posed to the sun. Figure 5 shows the effect of exposing vege-
(broken line) of canned meats stored for 3 years at four different tables to direct sunlight all day in Geneva, NY (latitude 42°53′
temperatures. Reproduced with permission from Cecil, S.R., N, longitude 77°02′W, elevation 220 m). Single whole vege-
Woodroof, J.G., 1963. The stability of canned foods in long-term tables were supported on a thin wire mesh raised 60 cm off the
storage. Food Technology 17, 131–138. ground on a wooden frame and the temperature measured by
copper–constantan thermocouples inserted into the geometric
100 °F (38 °C). Note how much faster thiamine and sensory center of each item. The experiment was conducted in July; close
quality are lost as the storage temperature increases. to the time of the summer solstice when solar radiation is at its
peak in the Northern Hemisphere although not as high as in
Example 3 tropical latitudes.
Arthropods (insects): Table 5 shows the minimum, optimum, The ambient temperature was measured by the official
and maximum growth temperature for insects commonly weather station #3031840 of the US Department of
 Food Security: Postharvest Losses 345

Table 5 Temperature requirements for growth of some stored product insects

Species Typical foodstuffs infested Temperature for growth (°C)

Minimum Optimum Maximum

Sitrotroga cerealella (Angoumous grain moth) Whole cereals 16 32 35

Cadra cautella (tropical warehouse moth) Cereals and oilseeds 15 30 38
Sitophilus oryzae (rice weevil) Whole cereals 17 28 34
Rhizopertha dominica (lesser grain borer) Cereals and cassava 18 34 39
Tribolium confusum (confused flour beetle) Flour and meals 20 33 38
Oryzaephilus surinamensis (saw-toothed grain beetle) Cereals and meals 18 35 38
Cryptolestes ferrugineus (flat grain beetle) Damaged cereals 20 33 42
Acanthoscelides obtectus (dry bean beetle) Dry beans 16 30 35
Callosobruchus maculatus (cowpea beetle) Cowpeas and other pulses 18 30 35
Trogoderma granarium (Khapra beetle) Peanuts and cereals 20 37 41
Dermestes maculatus (hide beetle) Dried fish 18 32 37
Lasioderma serricorne (cigarette beetle) Cocoa, coffee, and pulses 20 30 37
Acarus siro (mites) Meals, cheese, and dried fruits 4 20 31

Source: Reproduced from Hall, D.W., Jamieson, M.F.S., 1970. Food Storage Manual (3 volumes). Slough: Tropical Stored Products Centre.

37

35
Center temperature (°C)

33 Eggplant

31 Cabbage
Potato
29
Ambient
27

25

23

21
10 12 14 15 16 18 20 22
Hour of day
Figure 5 Internal temperature of three vegetables exposed to direct sunlight on a summer day. Reproduced with permission from Unpublished
data of Marlett and Bourne.

Commerce National Oceanic and Administration Network throughout the year in Medellin. Panama, latitude 9° N, alti-
and the temperature of the vegetables was measured ap- tude 61 m, has a mean monthly temperature of 26–28 °C
proximately 1 m away from the weather station. The ambient throughout the year and as this is close to the optimum
temperature was at 21 °C at 10 am, rose to 25 °C in the middle temperature for insect growth one can expect to have more
of the day, and fell to 24 °C by 8 pm. Eggplant and potato had difficulty in controlling insects in stored grains than that in
a dark skin and the internal temperature rose to 36 °C, some Medellin. In contrast, Bogota, Colombia, latitude 4.5° N ele-
12° higher than ambient. The temperature of the large head of vation 2645 m, has a mean monthly temperature of 14–16 °C
pale-green cabbage rose to 29 °C. throughout the year and one can expect few problems with
Providing shade to food is a simple technology and should insects because it is too cold for insects to grow. These three
be universally used in developing countries. Comparing cities lie in the tropics where there is little change in tem-
Figure 5 with the data in Table 2 shows that shade is effective perature throughout the year.
in lowering the temperature and therefore the respiration rate These three cities are relatively close together in the tropics.
thus extending the shelf life of the produce. The differences in their temperature profile are caused by al-
Climate data enable one to understand why food-spoilage titude. Ambient temperature decreases by approximately 5 °C
rates are higher in some regions than in others and why it is for every 1000 m increase in altitude.
more difficult to prevent losses in certain regions. Figure 6 Cipoletti, Argentina, latitude 39° S, altitude 270 m, shows
shows the mean monthly temperature in three cities lying in mean monthly temperatures typical of temperate climates; the
the tropics and one city in a temperate zone. Medellin, Co- monthly temperature is high in summer and low in winter.
lombia, latitude 6° N, altitude 1498 m, has a mean monthly From Table 5 one can expect to have no problems with insects
temperature of 22–23 °C all year long. From Table 5 one can in stored grain from April through October when the tempera-
expect to have problems controlling insects in stored grain ture is below 15 °C, but insect problems can occur early (January
346 Food Security: Postharvest Losses

30

25

Temperature (°C)
20
Panama
15 Medellin, Colombia
Cipoletti, Argentina
10
Bogota, Colombia

0
J F M A M J J A S O N D
Figure 6 Mean monthly temperatures in Panama (latitude 9° N, elevation 61 m), Medellin (latitude 6° N, elevation 1498 m), Bogota (latitude
4.5° N, altitude 2645 m), and Cipoletti (latitude 39° S, altitude 270 m).

Region 1

Region 2

Region 3

Region 4

Figure 7 Stored grain risk across the US. Reproduced with permission from Cuperus, G., Noyes, R.T., Farg, W.S., et al., 1993. Reducing
pesticide use in wheat postharvest systems. Cereal Foods World 38, 199–203.

through March) and late (November through December) in the in any stored food will eventually equilibrate with the sur-
year when the ambient temperature is above 15 °C. rounding air. It is called the equilibrium relative humidity (ERH).
Figure 7 shows another example of the effect of tempera- Dry foods are not sterile. They resist mold growth and other
ture on storage stability of grains. Region 1 comprising forms of microbial spoilage because their moisture content is
northern states in the US has the lowest risk, and as one moves too low to support growth. This statement applies to all dry
south into regions 2, 3, and 4 the risk increases as the average foods – cereal grains, flours, spaghetti, dry fish, dry fruit, dry
temperature rises. The dip in region 1 on the left side of the vegetables, dry milk, etc. The moisture content at which the
map is caused by the low temperatures experienced in the high foods begin to grow mold varies widely. For example, tea
mountains of the Sierra Nevada and the Rockies. becomes moldy when its moisture content exceeds 7%, but
unsalted dry fish does not mold until the moisture content
Relative humidity exceeds 12%, whereas cereal grains will mold when moisture
Air always contains water vapor. It is usually expressed as the content exceeds 14%, and raisins do not mold until the
amount of water vapor in the air as a percentage of the amount moisture level exceeds 25%.
that would be in the air if the air were saturated. The amount of ERH, an old term, has been replaced by water activity (Aw),
water vapor at saturation increases as the temperature increases which is defined by the equation: Water activity ðAwÞ ¼ PPo ;
and many handbooks give tables for the saturation vapor pres- where P equals the water vapor pressure exerted by moisture in
sure of water at different temperatures. The amount of moisture a food, Po equals water vapor pressure exerted by pure water at
 Food Security: Postharvest Losses 347

Table 6 Conditions for growth of some common fungi

Species Temperature (°C) Aw

Minimum Optimum Maximum Minimum Optimum

Aspergillus ruber 5 24 38 0.72 0.93

A. amstelodami 10 30 42 0.70 0.94
A. flavus 12 35 45 0.80 0.99
A. fumigatus 12 40 52 0.83 0.99
A. niger 10 35 45 0.77 0.99
Penicillium martensii 5 24 32 0.80 0.99

same temperature. For example, if a food has a water vapor Table 7 Moisture content for safe storage of paddy is inversely
pressure of 12.5 mm Hg at 20 °C, what is its water activity? related to temperature
Vapor pressure of pure water at 20 °C is 17.54 mm Hg (ob-
Water content – temperature – Aw for paddy rice
tained from tables). Then Aw ¼ 17:54
12:5
¼ 0:71.
The relationship between water activity and ERH is: Temperature (°C) Aw % H2O (as-is)
100 or ERH ¼ 100 Aw.
Aw ¼ ERH
7 0.70 14
27 0.70 13
Example 1
43 0.70 12
If ERH is 71%, what is the water activity? 57 0.70 11

71
Aw ¼ ¼ 0:71 Table 8 Moisture content and temperature effect on storage life of
100 barley
Example 2 Maximum number of weeks of mold-free storage of barley
If water activity is 0.71, what is the ERH?
% H2O 5 °C 15 °C 25 °C

0:71  100 ¼ 71% ERH 16 4100 4100 10

18 80 12 2
As Aw and ERH have the same numerical value it is easy to 20 9 3 1
convert from one to the other; just move the decimal point 22 4 1.5 0.5
two places. For a thorough description of water activity, con-
Source: Personal communication from R. L. Obendorf.
sult any of the following references, Barbosa-Cánovas et al.
(2007), Iglesias and Chirife (1982), or Bourne (1999).
The limiting water activity for most bacteria is approxi- migration of water vapor are the subject of other articles in this
mately Aw ¼ 0.90, for most yeasts approximately Aw ¼ 0.88, encyclopedia.
for most molds (fungi) approximately Aw¼ 0.80, and for As the saturation point of moisture in air increases with
xerophilic molds Aw ¼ 0.65. Conditions for growth of some rising temperature, the safe moisture content for storage of
common fungi are shown on the right-hand side in Table 6. grain becomes lower as the storage temperature increases.
The moisture content of grains and other dried foods is such Table 7 demonstrates how the moisture content of paddy rice
that there is seldom any problem with the growth of bacteria needs to be reduced in order to maintain a safe Aw not greater
and yeasts but there are frequently problems with the growth of than 0.70. Another example is that wheat with 14.0% water
molds (fungi). Unless the Aw is reduced to below approxi- has an Aw equal to 0.75 at 30 °C and will mold, whereas the
mately 0.7, molds will grow on any food and as the relative same wheat stored at 10 °C has an Aw equal to 0.68 and will
humidity in the humid tropics is generally more than 70% not mold.
almost all dry foods will become moldy when stored in the Table 8 shows how temperature and moisture content af-
humid tropics unless the moisture content is reduced to an Aw fect the safe storage life of barley.
of less than 0.70, followed by storage that will protect that food There are two ways to express moisture content:
from absorbing moisture from the high-humidity environment.
Water vapor always moves from a region of high Aw to a 1. Wet basis or ‘as-is’ basis is the percentage of moisture in the
region of low Aw until equilibrium is reached. Moist food will food as it is, (partly solids + partly water).
always give up water to dry air whereas dry food will always 2. Dry basis or dry matter basis (DMB) is the percentage of
absorb moisture from high relative humidity air. The only way moisture expressed on the basis of solids only.
to prevent the invisible flow of water vapor from a high Aw
Example: 100 g food contains 80 g dry matter and 20 g
region to a low Aw region is to place a barrier between the
water.
food and the air that will move through it. The design of
storage structures for bulk commodities such as cereal grains, % moisture as-is ¼ 20/100×100¼ 20%
and packaging technologies for retail foods to prevent % moisture DMB¼ 20/80×100¼ 25%
348 Food Security: Postharvest Losses

100

90

Relative humidity (%)

80 Sena Madureira, Brazil (9° S,
135 m)
70
Paramaribo, Suriname (6° N,
60 4 m)
San Carlos de Bariloche
50 (41° S, 845 m)
Cuidad juàrez (32° N, 1167 m)
40

30
J F M A M J J A S O N D
Month
Figure 8 Mean monthly relative humidity in Sena Madureira (latitude 9° S, elevation 135 m), Paramaribo (latitude 6° N, altitude 4 m), San Carlos
de Bariloche (latitude 41° S, elevation 845 m), and Cuidad Juárez (latitude 32° N, altitude 1167 m).

Both systems of expressing moisture content are widely Owing to their high Aw, horticultural crops easily lose
used and both are effective. Remember to specify whether the water into the air causing wilting which results in a lowering of
percentage of moisture is on the as-is or DMB. quality and loss of weight. For these products, a high humidity
Conversion equations: storage atmosphere is necessary, in contrast to cereal grains
and other dry foods where low humidity atmosphere is
x
x% moisture as is ¼ % DMB required.
100  x
Most developing countries lie within the tropics and their
high ambient temperatures make preserving the quality of
stored foods considerably more difficult than in temperate
y
y% moisture DMB ¼ % as-is climates because the naturally occurring deteriorative chemical
100 þ y
reactions are accelerated in the tropics. In addition, the year-
round high temperatures of tropical countries allow pests such
Figure 8 shows the mean monthly relative humidity for
as rodents and insects to feed and multiply throughout the
four cities. As observed, cereal grains and other dry foods need
year, whereas the cold winters of temperate zones slow down
to be stored at Awo0.70 to prevent mold growth. If the am-
or stop reproduction and reduce the feeding activities of these
bient relative humidity is less than 70%, the grain, if properly
pests. The low temperatures in very cold climates kill many of
dried, will not absorb moisture to a level that will permit the
the pests.
growth of mold. The city of Cuidad Juárez in Mexico, latitude
Even if tropical countries had the same per capita income
32° N, elevation 1167 m, has a low relative humidity all year
as the developed countries the continual high temperatures at
long and should experience no mold problems in stored cereal
which food must be stored pose a much more difficult set of
grains. San Carlos de Bariloche in Argentina (latitude 41° S,
problems than is found in temperate zones. The high relative
altitude 845 m) will not experience mold problems from
humidity in the humid tropics compounds this problem.
January through March or October through December but will
experience mold from April through September unless some
protection against uptake of water vapor is in place. Para-
maribo in SurÏnam (latitude 6° N, elevation 4 m) has a relative Magnitude of Losses
humidity well above 70% all year long and will need all year
long protection against uptake of water vapor from the at- A major question is: “How much food overall is lost in the
mosphere. Sena Madureira in Brazil (latitude 9° S, altitude postharvest food chain?” The honest answer to this question is
135 m) has a very high relative humidity throughout the year, that there is little reliable data. It is known that the losses are
which means tremendous efforts are needed to prevent mold highly variable depending on the commodity, the climate, the
from growing in its stored dry food. conditions in which the food is being handled, and the length
of time the food is stored. One would expect to find higher
High-moisture foods losses in perishable foods than in stable foods, and the extent
The discussion thus far has been about keeping dry foods of loss increases with time of storage. It is possible to find
sufficiently dry to prevent mold growth. Fruits and vegetables individual losses ranging from 0% to 100%, but what is of
have a high-moisture content, typically 80–95% and a very primary interest is an overall average loss figure. However,
high Aw, typically Aw40.98. They are vulnerable to spoilage little hard data based on meticulous scientifically designed
by growth of many microorganisms. It is the skin that protects observation is available.
them from microbial spoilage. Therefore, maintaining intact Harris and Lindblad (1978) developed a standard method-
skin to prevent invasion by microflora is necessary for pre- ology to assess losses in stored cereal grains. This is the only loss
servation of horticultural crops. assessment procedure that has a standard method. Other loss
 Food Security: Postharvest Losses 349

measurements each use their own procedure and wide vari- Adding the percentage loss at each step as shown in the first
ations in methodology are used even for the same class of food. column would lead to the conclusion that 105% loss occurred.
A number of figures for the extent of loss quoted in scientific Column 2 shows what the actual weight loss is at each step.
literature and by the communications media are unreliable The harvest loss of 15% of 1000 kg rice is 150 kg but the
because the amount of loss has been estimated and not been threshing loss of 15% is 128 kg because it represents 15% of
obtained by actual measurements. Sometimes ‘worst case’ fig- 850 kg not 15% of 1000 kg and at the distribution end of the
ures are used to dramatize the problem. For example, care must chain 15% loss represents only 54 kg. In this example, the
be taken when looking at one lot of food and seeing extensive overall weight loss is 690 kg or 69%, not 105%.
insect infestation not to assume that all food in the country is The 1978 US National Academy of Sciences report, ‘Post-
just as heavily infested. Extrapolation of loss from a limited harvest Food Losses in Developing Countries’ summarizes the
sample to all food of a country is an unsound procedure. problem of assessing the magnitude of losses in these words:
Sometimes cited figures are manipulated for various reasons.
There is the temptation to exaggerate loss figures when high loss It is very difficult to estimate postharvest food losses with precision.
figures might prompt donor aid or grants. In other cases, actual Partly, this is due to their inherent variability. But it is also a result of
loss figures may be understated to avoid embarrassment, or for many cultural and economic factors that frustrate the smooth, effi-
cient flow of food through the postharvest system from producer to
political, financial, pride, or trading reasons.
consumer….loss estimates – unlike production estimates, which are
Another way loss can be exaggerated is found in the case of based on the measurable genetic potential of crops – are location –
the subsistence farmer who harvests one crop a year and stores and season specific to a degree that makes the concept of average
most of it for personal use. If the grain is properly dried most of levels of loss almost meaningless. The low accuracy of loss survey
his losses will come from insect infestation and perhaps ro- techniques on the one hand, and the limitations of extrapolating
from even a specific well characterized loss situation on the other,
dents. During the first few months loss percentage is low. As make reliable, economic loss estimates very difficult to obtain.
storage continues, the number of insects increases exponentially
and there is a very high percentage loss just before the next
This problem is still with us in the twenty-first century.
harvest season. However, this high loss at the end of the storage
period applies only to a small fraction of the year's supply of
grain. Inspection of this grain in the second month might show Some Old Loss Figures
2% loss which is not a great concern. By the sixth month a loss
The 1978 National Academy of Sciences report gives the most
of 8% might be found which would cause some anxiety,
extensive and best documented figures for postharvest loss up
whereas by the 10th month the loss could be 36% and cause for
to that time. Although this is old data, it is likely that most of
alarm. In this case the actual loss for the year would probably be
these loss figures are still close to the mark today. A small
approximately 12% of the total crop which is too high but not
sample of loss data is given in Table 10 for losses of maize and
nearly as high as the 36% just before the next harvest. An ex-
Table 11 for losses in roots and tubers, fruits and vegetables.
ample of time effect is given by Mushi (1978), who reported
postharvest loss of maize in Tanzania at 9% after 3 months,
Table 10 Reported postharvest losses of maize
14% after 6 months, and 67% after 9 months storage.
Another precaution that needs to be taken in reporting Reported losses of maize in the postharvest system
losses is to ensure that the arithmetic of loss figures is correctly
calculated. In quoting loss figures at various steps along the Country Total percentage of weight loss
postharvest chain there is a common error of adding the per-
Belize 20–30
centage of loss at each stage to obtain the total loss. This leads Benin 8–9
to overall loss figures that are too large because it assumes that Brazil 15–40
each loss figure is a percentage of the original weight of ma- Ghana 7–14
terial. As each loss is expressed as a percentage of the amount Honduras 20–50
in the previous step, the percentage is being applied to a di- India 6.5–7.5
minishing base. An actual example of this error is shown in Indonesia 4
Table 9, which shows the apparent loss and actual loss that Ivory Coast 5–10
occurs in 1000 kg rice. Kenya 10–23
Malawi 6–14
Mexico 10–25
Table 9 Faulty arithmetic in assessing losses in rice Nicaragua 15–30
Nigeria 1–5 or 5.5–70
Loss (%) Weight loss (kg) Remainder (kg) Pakistan 2–7
Paraguay 25
Start – – 1000
Rwanda 10–20
Harvest 15 150 850
Tanzania 20–100
Threshing 15 128 722
Togo 5–10
Transport 10 72 650
Uganda 4–17
Storage 30 195 455
Venezuela 10–25
Milling 20 91 364
Zambia 9–21
Distribution 15 54 310
Totals 105 690 Source: Data from NAS, 1978. Postharvest Food Losses in Developing Countries.
Washington, DC: National Academy of Sciences.
350 Food Security: Postharvest Losses

Newer Loss Figures Table 12 lists some of the data found in this report. The full
report lists estimated/assumed losses for five segments of the
The 2011 FAO Report, ‘Global Food Losses and Waste. Extent,
food supply chain: (1) agricultural production, (2) postharvest
Losses, and Prevention’ is the most recent publication that
handling and storage, (3) processing and packaging, (4) dis-
gives postharvest loss figures. FAO hired the services of the
tribution, and (5) consumption. It should be noted that this
Swedish Institute for Food and Biotechnology (SIK) to carry
report puts more emphasis on food waste (edible food that is
out two studies on the extent and effects, as well as causes and
discarded) than on food loss. Table 12 only lists the item 2
prevention of food losses and food waste, one for high/
segment, postharvest handling, and storage.
medium-income countries, and one for low-income countries.
Although many of these figures may seem low, when ap-
The two studies highlighted food losses occurring along food
plied to huge quantities of food that are produced (see
chains, and made assessments of the magnitude of these los-
Table 1) the amount in tons is substantial. For example, the
ses, focusing on quantitative weight losses. They compiled,
report ‘Global Food. Waste Not, Want Not’ published by the
analyzed, and assembled data and reports about global food
Institution of Mechanical Engineers in 2013 notes:
loss and waste during recent years. Where information was not
available, assessments and assumptions were made.
Ghana, one of the more developed of the emerging West African
economy, recently experienced a 50% loss rate of stored maize from
a total 2008 production of one million tons. Considerably greater
Table 11 Reported postharvest losses of roots and tubers, fruits levels of tonnage loss exists in other larger developing nations, such
and vegetables as India for example, where about 2 million tons of wheat annually
perish due to inadequate storage and distribution. In the neigh-
Losses in roots/tubers and fruit/vegetables reported by region and boring Pakistan, losses amount to approximately 16% of pro-
duction, or 3.2 million tons annually, where inadequate storage
country
infrastructure leads to widespread rodent infestation problems.
Region/country Roots/tubers Fruits/vegetables
(percentage of loss) (percentage of loss) Postharvest losses need not be so high. A good example of
Africa control of postharvest losses is found in the Australian wheat
Ghana 10–20 30–35 industry that has invested heavily in storage structures, handling
Nigeria 10–50 10–50 practices, and insect control. Most Australian wheat is harvested
Rwanda 5–40 5–40 during the hot dry summer months and drying to prevent
Sudan 50 fungal growth is not a problem. Analysis for the crop years
Asia/Far East 1961/62–1971/72 show that the average quantitative loss in
India 20–30 storage is 0.249% per annum with a range of 0.138–0.675%
Indonesia 10 15–25 during that decade (Bourne, 1977). This close control of all
Iran 5–100 5–28
aspects of wheat handling and storage continues to this day. The
Jordan 2–3
2013 report of the Institution Mechanical Engineers cited above
Malaysia 20
Philippines 10–50 comments, “in a developed country such as Australia, wastage of
Sri Lanka 20–40 0.75% in stored grain is at the upper end of acceptability.”
Thailand 23–28
Latin America
Bolivia 24 17–30 Loss Reduction Activities
Brazil 5–30 8–10
Chile 30 30 A wide range of activities is needed in any comprehensive
Dominican 17–26 25 program of postharvest food loss reduction activity; and be-
Republic
cause there are so many different types of foods and so many
Peru 20–50
different spoilage vectors it is necessary to select an appropriate
Source: Reproduced from NAS, 1978. Postharvest Food Losses in Developing remedial activity for each specific food-spoilage combination.
Countries. Washington, DC: National Academy of Sciences. Table 13 lists the major causes of loss for the different food

Table 12 FAO report on losses and waste

Estimated/assumed postharvest handling and storage losses (percentage)

Region Cereals Roots and tubers Fruits and vegetables

Europe 4 9 5
North America and Oceania 2 10 4
Industrialized Asia 10 7 8
Sub-Saharan Africa 8 18 9
North Africa, West and Central Asia 8 10 10
South, Southeast Asia 7 19 9
Latin America 4 14 10

Source: Reproduced from FAO, 2011. Global Food Losses and Food Waste, Extent, Causes and Prevention. Rome: Food and Agriculture Organization.
 Food Security: Postharvest Losses 351

Table 13 Causes of loss and control of loss in foods

Commodity Major causes of loss Methods for reducing loss

Grains, cereals, and legumes Fungi Adequate drying, prompt drying, and dry stores
Insects Good sanitation, use of insecticides and fumigants, and
gas-tight stores
Rodents Good housekeeping, rodent-proof stores, baits, traps,
and fumigation
Inefficient handling and processing Better equipment, maintenance of equipment, and
knowledgeable management
Fruits and vegetables Bruising Gentle harvesting and handling and protective
packaging to maintain intact skin
Rotting by bacteria and fungi Good sanitation, cool storage, and use of fungicides
Senescence Cool storage, prompt marketing, and processing into
stable forms
Wilting Maintenance of high-humidity surroundings
Roots and tubers Rotting by bacteria and fungi Maintenance of intact skin, promotion of suberization
and wound cork formation, good sanitation, cool
storage, and application of fungicides
Sprouting Cool storage and application of antisprout agents
Bruising Gentle harvesting and handling and protective
packaging
Senescence Prompt marketing, cool storage, and processing into
stable forms
Insects Good sanitation and use of insecticides
Fresh fish, meat, poultry, and milk Bacterial spoilage Refrigeration, good sanitation, pasteurization, and
processing into stable forms
Dry fish Insects Good sanitation and use of insecticides
Fungi Adequate drying and prompt drying

Source: Reproduced from Bourne, M.C., 1981. United Nations Environment Programme. Industry and Environment Newsletter 4 (1), 3−5.

types and the technologies needed to preserve unprocessed or Beddington, J., Asaduzzaman, M., Clark, M., et al., 2012. Achieving food security in
minimally processed agricultural commodities. the face of climate change. In: CGIAR Research Program on Climate Change,
Agriculture and Food Security (CCAFS) Final Report from the Commission on
The resources needed include:
Sustainable Agriculture and Climate Change. Copenhagen, Denmark. Available at:
• grain handling and drying equipment; www.ccafs.cgiar.org/commission (accessed 29.10.13).
Bourne, M.C., 1977. Postharvest food losses − The neglected dimension in
• storage structures of all sizes for grain and oilseeds;
increasing the world food supply. Cornell International Agriculture Mimeograph
• dehulling and milling equipment for grains; 53, 69. Available at: http://ecommons.library.cornell.edu/handle/1813/28900
• cold stores/freezer storage; (accessed 29.10.13).
• equipment that handles horticultural crops gently; Bourne, M.C., 1999. Water activity − food texture. In: Francis, J.F. (Ed.),
• fumigation and other sanitation equipment; Encyclopedia of Food Science & Technology, second ed. New York: Wiley-
Interscience, pp. 2614–2630.
• extraction equipment that achieves the maximum yield of Bourne, M.C., 2013. Preserving food after harvest is an integral component of food
sugar from cane or oil from oilseed; and security. In: Barbosa-Cánovas, G.V. (Ed.), Proceedings of 16th World Congress of
• packaging to protect the food from water vapor, oxidation, Food Science and Technology. Springer Publishing.
or light exposure. FAO, 1981. Food Loss Prevention in Perishable Props. FAO Agricultural Services
Bulletin, 63. Rome: Food and Agriculture Orgainzation.
All of the above items are described in other articles in this FAO, 2011. Global Food Losses and Food Waste, Extent, Causes and Prevention.
encyclopedia and require no elaboration here. Rome: Food and Agriculture Organization.
Gunders, D., 2012. Wasted: How America is Losing up to 40 Percent of its Food
from Fork to Landfill. New York: National Resources Defense Council. Available
See also: Agricultural Policy: A Global View. Food Security: at: www.nrdc.org/policy (accessed 29.10.13).
Harris, K.L., Lindblad, C.J., 1978. Postharvest Grain Loss Assessment Methods. St.
Development Strategies. Food Security, Market Processes, and the
Paul, MN: American Association of Cereal Chemists.
Role of Government Policy. Food Security: Yield Gap. Human Iglesias, H.A., Chirife, J., 1982. Handbook of Food Isotherms: Water Sorption
Nutrition: Malnutrition and Diet. Policy Frameworks for International Parameters for Food and Food Components. New York: Academic Press.
Agricultural and Rural Development Institution of Mechanical Engineers, 2013. Global Food: Waste Not, Want Not.
Westminster, London: Institution of Mechanical Engineers, p. 19.
Mushi, A.M. (1978). Tanzania. Paper presented to Seminar on Postharvest Grain
Losses. London: Tropical Products Institute.
References Parfitt, J., Barthel, M., Macnaughton, S., 2010. Food waste within supply chains:
quantification and potential for change to 2050. Philosophical Transactions of the
Royal Society B 365, 3065–3081.
Barbosa-Cánovas, G.V., Fontana, A.J., Schmidt, S.S., Labuza, T.P., 2007. Water Spurgeon, D., 1976. Hidden Harvest. Ottawa, CA: International Development
Activity in Foods: Fundamental and Applications. Chicaco, IL: Institute of Food Research Center.
Technologists and Ames: Blackwell Publishing.