Computer Network:

A computer network is a collection of two or more computers connected together in order to share
data and resources e.g Printer, Hard disk etc. The computers in a network are connected through
cables or wireless media. Different types of computers in a network are as follows. Every computer
that is part of a computer network is called a node.

Basic Data Communication Components/Basic Network Components:

Following are the basic components of Data Communication System:

1. Sender: It is a device that sends the data/message through a Network. It may be a

computer,
Telephone, Mobile etc.
2. Receiver: A device that receives the data/message through a Network is called Receiver. It
may be
a computer, Telephone, Mobile, TV etc.
3. Message: The data that is to be transmitted from one node to another node is called Message.
It may be text, audio file or video file etc.
4. Medium: The path used for transmission of Message from one node to anther node is called
medium. It may be a physical cables or wireless media. It is also called channel.
5. Protocol: A set of rules that are used to control data transmission through a Network.
Without
protocols, data cannot be transmitted successfully.

Network Types:
Computer Network may be classified into the following types:

1. LAN: LAN stands for Local Area Network. A network that connects computers in a
single building or group of buildings located side by side. This is the most common type
of network. It covers a small area. It is used in colleges, universities, offices or other
organizations.
 2. MAN: MAN stands for Metropolitan Area Network. This network is used to connect
computers through a whole city. It is basically used to make connection among LANs
located at different locations within a city. For example, an organization may connect
all its offices in a city with the help of MAN. Network among Mobile Towers in a city is
another example of MAN.

3. WAN: WAN stands for Wide Area Network. This network is used to make connection
among few cities, or the whole country, or few countries or in the whole world. WAN
usually uses telephone lines or satellite for connection. For example, ATM system in a
country. Internet is another example which make network in the whole world.

4. VPN: VPN stands for Virtual Private Network.Itis used to make secure connection
between your computer and the internet.It hides your IP address and assigns a virtual
IP address. Therefore, hackers and other users cannot access your computer, your data
and cannot see which websites you visit. It provides privacy and anonymity. They can
also be used to visit websites that are restricted by location.

TYPES OF COMPUTER NETWORKS:

a) LAN (Local Area Network)

b) WAN (Wide Area Network)
c) MAN (Metropolitan Area Network)

1. LAN (Local Area Network): this is the most common type of network. It covers a small area.
Most LANs are used to connect computers in a single building or group of buildings. Hundred or
thousand of computers may be connected through LAN. Typical LANs can be found in industrial
plants, office buildings, and college or university campuses. There are many types of LAN. Ethernet
is the common for PCs.

 Peer to Peer network: this is a simple LAN and inexpensive network. It normally
connects less than ten computers. Each computer in this network can share hardware,
software, data or information of any computers in the network. Each computer stores
files on its own storage devices.

 Client server network: this is a network in witch one or more computers works as
servers and other compeers works as a clients. The server computer provides services for
the clients. Server is also called host computer. It controls access to the hardware and
software on the network and provide centralized storage area for programs data and
information. Client computers request resources from the server. Server computer is
more powerful than client computers. And contains more memory. Some servers are
known as dedicated servers. This is used to perform specific tasks. Eg print server,
backup server, file server etc.
  Server these are the workhouse of the client / server network. They serve different
network users and assist them to accomplish a variety of tasks. The numbers and types
of servers on a client / server depend on the network size and workload.

2. WAN (Wide Area Network) it refers to a network that covers a large area. WAN
connects computers in different cities, countries, and sub continents. Normally a WAN consists of
two or more interconnected LANs. Computers in WAN is often connected through telephone lines.
They can also be connecting through leased lines or satellites. WAN can reach the parts of the
world that is not possible with LANs. The speed of WAN depends on the speed provided by the
company. Eg PIA ticketing system, Bank etc

3. MAN (Metropolitan Area Network) this is a communications network that covers

geographical area of the size of city. A MAN typically includes one or more LANs but cover a small
geographical area than WAN. A MAN often acts as a high speed network. Mobile phones system
often uses MAN.

Network Topology:
The physical layout or the way in which network connections are made is called a topology. It
refers especially to the locations of computers and how the cable runs between them. It is
important to select the right topology for proper user of computer networks.
Topologies may be Bus, Ring, Star, Mesh etc.

1. Bus topology
This is the simple’s type of network. It supports a small number of computers. In this all
computers or network nodes are connected to a common communication medium. This medium is
often a central wire known as bus. The terminators are used at the end of a bus.

Advantages:
1. It is simple and easy to use
2. It requires small length of cable to connect computers.
3. It is less expensive.
4. It is easy to extend a bus. It allows more computers to join nw.
5. If one node fails, id does not affect the nw.
Disadvantages:
1. It is difficult to troubleshooting
2. It only supports small number of computers.
3. The nw speed slows down as the number of computer increases.

2. Star topology
All computers in star topology are connected with central device called hub / switch. Star
topology is mostly used in client server networks.

Advantages:
1. It is easy to maintain and modify nw
 2. Adding or removing computers can be done without disturbing the nw
3. Finding faults becomes very simple.
4. Single computer failure does not effect the nw
5. It is more flexible than other topologies.
Disadvantages:
1. It central hub / switch fails the entire network breaks down.
2. It requires a large length of cable to connect computers.
3. it is more expensive.
3. Ring Topology:
This topology is connected to the next computer with the last one connected to the first.
Data flows around the circle from device to device in one direction only. It is also known token ring
topology. The data rate of this was 4 mbps or 16 mbps. The message flows in one direction. The
message is passed around the ring until it reaches the correct destination computer.
Advantages:
1. It is less expensive than star topology
2. Every computer has equal access to the nw
Disadvantages:
1. Failure of one computer in the ring can effect the whole nw
2. It is difficult to troubleshoot
3. Adding or removing computers affect the whole nw.

4. Tree topology
This combines the characteristics of bus and star topologies. It consists of different groups of
computers attached in star topology. The groups are often connected to a bus backbone cable.
Tree topology is used for the expansion of an existing network.

Advantages:
1. It provides point to point wiring for individual segments
2. It is supported by several hardware and software vendors.

Disadvantages:
1. Overall length of each segment is limited by the type of cabling used.
2. If the backbone lines breaks the entire segment goes down.
3. It is more difficult to configure and wire than other topologies.

5. Mesh topology
In this topology every device in the network is physically connected to every other device in
the network. A message can be sent on different possible paths form source to destination. Mesh
topology provides improved performance and reliability. These are not much in local networks. It is
mostly used in WAN.

Advantages:
1. The use of dedicated link guarantees that each connection can carry its own
data load. It removes the traffic problems.
2. If one link becomes unusable, it does not harm the entire system
 3. It is easy to troubleshoot.

Disadvantages:
1. A full mesh network can be very expensive.
2. It is difficult to install and reconfigure.
Networking device:
1. Hub / Switch
2. Repeater
3. Bridge

1. Hub: it provides a central point for cables in a network. Hubs also transmit signals and have
multiple ports to which device are connected.
Hub is a physical layer device. It connects computers into a network. It broadcasts all message to
every computer on the network. A hub can handle only one way information traffic at a time.

2. Switch: this operate at data link layer of OSI model. It is more intelligent device than
hub. It uses specialized hardware called ASIC. This can run up to gigabit speeds with very low
latency rates. Latency is the time measured from when a frame entire a port to the time it exits a
port. A switch connects computers into a network and sends messages only to the intended
computer. It can also handle multiple communications channels at the same time.

3. Repeaters:
It is a device to increase the physical length of the network and refresh the signal in a
network. It is a device that is used to connect networks of same types to increase the signals.
Repeater is used to transmit signals beyond the limit of communications media. Repeater works at
physical layer of OSI Model.

4. Routers: this is a device to connect LAN to WAN and internet. It works Network layer of
the OSI Model. This is a device that connects multiple networks using similar or different protocols.
It manages the best rout between any two communication networks. Router is suitable for big
WAN. It can connect networks of different counties. They send data in less time.

5. Gateway: this is also software to install in router. It works all seven layer of the OSI
Model. This is a device that connects two or more networks with different types of protocols. It is
an intelligent device. It can convert data according to the protocol. A gateway can be used to
connect a personal computer network to mainframe computer network.

6. Bridge: this is a device that divide large network into small segment. It works the data
link layer of the OSI Model. This is a device that connects two network segments. It is used to
connect similar types of networks. When a bridge receives a signal it determines the segment
where the signal should be sent. It reads the addresses of sending and receiving computers. If both
sending and receiving computer are in the same segment bridge does not pass the signal to the
other segment. It reduces network traffic and increase network performance.

NIC: stands for network interface card. It is called LAN adepter. It is used to connect a
 device to a network. It manages the transmission of data instructions and information to and
from the computer with NIC. NIC works with particular network technology like Ethernet and
token ring. The transfer rate of an Ethernet card is from 10 mbps to 1000 mbps.

Data Communication Standards/Protocols:

A set of rules used for data communication in a Network is called Data Communication
Standards/Protocols.

PURPOSE OF COMMUNICATION STANDARDS/PROTOCOLS:

The primary reason for standards is to ensure data communication among the hardware and
software produced by different vendors. It provides the rules that how successfully and efficiently
the data may be transferred from source to destination in a Network. Examples of Data
Communication Standards are TCP/IP Protocols, AppleTalk, DECnet etc.

The purpose of Data Communications is to provide the rules and regulations that allow computers
with different disk operating systems, languages, cabling and locations to share resources. The rules
and regulations are called protocols and standards in Data Communications.
OSI Model
It stands for open system interconnection. This is a model that allows any two systems to
communication even if their architectures are different. This was developed by ISO
(International Standard Organization). This model consists of seven layers. Each layer
performs a specific function in network communication. These seven layers divided into two
groups. 1 upper layer 2 lower layer.
The upper layer focuses on user applications and how files are represented on computers
before transfer.
The lower layer is concerned with how the communications across a network actually
occurs.

Advantages of OSI model

 It divides the network communication process into smaller and simple components.
 It allows multiple vendor development via standardization of network components.
 It encourages industry standardization to define that functions occurs at each layer.
 It allows various types of network hardware and software to communicate.
 It prevents changes in one layer from affecting other layer.

7. Application layer
6. Presentation layer
5. Session layer
 4. Transport layer
3. Network layer
2. Data link layer
1. Physical layer.
1. Physical layer of OSI model:
This is the bottom most layer of the OSI model. It transmits stream of bits. And defined how
the data is transmitted over the network and which signals are used.

2 Data link layer of OSI Model:

This is responsible to divide stream of bits into packets.

3. Network layer of OSI Model:

This is responsible to maintain, establish, terminates network connections. It manages the
delivery of data from source to destinations.

4. Transport layer of OSI model:

This control flow of data, divide large message into small packets, ensure that message are
deliver error free.

5. Session layer of OSI Model:

This manages, maintain, establish, and terminate user connection it is an exchange of
messages between computers.

6. Presentation layer of OSI model:

This performs data reformatting, data compression and encryption.

7. Application layer of OSI Model:

This provides services directly to user applications. It enables the user to access the
network. This provides user interface and support for services such as email remote files
access and transfer shared database management etc.
TCP/IP MODEL:

The United States Department of Defense introduced another protocol model/suit namely TCP/IP
in 1969 for a research project ARPANET. This protocol suit is commonly used for LANs and WANs.

TCP/IP PROTOCOL SUITE ARCHITECTURE:

It is a group of protocols that are used to enable softwares and hardware for data communication
through a network. TCP/IP protocol suit may be thoroughly explained by the following 03 points:

A. TCP/IP Architecture:

TCP/IP stands for Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol. It is used basically for
successful transmission data over the network. TCP/IP Model divides data communication in the
following four layers:
i. Application Layer
Application layer defines user interface and allows the users to interact with software. It
helps to display the data, services and resources available on the network. Protocols in
Application Layers are HTTP, FTP, SMTP, DNS, RIP, SNMP etc.
ii. Transport Layer
Transport layer is related to host-to-host communication. It helps to ensureflow control,
error control, segmentation and de-segmentation, synchronization and successful
transmission between two end points. Protocols in Transport Layer are TCP, UOP etc.
iii. Internet Layer
Internet Layer is concerned with Network to Network communication. Main
responsibility of this layer is converting segments into packets and managing routing on
the base of IP Address. Protocols used in this layer are IP (Internet Protocol), IGMP,
ICMP, ARP etc.
iv. The Network Access Layer
This layer is basically the combination of Physical and Data Link layers of OSI Model. This
layerdefines how the data should be sent physically through the network. In this layer,
the selection of devices, media and networking topology will be carried out. Protocols
used in this layer are Ethernet, 802.11 Wireless LAN etc.
B. TCP/IP Ports:
C. TCP/IP Application:

COMPARISON OF TCP/IP AND OSI AND MODELS

TCP/IP and OSI Models can be compared as under:
Similarities:
1. Both Models are designed on layered approach.
2. Application Layer is common in both Models. This layer provides similar functionality in
both models.
 3. Both models have similar Network layer. In this layer, packets are switching and they
reached to destination choosing suitable path.
4. The function of Network Access Layer of TCP/IP model is similar to the function of
Physical and Data Link layer.
Differences:
OSI Model TCP/IP model
It is developed by ISO It is developed by ARPANET

OSI layers have seven layers. TCP/IP has four layers.

OSI uses the network layer to define routing

TCP/IP uses only the Internet layer.
standards and protocols.
In TCP, physical and data link are both
In the OSI model, the data link layer and
combined as a single Network Access
physical are separate layers.
Layer.
The function of Session and Presentation
Session and presentation layers are separate
layers are carried out through Application
in OSI Model.
layer.
PACKET SWITCHING AND CIRCUIT SWITCHING:
Circuit switching:
o It is a technique that establishes a dedicated path between sender and receiver for
communication.
o In the Circuit Switching Technique, the dedicated path will remain established until the data
is transmitted. The circuit will be disconnected when data transmission is completed. For
example, Telephone system.

Packet switching:
In this technique, data is transmitted from sender in blocks called packets through intermediate
nodes based on the destination address appended to each packet. When the receiver receives all
the packets, it re-assemble it to make a complete message. In Message Switching technique, there
is no establishment of a dedicated path between the sender and receiver. For example Internet
and mobile system.

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN PACKET SWITCHING AND CIRCUIT SWITCHING

 S# Circuit Switching Packet Switching

1. A dedicated line is created. No need of dedicated line

2. It is costly as requires dedicated lines. It is economical as it does not require

dedicated lines.

3. It is fast and almost errorless Error chances are higher than circuit switching.

4. Line is selected before transmission. Packets choose line for transmission

dynamically after transmission from sender.

IP ADDRESSING:

It is a combination of 04 numbers separated by dots, used to identify a device on a network. For

example, 192.168.14.5. Each number can range between 0 and 255. Each value basically represents
an octet of bits.

There are 02 types of IP Addresses. (i) static IP address is assigned by local network device, which
remains constant. (ii) dynamic IP address is a changeable IP assigned by ISP (Internet service
provider) every time you connected to internet.

a. Classification of IP Address:There are five classes of IP Addresses:

Class A: First decimal number represents the network part, while the remaining 03 number
represent hosts. Its range is 0 – 126. It means that it is used for 127 networks and
each network may have 16,777,214 possible hosts. This class is used when there is
large number of hosts/clients.

Class B: First 02 decimal numbers represent the network part, while the remaining 02
numbers represent hosts. Its range is 128 – 191. It means that there are 16,384
networks in class B. Each network may have 65,534 hosts. This class is used when
there is medium number of networks and hosts.

Class C: First 03 decimal numbers represent the network part, while the remaining 01
number represents hosts. Its range is from 192 to 223. It means that there are
2,097,152 networks in class c. Each network has 254 hosts. This class is used for
large networks having small hosts.

Class D: This class is reserved for multicasting. Its range is from 224 to 239.

Class E: This class is reserved for research and development. Its range is from 240 to 255.

Class Range Subnet Mask Example Max number

of networks
Class A 0 – 127 255.0.0.0 100.10.11.1 128
Class B 128 – 191 255.255.0.0 150.101.110.120 16384
Class C 192 – 223 255.255.255.0 210.190.100.150 2097157
 Class D 224 – 239 - 230.150.110.11 -
Class E 240 – 255 - 245.101.110.110 -

b. Subnet Masks:

It is the combination of 04 decimal numbers that describes which portion of the IP address is
Network and which portions is hosts.Network portion will have a value showing maximum
number of networks. But hosts portion of it will be represented by 0.

Class Subnet Mask

Class A 255.0.0.0
Class B 255.255.0.0
Class C 255.255.255.0
Class D -
Class E -