EFP 500

PSYCHOLOGY OF LEARNING
EDUCATIONAL FOUNDATIONS DEPARTMENT
POST GRADUATE DIPLOMA IN EDUCATION PROGRAMME
COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT AND LEARNING
ASSINGMENT 1
PREPARED BY GROUP U:
BONCHOSE KAGISO SETUME; ID 200102152
BOTLHE BATENG; ID- 201301916
PHETHO MARVIN DIPHOKO; ID- 201202166
KAGO MASANE; ID- 201602124
KATSO OBOTSANG; ID - 202407827

LECTURER: DR L MAKWINJA
COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT AND LEARNING
Cognitive development refers to an increase in the mental processes that underlie gaining knowledge and understanding in such areas
as thinking, reasoning, memory, problem-solving, and decision-making. According to Berk (2013), cognitive development is the
creation and judgment of these abilities from birth through adulthood. This also occurs through interaction between biology and the
environment. Cognitive development occupies a central place in human development, it encompasses one's perception, interpretation,
and relationship with the world Siegler et al., (2011). However, in childhood, cognitive development occurs within varied levels. As
such, cognitive development analyzes the nature of development in regard to how children increase to develop conscious control over
cognition and behavior. Additionally, how cognitive development happens in a social context (Bjorklund, 2013)
According to Smidt (2013), cognitive development is important as it provides children with the means of paying attention to thinking
about the world around them, as such real-life experiences can impact a child's cognitive development. More specifically, Smidt
(2013) accentuate that cognitive development encompasses a child's working memory, attention, as well as a child's ability to manage
and respond to the experiences and information they experience daily. One could even think of cognitive development as the child's
air traffic controller's tower, with information coming in and being processed daily with intent and purpose.
As suggested by Kardoyo (2022), students who come from vocational school have higher cognitive level. This is because students find
it easier to understand and learn when they practice directly and have experience of learning theories. Intrinsically, constructing
knowledge from experience has proved to be easier to improve students' cognitive learning. With regard to the overall importance of
cognitive development in children's growth and development, cognitive development may be promoted through the following:
Helping a child maintain focus and attention for example keeping away from distractions and interruptions. Showing an interest in the
child's activities and attempting to observe and reflect upon what they think and what they are trying to achieve. Besides, new ways of
offering materials, noticing things, and making suggestions can only spark curiosity that may help trigger cognitive development and
learning.
Theories of cognitive development have been extensively studied, and among the most influential theorists are Jean Piaget and Lev
Vygotsky. Both offered seminal frameworks that continue to guide our understanding of how children acquire knowledge and develop
cognitively.
PIAGET’S THEORY OF COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT
Jean Piaget (1896–1980) is famous for his theory of cognitive development in children, in which he proposed that there are four stages
of development: sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, and formal operational. Piaget perceived children as active
learners who develop knowledge while interacting with their environment. Indeed, he described children as "little scientists" who learn
about the world by forming and testing hypotheses through their interactions. Formal and informal education in Piaget's thinking
should bring about discords in the child's prior knowledge through new experiences and discussions with peers. Education should also
be child-centered; it should match the child's prior knowledge, cognitive capabilities, and cultural background. The theory further
emphasizes that education should gauge the readiness of children to learn new information, for example, through formative
assessment. Lastly, building understanding through experience should be prioritized over teaching facts, and assessing children’s
understanding should be prioritized over testing whether they know the correct answer.
Piaget's theory of cognitive development is an important foundation to education, in which educators draw from in attempts to
understand the way diverse-aged and -staged students learn. Educators use that insight to drive age-specific curricula and instruction
strategies for fostered cognitive development in their students, for example;
In Curriculum Design:
Creation of Suitable Content: Piaget's theory is helpful in that it instructs educators in how to plan curricula that are appropriate to
students' abilities at given levels. For instance, younger students would be working with concrete, hands-on activities, while the older
students would be more likely to engage in work with abstract ideas (formal operation stage).
Conceptual Progression: The curriculum is designed in such a way that it can progress gradually, building knowledge in manageable
steps. Also, topics first introduce simple and concrete forms that later return in more complex, abstract forms as students' cognitive
capabilities advance.
Piaget's theory begins with the sensorimotor stage (birth to two years old): whereby the child learns through senses and through
motor movements Payne & Isaacs (2020). A major accomplishment that occurs during this stage is object permanence, or the
realization that objects exist independent of one's perception of those objects. Children become preoccupied with knowing their world
through senses and motor activities. At this stage, they are not ready for structured chores; however, they can be involved in simple
activities that develop motor skills and interaction with the environment.
Chores a child might engage in:
- Putting toys away inside a container: This will help provide early spatial awareness (Piaget, 1954).
- Wiping: A toddler can take a lightweight cloth and help in wiping tables or surfaces. Though they will not do a good job at it, it
enables them with an opportunity to develop coordination skills and practice an adult-like behavior.
 - Assisting with laundry: Give them small, soft items like socks or washcloths to move from one place to another. The sensation of
various textures against the skin may be a source of preoccupation.
- Setting a table with plastic or soft items: They can participate by placing napkins or unbreakable utensils on a table. This will provide
initial concepts about routine and sequencing.
- Throwing away garbage: In this regard, the child should be demonstrated as to put small and safe things, such as paper, into the
dustbin. It may endow a sense of achievement and responsibility.
These activities are relevant to the sensorimotor stage because they deal with sensorial exploration integrated with motor development
and imitation of adult activities
The second stage, the preoperational stage, (age 2 to 7): The child now begins using signs and speech to represent objects and
events. Thinking, however, is still egocentric during this stage; that is, the child can barely appreciate the point of view of another.
House chores in this stage should also be simple tasks that are concrete and enable them to use their language and motor skills (Case,
2013).
Chores a child might engage in:
- Sorting toys by color: This develops cognitive skills, such as categorization and sequence (Berk, 2013).
- Tidying up Toys: The child begins to put their toys into boxes or onto shelves; this teaches organization and ownership of items that
are theirs.
- Setting the Table: They do simple jobs such as laying out forks, spoons, and napkins on the table. This develops fine motor skills and
also the following of simple routines.
- Watering Plants: With a small watering can, they can help water indoor plants or garden plants, finding this task very interactive and
able to care for something alive.
- Feeding Pets: Children can learn to feed the pets under the supervision of an elder because they can scoop the food in the in the
bowls. The children will learn responsibility and develop empathy towards animals.
This chore helps them feel included in family tasks and supports their sense of independence. The various activities will make them
responsible, independent, and involved keeping in mind the developmental ability of the child.
The third stage, the concrete operational stage (ages 7–11): The child develops logical thinking about events that can be seen and
touched (Russell, 1977). Now the child is capable of performing other mental operations such as sorting objects based on size and
weight, classifying objects, counting of objects, and doing simple arithmetic. During this stage, children are helpful in activities
requiring logical organization of things. At this level, tasks that rely on these intellectual capabilities need to foster responsibility,
initiative n problem-solving and realization of how one job relates to another.
Chores a child might engage in:
- Sorting and Organizing: Ask the child to sort laundry by color or type, arrange the toys, or arrange books on a shelf according to
their size or topic. This enhances classification and hierarchies.
- Measuring and Counting: Engage them in some cooking or baking activities where they can measure ingredients involved and follow
a recipe through steps. This enhances logical thinking, planning, and sequencing of actions, Siegler et al., (2011).
- Caring for Pets: Having pets to feed at a particular time of the day will help kids to learn routine, time management and compassion
for others.
- Gardening: Provide them with small responsibility for the care of the plants, such as watering or weeding. They can also chart a
plants growth over time, building their understanding of cause and effect along with responsibility.
- Making Simple Shopping Lists: Give them a chance to make a shopping list of items they think the family is out of or help to check
off items on the list while shopping. This encourages sorting and memory capabilities
These activities cater to the developmental skills described by Piaget, who reasoned that during this stage, children are building logic
but need to be provided with concrete tasks and visual keys in order to understand an idea.
Lastly, the formal operational stage-at approximately age 12: In this stage or phase, young men and women will be able to reason
in an abstract and logical manner. A teenager in this phase can reason hypothetically and deductively, solve problems through
systematic approaches. It is at this stage that children begin to utilize abstract thought, logical reasoning, and problem solving.
Attributing home chores that come with such intellectual characteristics will enhance more development in responsibility, planning,
and independent decision-making (SM, & Latipah,2024).
Chores a child might engage in:
- Planning and Organizing Jobs – Give them complicated errands that need planning, such as planning a family outing, outing, meal
preparation, or making a grocery list. They are capable of understanding many-step procedures and abstract ideas like the division of
time.
- Budgeting and Money Management - Provide them with a set budget for household tasks, such as grocery shopping or buying
materials for home mini projects. This helps them to think logically regarding the use money and making good decisions on how to
spend their money effectively.
- Problem-Solving Tasks - Encourage them to do some trouble shooting at home, for example, such as fixing a leaky faucet, or help
work out problems with technology. Their abstract thinking skills set them off to accept more complex tasks and solve them.
-Time-Dependent Tasks – Provide them with responsibility connected to time-bound tasks, such as helping schedule laundry or
managing a family calendar.
- Looking after younger siblings- They may be entrusted to care for younger siblings, including reasoning, solving conflicts, and
taking others perspectives into consideration.
These are the house chores that enable kids at this stage to develop their higher-order thinking and abstract reasoning while promoting
independence and responsibilities Piaget, (1954).
VYGOTSKY’S SOCIOCULTURAL THEORY OF COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT
Lev Vygotsky (1896–1934) proposed a contrasting view, emphasizing the influence of social interactions and cultural tools on
cognitive development. Unlike Piaget, who posited that cognitive development followed a universal path, Vygotsky (1978) argued
that it is largely shaped by the specific social and cultural context in which a child grows. Vygotsky’s sociocultural theory highlights
that learning occurs through interactions with "more knowledgeable others," such as parents, teachers, and peers. A key component of
Vygotsky’s theory is the Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD), which represents the gap between what a child can do independently
and what they can achieve with guidance. This process of learning is further supported by scaffolding, where the more knowledgeable
person provides support that is gradually withdrawn as the child becomes more capable (Berk, 2013).
Vygotsky also placed significant importance on language in cognitive development. Unlike Piaget, who considered language a
byproduct of cognitive growth, Vygotsky viewed it as a central tool that drives cognitive development. He argued that through social
interaction, children learn to use language for thinking and problem-solving (Berk, 2013). Vygotsky's sociocultural theory emphasizes
the role of social interaction and cultural context in cognitive development. Social interactions in the form of dialogues allows people
to move toward a more individualized thinking (Huang, 2021). This learning process involves people interacting with each other
during shared activities, usually to resolve a problem; when a child receives help, he or she may be able to utilize the strategy from
previous experiences in the future. According to Huang (2021) learning through such dialogues encourages internalization of thoughts,
which drives independent thinking.
In education, Vygotsky’s ideas have significant implications, particularly through concepts such as the Zone of Proximal Development
(ZPD) and scaffolding. Below is how Vygotsky's theory is applied in education:
Scaffolding, as discussed refers to the support provided by teachers or peers to help a student learn a new concept or skill. This
support is gradually removed as the student becomes more proficient. Teachers use scaffolding by breaking down learning into
smaller, manageable steps. For example, in math, a teacher might demonstrate a problem-solving method, guide students through
practice problems, and then let students work independently as they gain confidence. Scaffolding techniques include giving hints,
asking leading questions, providing examples, and offering feedback. Interactive learning environments, such as collaborative group
work or classroom discussions, help students scaffold each other’s learning.
SIMILARITIES BETWEEN PIAGET AND VYGOTSKY’S THEORY
Piaget and Vygotsky have several things in common despite their divergent approaches to cognitive development. Both saw kids as
active learners who build knowledge by interacting with their surroundings. Although they disagreed on how much culture matters,
they both acknowledged the significance of social aspects in learning according to (Berk, 2013; Piaget, 1954). Children are active
learners who create knowledge rather than passively absorbing it, according to Piaget and Vygotsky. They both believe that a child's
interactions with the outside world have an impact on their cognitive development, which is a dynamic process.
According to both theorists, thinking at increasingly sophisticated levels is essential to cognitive development. Although Piaget
identified phases, Vygotsky recognized that learning and cognitive abilities emerge progressively with assistance and interaction.

In the process of learning, Piaget and Vygotsky recognized the importance of interaction, as reported by Brown et al. (2013). A child's
engagement with their surroundings impacts their cognitive development, according to both Vygotsky and Piaget, who also regarded
social connection as being more significant than physical environment contact.
While Piaget focused on the individual progression through stages, Vygotsky emphasized that readiness can be expanded through
guided learning. Both theorists agreed that language is an important aspect of cognitive development, though they differed about its
origin and role. According to Mahn (2003), Piaget saw language as a reflection of cognitive growth, while Vygotsky saw it as a
primary driver of that growth. Nevertheless, both recognized the importance of language in learning and intellectual development.
This two Theorists acknowledged that individual differences in cognitive development could exist according to Fischer, K. W., &
Silvern, L. (1985). Vygotsky suggested social and cultural distinctions as the cause of this variety, while Piaget linked it to elements
like experience and maturation. However, they both believed that individual characteristics must be considered in educational practice
because development is not uniform.

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN PIAGET’S AND VYGOTSKY’S THEORIES

In the discipline of psychology, Lev Vygotsky and Jean Piaget both provided unique perspectives on the problem of cognitive
development. Piaget’s emphasis on universal phases of development, driven by biological maturation, is one of the main distinctions
between their views. Vygotsky countered that growth is more malleable and influenced by social and cultural factors. Their
perspectives on the connection between language and cognition also differ noticeably. While Piaget thought that language emerges
when cognitive processes are already in place, Vygotsky thought that language changes thinking (Vygotsky, 1978; Piaget, 1954).
According to Pass (2004), the main distinction between Vygotsky and Piaget is that the latter held that learning is imparted through
social and cultural contexts, while the former supported the constructivist approach to children, or how the child interacts with the
world. Piaget thought that children ought to be able to comprehend schemas on their own. While Vygotsky thinks that receiving
instruction from a more experienced person will enable kids to develop cognitively at a higher level. Furthermore, Piaget (1954)
thought that learning cannot occur until assimilation, accommodation, and equilibrium are achieved by children. For instance, a child
may internalize this knowledge and refer to a horse as a dog when they encounter one. Through the process of accommodation, the
youngster will be able to integrate the information that certain creatures with four legs are horses into their existing schema. On the
other hand, Vygotsky thought that the zone of proximal development might be used to teach development through appropriate
scaffolding. For example, if a student's reading level is below what is needed to understand a text, the teacher can use scaffolding to
gradually raise the student's reading level until the student can read the material.
Piaget thought that via their interactions with their surroundings, children actively construct knowledge according Pardjono (2016). He
underlined that learning is an active process of making sense of the world rather than the passive intake of knowledge. Children create
schemas as they engage with their environment, and they continuously modify these schemas to incorporate new knowledge. Though
he gave more weight to the social aspect of learning, Vygotsky shared constructivist views on learning. Children build their knowledge
through social interactions and cultural experiences, according to him. He thought that language and interaction with more
experienced people serve as collaborating mediators in the process of cognitive growth.
According to Piaget (1954), there are four phases of cognitive development: sensorimotor (0–2 years), preoperational (2–7 years),
concrete operational (7–11 years), and formal operational (11+ years). Children go through these phases in the same order; however
the timing may differ. Each stage denotes a fundamental shift in thinking.
Although, unlike Piaget, Vygotsky did not place as much emphasis on inflexible developmental phases, he did recognize that cognitive
capacities grow in an organized, progressive way. According to his theory of the Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD), children can
develop cognitively through structured learning and social contact, which helps them move toward more sophisticated thought
processes.
Piaget (1954) believed that cognitive development is greatly influenced by interaction with the physical world. He felt that problem-
solving and exploration promote cognitive development in kids and that children learn best through practical experiences. His
approach focused on learning experiences where kids interact with their environment and modify their perceptions of it, such as
experimentation and exploration.

While he focused on social and cultural relations, Vygotsky (1978) shared the view that interaction is crucial. Children learn by
communication and engagement with older peers or adults who have more life experience, according to his theory. A crucial part of
influencing cognitive development are instruments like language, symbols, and cultural behaviours.
Language is an outcome of cognitive development (Piaget 1954). According to him, infants develop multiple symbolic systems as
their cognitive capacities grow, particularly in the preoperational stage. Language is just one of them. As a reflection of pre-existing
cognitive processes, Piaget considered language to be subordinate to thought.
According to Vygotsky (1978), however, language is fundamental in the process of forming cognition. According to him, children
primarily acquire cognitive skills through social engagement through language. As children get older, language and thought, in his
opinion, cease to be distinct systems and instead become tools for thinking. Piaget highlighted that children can acquire specific
concepts only at the appropriate developmental stage. In line with this notion, educators ought to design lessons that correspond to the
cognitive growth of the students. For instance, children should not be exposed to abstract reasoning before they reach the formal
operational stage, as they are mentally capable of handling such problems at that age according to Lourenço (2016).
Though he also supported developmental readiness, Vygotsky (1978) also proposed the idea of the Zone of Proximal Development
(ZPD), which holds that with the right support, kids can reach higher comprehension levels. The teacher's job is to provide the child a
scaffolding that supports them just above their current capacity for independence.
Piaget (1954) recognized that depending on their experiences and evolution, children progress through the phases of cognitive
development at varying rates. But according to him, each child goes through the phases in the same order and the pattern is universal.
Vygotsky gave individual differences especially those resulting from social and cultural contexts more weight. It was his contention
that a child's distinct cultural experiences and tools shaped their cognitive development, leading to variations in how youngsters learn
and see the world.

CONCLUSION
In conclusion, Jean Piaget and Lev Vygotsky both made lasting contributions to how we understand cognitive development. Each of
them provided different ideas on how children learn. Piaget’s theory explains that children go through specific stages as they grow. He
focused on how children learn by exploring and interacting with their physical environment. He believed that children are like little
scientists, learning by experimenting and discovering things on their own (Piaget, 1954).

On the other hand, Vygotsky emphasized the importance of social interaction in learning. He believed that children develop
cognitively by engaging with others in their cultural and social environment. Vygotsky argued that learning happens through
interactions with more knowledgeable people, such as teachers, parents, or peers, who guide children and help them develop skills.
His concept of the Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) is widely used in education, showing that children learn best when they are
given tasks just slightly above their current abilities, with support (Vygotsky, 1978).

Even though Piaget and Vygotsky had different ideas, they shared some important beliefs. Both theorists agreed that children are
active learners who do not simply absorb information. They both recognized that children’s interaction with their environment plays a
key role in learning. Piaget saw this happening through independent exploration, while Vygotsky saw it as occurring through social
interaction. They also both believed in the power of language in learning, although they viewed its role differently. Piaget thought
language comes after cognitive structures develop, while Vygotsky believed language is crucial from the start for cognitive growth
(Berk, 2013).
Furthermore, both theorists stressed that education should match the child’s developmental level. Piaget focused on providing learning
activities suited to a child’s cognitive stage, while Vygotsky emphasized the importance of providing social support based on the
child’s needs. Today, many educators combine the ideas of both theorists in the classroom, understanding that effective teaching needs
to consider both independent thinking and social learning.

Another similarity between the two is that they both acknowledged that children develop at different rates. Piaget and Vygotsky
emphasized the need to adapt teaching to meet the unique needs of each child. This idea is still important today, as teachers strive to
differentiate instruction to cater to students' varying levels of development (Siegler et al., 2011).

In summary, Piaget’s emphasis on stages of development and individual discovery, combined with Vygotsky’s focus on social
interaction and cultural influence, provides a complete understanding of how children learn. Their ideas continue to influence modern
education by helping teachers design classroom activities that encourage both independent and collaborative learning (Berk, 2013). By
blending these two approaches, educators are better equipped to support students in all aspects of their cognitive growth.
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