2024

GLOBAL HUNGER INDEX

HOW GENDER JUSTICE CAN ADVANCE CLIMATE RESILIENCE
AND ZERO HUNGER
2024
GLOBAL HUNGER INDEX
HOW GENDER JUSTICE CAN ADVANCE CLIMATE RESILIENCE
AND ZERO HUNGER

Miriam Wiemers, Marilena Bachmeier, Asja Hanano, Réiseal Ní Chéilleachair, Aimée Vaughan, Connell Foley,
Holger Mann, Daniel Weller, Katrin Radtke, Heidi Fritschel

Guest Authors
Nitya Rao (University of East Anglia), Siera Vercillo (Wageningen University), Gertrude Dzifa Torvikey (University of Ghana)

Bonn/Berlin/Dublin/Bochum
October 2024

To learn more, visit

www.globalhungerindex.org
#GHI2024

A Peer-Reviewed Publication
Gender-equitable access to resources, services, and information
is essential for transforming food systems in an inclusive way.
In Northern Bahr el Ghazal, South Sudan, where the economic
crisis and floods have hit hard, women are building a feeder road
to ensure access to crucial infrastructure.
FOREWORD

W
ithin the past year, two important anniversaries in the The good news is that gender justice—equity between people in
world’s efforts to advance human rights have taken place: all spheres of life—holds the promise of transformative change.
the 75th anniversary of the Universal Declaration of Women’s access to and control over assets, as well as joint deci-
Human Rights and the 20th anniversary of the Voluntary Guidelines sion-making between spouses, can improve household food secu-
on the Right to Food. These landmark accomplishments enshrined rity, child nutrition, and overall well-being. When decision-making
and pointed the way toward a universal right to adequate food—yet about sustainable land management, livelihood diversification, and
in 2024 adequate food is out of reach for billions of people, while education is inclusive and equitable, households and communities
both the human right to adequate food and international law are bla- become more resilient to a changing climate and improve their food
tantly disregarded by those in power. and nutrition security.
The Global Hunger Index (GHI) tracks the state of hunger world- Community-centered program experience supports this approach.
wide and by region and country, spotlighting those places where In South Sudan, initial results from a Welthungerhilfe (WHH) project
action to address hunger is most urgently needed. As a tool for mea- suggest that activities to boost climate adaptation, like tree planting
suring long-term trends in hunger, the 2024 GHI shows that despite and agroforestry, picked up significantly when both women and men
some bright spots in certain regions and countries, global hunger were equally involved in decision-making and ownership of resources.
remains at a moderate level—little changed from its level in 2016. In Malawi, when couples come together to discuss gender norms,
Achieving Zero Hunger by the target date of 2030 appears unreach- stereotypes, and challenges through Concern Worldwide’s Umodzi
able. Globally, 733 million people—significantly more than a decade program, they are better able to engage in joint decision-making,
ago—lack access to sufficient calories, and 2.8 billion cannot afford manage household chores, and reduce domestic violence.
a healthy diet. Acute food insecurity and the risk of famine are on the Transformation of gender roles is not easy, of course, and there
rise, and starvation is proliferating as a weapon of war. Underlying is a long way to go to achieve a gender-just world that supports food
these alarming statistics is a state of permacrisis arising from wide- security and climate resilience. But the gap between current gender
spread conflicts, the increasing impacts of climate change, economic inequities and full gender justice points to where the opportunities
challenges, debt crises, and inequality. Nonetheless, some countries for progress lie. It is time for us all to work toward gender justice to
have shown that progress is possible. Notable reductions in GHI create a climate-resilient world in which all people are assured of
scores have been made for example in Bangladesh, Mozambique, the right to adequate food so they can lead healthy, productive lives.
Nepal, Somalia, and Togo, although hunger remains a serious con- This year, Concern Worldwide and Welthungerhilfe (WHH) are
cern in these countries. delighted to welcome a new academic partner who will calculate
Besides assessing trends and rankings in hunger by country, and develop the Index going forward—the Institute for International
this year’s GHI report takes a deeper look at the importance of Law of Peace and Armed Conflict (IFHV), one of Europe’s leading
addressing gender inequality in achieving climate resilience and Zero academic institutions conducting research into humanitarian crises.
Hunger, in a guest essay by Nitya Rao, Siera Vercillo, and Gertrude The IFHV brings a strong tradition of scholarship in international
Dzifa Torvikey. Inequality on the basis of gender is one of the most humanitarian law and human rights law as well as interdisciplinary
pervasive threats to sustainable development and the realization of expertise in social science, geosciences, and public health. As civil
the right to food. Gender discrimination impedes equitable access society actors, we will continue to collaborate with a range of part-
to, use of, and control over resources, such as land and credit, and ners and experts in a variety of fields to report on hunger and advo-
hampers coping capacity in the face of climate shocks and stressors. cate for food and nutrition security for all.

Mathias Mogge David Regan

Secretary General / CEO Chief Executive Officer
Welthungerhilfe (WHH) Concern Worldwide

2024 Global Hunger Index | Foreword3

CONTENTS

Chapter 01 CHAPTER 02 CHAPTER 03 APPENDIXES

SUMMARY  5

CHAPTERS
01 Global, Regional, and National Trends in Hunger  6
02 Gender Justice, Climate Resilience, and Food and Nutrition Security  24
03 Policy Recommendations  36

APPENDIXES
A Methodology  39
B Data Underlying the Calculation of the 2000, 2008, 2016, and 2024 Global Hunger Index Scores  43
C 2000, 2008, 2016, and 2024 Global Hunger Index Scores, and Changes since 2016  46
D Countries’ 2024 GHI Scores by Region  47

BIBLIOGRAPHY  51

RESOURCES FOR UNDERSTANDING HUNGER AND MALNUTRITION  58

PARTNERS  60

4 Contents | 2024 Global Hunger Index

SUMMARY

The Outlook Is Grim As Progress forced migration as a result of persecution, conflict, violence, human
against Hunger Stagnates rights violations, or civil disorder, and many more have been displaced
by weather-related disasters. The wars in Gaza and Sudan have led
Over the past decade, worldwide progress against hunger has slowed to exceptional food ­crises. Inequality between and within countries
to a troubling degree. The 2024 Global Hunger Index (GHI) score for is on the rise. And while extreme poverty in middle-income countries
the world is 18.3, considered moderate, down only slightly from the has decreased, income inequality is persistently high, and poverty in
2016 score of 18.8. This global score obscures wide variations in the poorest countries and countries affected by some form of state
hunger by region. The situation is most severe in Africa South of the fragility, conflict, or violence is still worse than before the pandemic.
Sahara and South Asia, where hunger remains serious. Africa South
of the Sahara’s high GHI score is driven by the highest undernour-
Gender Justice Is a Cornerstone to Achieving Climate
ishment and child mortality rates of any region by far. In South Asia,
Resilience and Food and Nutrition Security
serious hunger reflects rising undernourishment and persistently high
child undernutrition, driven by poor diet quality, economic challenges, Gender inequality, food insecurity, and climate change converge
and the increasing impact of natural disasters. The goal of Zero to place households, communities, and countries under extreme
Hunger by 2030 now appears unreachable, and if progress remains at stress. Women and girls are typically hardest hit by food insecu-
the pace observed since the 2016 global GHI score, the world will not rity and malnutrition. They also suffer disproportionately from the
reach even low hunger until 2160—more than 130 years from now. effects of weather extremes and climate emergencies. Addressing
the challenges of food insecurity and climate change in an equitable
way entails recognizing people’s different needs, vulnerabilities, and
Hunger Is Serious or Alarming in 42 Countries
opportunities; redistributing resources and labor equitably; and ensur-
Dozens of countries still experience a level of hunger that is much ing women’s representation and participation in decision-making pro-
too high. The 2024 GHI scores and provisional designations cesses at all levels. Reforms are needed to incorporate gender justice
show that hunger is considered alarming in 6 countries: Burundi, at all scales and levels, ranging from individuals to entire systems
Chad, Madagascar, Somalia, South Sudan, and Yemen. In another and from formal mechanisms to informal social and cultural norms.
36 countries, hunger is designated as serious. Furthermore, many
countries are slipping backward: in 22 countries with moderate,
Past Success Shows Progress Is Possible
­serious, or alarming 2024 GHI scores, hunger has actually increased
since 2016. In 20 countries with moderate, serious, or alarming With the realization of the right to adequate food out of reach for
2024 GHI scores, progress has largely stalled—their 2024 GHI billions of people, it is increasingly urgent for the world to reverse
scores have declined by less than 5 percent from their 2016 GHI the alarming trends that are pushing hunger upward and to acceler-
scores. However, examples of progress and hope do exist amid cri- ate progress toward shaping equitable, nutritious, and resilient food
ses and worrying trends. A small number of countries—including systems, even within the context of a changing climate and turbu-
Bangladesh, Mozambique, Nepal, Somalia, and Togo—have made lent geopolitics. Progress against hunger between 2000 and 2016
significant improvements in their GHI scores, even if hunger in these shows how much can be accomplished in just a decade and a half.
countries remains too high. Over that period, the global GHI score fell by about one-third, and
hunger on the world scale moved from serious to moderate. The
push for gender justice—with its benefits for agricultural production,
Multiple Crises Are Complicating the Effort
food security, diets, and child nutrition—can be an important tool
to Reduce Hunger
in reducing hunger. Protecting the gains already made, advancing
The 2024 GHI results reflect a barrage of successive and overlap- progress against hunger, and ensuring the right to food for all will
ping challenges that have the severest impacts on the world’s poorest demand both innovative thinking and determined action to address
countries and people. These challenges include large-scale armed the challenges of conflict and climate change, improve governance,
conflicts, climate change indicators that have climbed “off the charts,” and generate durable solutions to the crises before us.
high domestic food prices, market disruptions, economic downturns,
and debt crises in many low- and middle-income countries. More than
115 million people globally are subject to internal displacement or

2024 Global Hunger Index | Summary5

01

Severe drought due to five failed rainy seasons is destroying

people’s pastoral livelihoods in the Borena Zone of Oromia Region,
Ethiopia. A woman takes part in a cash-for-work program to
excavate a community water storage pond that will collect rainwater
for livestock and irrigation of forage crops.
GLOBAL, REGIONAL, AND
NATIONAL TRENDS IN HUNGER
Note: The results in this 2024 Global Hunger Index report supersede all previous GHI results. The 2000, 2008, and 2016 scores and
indicator data contained within this report are currently the only data that can be used for valid comparisons of the GHI over time.

Key Messages
> Little progress has been made on reducing hunger since 2016, > The right to food is largely unrealized and unenforced. Despite the
and the prospects for achieving Zero Hunger by the target date international community’s repeated emphasis on the importance
of 2030 are grim. The 2024 Global Hunger Index score for the of the right to adequate food, there remains a troubling disparity
world is 18.3, considered moderate, down only slightly from the between the standards established and the reality that in many
2016 score of 18.8. parts of the world the right to food is being blatantly disregarded.

> The 2024 GHI results reflect a barrage of successive and over- > Examples of progress and hope exist amid crises and worrying
lapping challenges that have hit the world’s poorest countries and trends. Contrary to the global trend, a small number of countries
people hardest, amplifying structural inequalities. These chal- have made significant improvements in their GHI scores, even if
lenges include large-scale armed conflicts, increasingly severe hunger in these countries remains too high.
climate change impacts, high domestic food prices, market dis-
ruptions, high debt burdens among low- and middle-income coun- > Discriminatory norms and gender-based violence often place
tries, income inequality, and economic downturns. women and sexual and gender minorities at a heightened risk of
food and nutrition insecurity and climate change impacts. Efforts
> Conflicts have raised the specter of famine. The wars in Gaza to improve gender equity hold promise for enhancing household
and Sudan have led to exceptional food crises. Conflict and civil and community food and nutrition security as well as for boost-
strife are also generating food crises elsewhere, including the ing resilience to climate change.
Democratic Republic of the Congo, Haiti, Mali, and Syria.

PROGRESS AGAINST HUNGER IS FALLING SHORT

Hunger is still considered alarming in 6 countries and serious in 36 countries.

In 22
countries with
In 20
countries with
In 5 countries
with moderate,
At the current
pace, at least 64
countries will not reach Progress has been
moderate, serious, moderate, serious, or serious, or low hunger—much less notable for example in
or alarming 2024 alarming 2024 GHI alarming 2024 Zero Hunger—by 2030. Bangladesh, Mozambique,
GHI scores, hunger scores, progress has GHI scores— If progress remains at the Nepal, Somalia, and Togo,
has increased largely stalled—their Fiji, Jordan, pace observed since 2016, although challenges
since 2016. 2024 GHI scores Libya, Syria, and low hunger at global level remain.
have declined by Venezuela— their may not
less than 5 percent 2024 GHI scores be reached
from their 2016 GHI are even worse until 2160.
scores or have not than their 2000
changed at all. GHI scores.

2024 Global Hunger Index | Chapter 01 | Global, Regional, and National Trends in Hunger7
Low: GHI ≤ 9.9 Moderate: GHI 10.0–19.9 Serious: GHI 20.0–34.9 Alarming: GHI 35.0–49.9 Extremely alarming: GHI ≥ 50.0

Prospects for Zero Hunger Are The realization of the right to adequate food is out of reach for
billions of people (see Box 1.2). Across the globe, 733 million peo-
Increasingly Grim ple are undernourished, and increases in food prices and the cost-
With the 2030 target date for achieving Zero Hunger fast approach- of-living crisis have made a healthy diet unaffordable for 2.8 billion
ing, the 2024 Global Hunger Index makes it starkly clear that the people (FAO et al. 2024a). Progress in reducing all four GHI indica-
world is far from meeting that critical goal. The 2024 GHI score for tors—undernourishment, child stunting, child wasting, and child mor-
the world is 18.3, considered moderate, down only slightly from the tality—is falling short of internationally agreed targets. Projections
2016 score of 18.8 (Figure 1.1). This global score obscures wide estimate that in 2030, 582 million people will still be chronically
variations in hunger by region. The situation is most severe in Africa undernourished, more than half of them in Africa. This number is
South of the Sahara and South Asia, where hunger remains serious. comparable to the undernourished population in 2015—the year the
Progress against hunger worldwide has slowed in the past decade. In world pledged to eliminate hunger by 2030 (FAO et al. 2024a). In
fact, if progress remains at the pace observed since the 2016 global two-thirds of all countries, progress at reducing undernourishment
GHI score, the world will not even reach low hunger until 2160— has largely stalled or even been reversed. In Haiti, Jordan, Kenya,
more than 130 years from now. and Syria, undernourishment rose by more than 10 percentage points
between 2015–2017 and 2021–2023. Worldwide, 148 million chil-
Six countries have levels of hunger considered alarming, indicat- dren are stunted, 45 million children are wasted, and almost 5 million
ing widespread human misery, undernourishment, and malnutrition. children die before age five (FAO et al. 2024a; UN IGME 2023). In
Somalia, Yemen, Chad, and Madagascar are the countries with the 27 countries, stunting levels are of very high public health signifi-
highest 2024 GHI scores; Burundi and South Sudan are also provi- cance, and the situation is most severe in Burundi, Yemen, and Niger
sionally designated as alarming (Table 1.1). Somalia and Chad both (see Figure 1.4). Stunting prevalence has actually increased by 4 or
face the compounding effects of conflict, climate change, and eco- more percentage points in recent years in Afghanistan, Argentina,
nomic downturns. Yemen is particularly affected by conflict and cli- Mongolia, Niger, and Yemen. Child wasting is particularly high in
mate extremes, and Madagascar is facing extraordinary challenges India, and the level is high and rising in Sudan and Yemen.
posed by climate change (FAO et al. 2024b).
More broadly, many countries and territories are experiencing
FIGURE 1.1 WORLD GHI SCORES AND PREVALENCE OF unprecedented levels of acute food insecurity, with potentially dire
UNDERNOURISHMENT IN RECENT DECADES implications for long-term development. In 2023, 281.6 million peo-
30 28.0 ple in 59 countries and territories with sufficient data faced crisis-­
GHI scores (serious)
GHI scores (moderate) level or worse acute food insecurity, a number that has been on
25 23.5 the rise for five consecutive years. Acute food insecurity has been
growing worse, with a surge in people at risk of starvation in a num-
20 18.8 ber of states and territories, including Gaza, Sudan, Haiti, Burkina
18.3
Faso, Mali, and South Sudan (FSIN and GNAFC 2024; WFP and
15 FAO 2024). By December 2024, 120–130 million people in FEWS
NET-monitored countries are projected to need humanitarian food
Undernourishment (%)
10 assistance (FEWS NET 2024c).

5 Examples of progress and hope exist amid crises and worrying

trends. In contrast to the global trend, Bangladesh, Mozambique,

0 Nepal, Somalia, and Togo have reduced their GHI scores by more
than 5 points compared with their 2016 GHI scores. In Mozambique
2000

2008

2 016

2024

and Nepal, the 2024 GHI scores reflect an improvement of roughly

Note: GHI scores for the year 2000 include data from 1998–2002; 2008 GHI scores include 30 percent. Nonetheless, hunger levels remain worryingly high in
data from 2006–2010; 2016 GHI scores include data from 2014–2018; and 2024 GHI
scores include data from 2019–2023. Data on undernourishment are from FAO (2024a). The most of these countries, particularly in Mozambique and Somalia.
undernourishment values are for the world as a whole, including countries both included in and
excluded from the GHI. For a complete list of data sources for the calculation of GHI scores,
see Appendix A. Colors correspond to the GHI Severity of Hunger Scale.

8 Global, Regional, and National Trends in Hunger | Chapter 01 | 2024 Global Hunger Index
 Low: GHI ≤ 9.9 Moderate: GHI 10.0–19.9 Serious: GHI 20.0–34.9 Alarming: GHI 35.0–49.9 Extremely alarming: GHI ≥ 50.0

BOX 1.1 ABOUT THE GLOBAL HUNGER INDEX SCORES

The Global Hunger Index (GHI) is a tool for comprehensively measuring and tracking hunger at global, regional, and national levels.
GHI scores are based on the values of four component indicators:1

Undernourishment: the share of the population with Child wasting: the share of children under age five
insufficient caloric intake. who have low weight for their height, reflecting
acute undernutrition.

Child stunting: the share of children under age five Child mortality: the share of children who die before
who have low height for their age, reflecting chronic their fifth birthday, partly reflecting the fatal mix of
undernutrition. inadequate nutrition and unhealthy environments.

These four indicators are aggregated as follows:

GHI Severity of
Hunger Scale

Extremely
alarming
GHI ≥ 50.0

1/3 + 1/6 + 1/6 + 1/3 = GHI Alarming

Undernourishment Child stunting Child wasting Child mortality SCORE GHI 35.0–49.9

Serious
GHI 20.0–34.9

Latest published data available from internationally recognized sources:

Moderate
GHI 10.0–19.9

Low
UN Food and United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF), UN Inter-agency
Group for Child GHI ≤ 9.9
Agriculture World Health Organization (WHO), World Bank,
­Mortality Estimation
Organization (FAO) Demographic and Health Surveys (DHS) Program
(UN IGME)
100-point scale

Based on the values of the four indicators, a GHI score is calculated on a 100-point scale reflecting the severity of hunger, where 0 is the
best possible score (no hunger) and 100 is the worst.2 Each country’s GHI score is classified by severity, from low to extremely alarming.

1
Each of the indicators is standardized; see Appendix A for details.
2
GHI scores are comparable only within each year’s report, not between different years’ reports. To allow for tracking of a country’s or region’s GHI performance over time, this
report provides GHI scores for 2000, 2008, and 2016, which can be compared with 2024 GHI scores. For a detailed explanation of the concept of the GHI, the date ranges and
calculation of the scores, and the interpretation of results, see Appendix A.

2024 Global Hunger Index | Chapter 01 | Global, Regional, and National Trends in Hunger9
Low: GHI ≤ 9.9 Moderate: GHI 10.0–19.9 Serious: GHI 20.0–34.9 Alarming: GHI 35.0–49.9 Extremely alarming: GHI ≥ 50.0

SLOW PROGRESS ON THE REALIZATION OF THE RIGHT TO ADEQUATE FOOD

BOX 1.2 

In 1948, the United Nations voted to recognize the right to food To help lay out a pathway for countries to realize this right,
as a fundamental human right. To promote implementation of
3 an intergovernmental working group developed the Voluntary
the right to food and help dispel widespread misconceptions, Guidelines to Support the Progressive Realization of the Right
the United Nations Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural to Adequate Food in the Context of National Food Security.
Rights issued a comment in 1999 that stated: “The right to Adoption of the guidelines by 187 countries in November 2004
adequate food is realized when every man, woman and child, was a landmark moment (Elver 2023). Over the past 20 years,
alone or in community with others, have physical and economic the guidelines have inspired guidance and declarations on
access at all times to adequate food or means for its procure- various aspects of the right to food—such as the Voluntary
ment” (UNHCHR 1999). It considered adequate food as being Guidelines on the Responsible Governance of Tenure, the UN
sufficient, safe, culturally acceptable, and sustainably accessi- Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous People, and the UN
ble, and identified three state obligations: Declaration on the Rights of Peasants and Other People Working
in Rural Areas—which social movements and civil society use
1. The respect principle: States must not interfere with
to push governments on progress and accountability.
the enjoyment of the right to food for those who can
Other declarations have clarified countries’ obligations in
feed themselves or have access to food by one means
times of conflict and across borders. The UN Security Council
or another.
has resolved that starvation must not be used as a weapon of
2. The protection principle: Governments must ensure that war. International human rights law and international humanitar-
the actions of third parties, such as private actors, do ian law require countries to protect civilians during conflicts and
not violate the human right to food. ensure they have access to adequate food (UN Security Council
2018). Countries likewise have an extraterritorial obligation to
3. The fulfillment principle: States must facilitate the right
ensure that their domestic and international policies and actions,
to food by strengthening peoples’ access to and utiliza-
such as trade, investment, energy, agriculture, development, and
tion of food resources. When individuals or groups can-
climate change measures, do not harm human rights, including
not exercise their right to food for reasons beyond their
the right to food (United Nations 2022).
control, states have the obligation to provide it by, for
Results have been insufficient. As of June 2023, over
example, providing food assistance or ensuring social
30 countries explicitly (and 54 countries implicitly) recognized
safety nets.
the right to food in their constitution. Even there, a significant
gap remains between these laws and their actual implemen-
tation through policies, programs, and accountability mecha-
nisms (Elver 2023). Thus, despite the international community’s
repeated emphasis on the importance of the right to adequate
3
The 1948 Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR) Article 25 enshrined the food, there remains a troubling disparity between the standards
right to adequate food, along with other economic and social rights, while the 1966
established and the reality that, in many parts of the world, the
International Covenant on Economic, Social, and Cultural Rights placed respective
legal obligations on states. right to food is being blatantly disregarded.

10 Global, Regional, and National Trends in Hunger | Chapter 01 | 2024 Global Hunger Index
 Low: GHI ≤ 9.9 Moderate: GHI 10.0–19.9 Serious: GHI 20.0–34.9 Alarming: GHI 35.0–49.9 Extremely alarming: GHI ≥ 50.0

A Barrage of Crises Is Driving Hunger inflation during pregnancy and the first year after birth increases
the risk that children aged 2–5 years will be stunted (Headey and
The 2024 GHI results reflect a barrage of successive and overlap- Ruel 2023). After record highs in the wake of the Russo-Ukrainian
ping challenges that have hit the world’s poorest countries and peo- War, global food prices remain above pre-pandemic levels and the
ple hardest, amplifying structural inequalities. In the past two years, war is continuing to disrupt agricultural production, trade, and global
large-scale armed conflicts have broken out (Davies et al. 2023; WEF food security. Recent disruptions to Red Sea shipping pose further
2024b), climate change indicators have climbed “off the charts,” risks (Glauber 2024; Glauber and Mamun 2024a). Global rice mar-
with 2023 the hottest year on record (WMO 2024), and low- and kets—in particular, rice-importing countries in Africa South of the
middle-income countries have found themselves facing dire economic Sahara—continue to feel the impact of India’s export restrictions on
outlooks, with debt constraining their capacity to invest in crucial rice, introduced after production was reduced by the effects of El
public services (IPES-Food 2023; World Bank 2024a). More than Niño (Glauber and Mamun 2024b).
115 million people are subject to internal displacement or forced
migration as a result of persecution, conflict, violence, human rights Over the past decade, external debt has been steadily increas-
violations, or civil disorder, and many others have been displaced by ing across all regions, and many of the world’s poorest countries
weather-related disasters (IDMC 2024; UNHCR 2024b). Inequality are now struggling with surging debt service payments. Low- and
between and within countries is on the rise (UNDP 2024), and while middle-­income countries spent a record US$443.5 billion to service
extreme poverty in middle-income countries has decreased, income their external public and publicly guaranteed debt in 2022 (World
inequality is persistently high. Poverty in the poorest countries and Bank 2023a), and they paid US$49 billion more to their external
countries affected by some form of state fragility, conflict, or violence creditors than they received in fresh disbursements, resulting in a
is still worse than before the pandemic (FAO et al. 2024a; Mahler et net resource outflow (UNCTAD 2024). This increase in debt repay-
al. 2022; World Bank 2024b). ments is shifting scarce resources away from critical public services,
including nutrition services, and investments in climate resilience and
High food prices and market disruptions are jeopardizing food food systems transformation (World Bank 2023a). Many countries
security and nutrition for vulnerable countries and people. In low- struggling with debt are also highly vulnerable to climate change,
and middle-income countries, a 5 percent increase in the real price creating a vicious cycle that hampers an effective response (FAO
of food increases the risk of child wasting by 9 percent, and food et al. 2024a). Indeed, if they were to invest the amounts necessary

FIGURE 1.2 REGIONAL 2000, 2008, 2016, AND 2024 GLOBAL HUNGER INDEX SCORES

50 Alarming
41.7

Serious
37.6

40 Moderate
33.9
33.0

Low
28.2

27.7
GHI score

26.8

26.2

30
18.6
16.4

20
14.4

13.7

13.5
13.3
13.2

13.2

10.3

8.8

8.6
8.4

8.3
8.1

10
6.2

5.7

0
‘00 ‘08 ‘16 ‘24 ‘00 ‘08 ‘16 ‘24 ‘00 ‘08 ‘16 ‘24 ‘00 ‘08 ‘16 ‘24 ‘00 ‘08 ‘16 ‘24 ‘00 ‘08 ‘16 ‘24

Africa South South Asia West Asia & Latin America & East & Europe &
of the Sahara North Africa Caribbean Southeast Asia Central Asia
Source: Authors.
Note: See Appendix A for data sources. The regional and global GHI scores are calculated using regional and global aggregates for each indicator and the formula described in Appendix A. The regional
and global aggregates for each indicator are calculated as population-weighted averages, using the indicator values reported in Appendix B. For countries lacking undernourishment data, provisional
estimates provided by the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) were used to calculate aggregates only but are not reported in Appendix B. Appendix D shows which countries
are included in each region.

2024 Global Hunger Index | Chapter 01 | Global, Regional, and National Trends in Hunger11
Low: GHI ≤ 9.9 Moderate: GHI 10.0–19.9 Serious: GHI 20.0–34.9 Alarming: GHI 35.0–49.9 Extremely alarming: GHI ≥ 50.0

“It is difficult to provide for my family Currently, more than 25 million people, a quarter of the population,
face crisis or emergency levels of food insecurity (FSIN and GNAFC
because the productivity of my piece 2024; IASC 2024).
of land is very low due to the effects
of climate change. I use half of my Climate change, extreme weather events, and environmental deg-

land to harvest, and it is not enough radation further jeopardize the economic outlook and the full reali-
zation of the right to food (UNHCHR 2023; see Box 1.3). Hundreds
for feeding my family, and that is why of the world’s foremost climate scientists now predict global tem-
I prepare the tella [local drink] and peratures will rise to at least 2.5°C (4.5°F) above preindustrial lev-
perform daily work to fill the existing els this century, exceeding internationally agreed targets and causing

food gaps in my family.” catastrophic consequences (Carrington 2024). From 2008 to 2018,
disasters caused an estimated US$108.5 billion loss in crop and
—Dinbulo Dessie (age 32), single mother of four, Ethiopia
livestock production in low- and middle-income countries (UNHCHR
2024). Projections show that over the next 26 years the world econ-
omy will suffer a 19 percent reduction in income, disproportionately
“I rent the land, and we cultivate affecting regions with lower historical emissions and lower current
cassava, beans, and maize. I divide incomes (Kotz et al. 2024). By the middle of this century, climate

the harvest in two parts—one is for change could put an additional 80 million people at risk of hunger,
primarily in Africa South of the Sahara, South Asia, and Central
feeding my family, and the other is America (IPCC 2022).
what I usually sell. My future project
is that I want to buy my own land Investments and actions do not match the size of the problem
or commitments made. The impacts of malnutrition cost the global
to enable me to continue with my
economy US$3.0–3.5 trillion a year, yet since the first Nutrition for
farming business.” Growth Summit (N4G) in 2012, international assistance for basic
—Jacqueline Bacamugwanko (age 40), nutrition has remained low and erratic (Generation Nutrition 2024).
mother of four, Burundi In 2023, OECD’s official development assistance (ODA) amounted to
just 0.37 percent of gross national income—far below the 0.7 percent
target (OECD 2024). Africa has not met the Comprehensive
to meet the 2030 Agenda and Paris Agreement goals, 47 low- and Africa Agriculture Development Programme (CAADP) and Malabo
middle-­income countries would hit external debt insolvency thresh- Declaration target of allocating at least 10 percent of national bud-
olds within the next five years; an additional 19 countries lack liquidity get spending to agriculture (Ulimwengu et al. 2023). Price hikes and
and fiscal space for climate and development investments (Zucker- spiraling humanitarian needs have widened the humanitarian fund-
Marques et al. 2024). ing gap, forcing aid organizations to cut life-saving assistance (UN
OCHA 2024a, 2024b; VOICE 2024). Only 4.3 percent of climate
Conflicts have again raised the specter of famine (de Waal 2024). finance is dedicated to the agrifood system (Sutton et al. 2024), and
Conflict undermines the right to food by causing destruction, displace- just 1.7 percent reaches small-scale producers in low- and middle-­
ment, and the use of starvation as a weapon, in blatant violation of income countries, who often bear the brunt of climate change (Chiriac
the right to food (Kemmerling et al. 2021). It also worsens gender-­ and Naran 2020). Funding to support climate strategies that avert
based food insecurity and increases inequalities (HLPE 2023). The loss and damage is insufficient—climate adaptation alone requires
fighting in Gaza and Sudan has led to exceptional food crises (FSIN 10–18 times more—and is often provided in the form of loans, add-
and GNAFC 2024; WFP and FAO 2024). In Mali, catastrophic levels ing to debt burdens and involving complex conditions (Kowalzig et al.
of food insecurity were projected in Ménaka, where armed groups 2024; Schalatek and Richards 2024; UNHCHR 2024).
were conducting a siege (FAO 2024b). In the eastern part of the
Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC), rising conflict is driving
record levels of gender-based violence, displacement, and hunger.

12 Global, Regional, and National Trends in Hunger | Chapter 01 | 2024 Global Hunger Index
TABLE 1.1 GLOBAL HUNGER INDEX SCORES BY 2024 GHI RANK
Note: As always. rankings and index scores from this table cannot be accurately compared to rankings and index scores from previous reports (see Appendix A).

Rank1 Country 2000 2008 2016 2024 Rank1 Country 2000 2008 2016 2024
Belarus <5 <5 <5 <5 71 Venezuela (Boliv. Rep. of) 14.3 8.7 14.4 15.1
Bosnia & Herzegovina 9.4 6.4 <5 <5 72 Senegal 34.3 22.1 16.1 15.3
Chile <5 <5 <5 <5 73 Honduras 21.5 18.7 13.9 15.6
China 13.4 7.2 <5 <5 74 Eswatini 24.8 24.9 19.6 15.7
Costa Rica 6.6 <5 <5 <5 74 Myanmar 40.2 29.9 17.1 15.7
Croatia 5.5 <5 <5 <5 76 Bolivia (Plurinat. State of) 27.0 21.2 14.3 16.8
Estonia <5 <5 <5 <5 77 Indonesia 25.7 28.2 18.3 16.9
2024 GHI scores less than 5,

Georgia 12.0 6.6 5.4 <5 78 Gabon 21.0 19.2 16.7 17.4
collectively ranked 1-22.2

Hungary <5 <5 <5 <5 79 Cameroon 36.0 29.0 20.8 18.3
Kuwait <5 <5 <5 <5 80 Togo 38.2 28.2 24.4 18.6
Latvia <5 <5 <5 <5 81 Comoros 38.1 28.9 21.3 18.8
Lithuania <5 <5 <5 <5 81 Guatemala 28.5 24.0 20.1 18.8
Montenegro — 5.7 <5 <5 83 Libya 14.2 12.9 19.3 19.2
North Macedonia 7.6 5.3 5.1 <5 84 Bangladesh 33.8 30.6 24.7 19.4
Romania 7.9 5.7 5.0 <5 84 Solomon Islands 20.4 18.2 21.7 19.4
Russian Federation 10.4 5.9 5.4 <5 86 Namibia 26.5 27.5 20.6 19.7
Serbia — 5.9 <5 <5 87 Lao PDR 44.2 30.3 21.2 19.8
Slovakia 6.0 <5 <5 <5 88 Gambia 29.0 23.1 17.8 19.9
Türkiye 11.4 6.5 5.4 <5 89 Côte d'Ivoire 33.1 35.2 21.5 20.6
United Arab Emirates 5.1 6.3 <5 <5 90 Botswana 27.5 26.3 21.4 20.7
Uruguay 7.6 5.3 <5 <5 91 Mauritania 30.4 18.8 22.3 21.1
Uzbekistan 24.3 13.2 5.9 <5 92 Djibouti 44.2 33.9 24.0 21.2
23 Armenia 19.2 11.7 6.4 5.1 93 Malawi 43.0 28.1 22.8 21.9
23 Bulgaria 8.9 7.8 7.5 5.1 94 Tanzania (United Rep. of) 40.5 29.7 25.0 22.7
25 Kazakhstan 11.2 11.1 5.6 5.3 95 Guinea 40.1 31.5 28.2 23.2
26 Moldova (Rep. of) 17.6 14.7 6.1 5.6 96 Congo (Republic of) 34.9 32.2 26.8 24.0
26 Mongolia 29.7 16.7 7.5 5.6 96 Mali 41.9 31.8 24.7 24.0
28 Colombia 10.8 10.1 7.2 5.7 98 Burkina Faso 44.9 33.7 25.6 24.6
29 Tunisia 10.1 7.4 6.1 5.9 99 Benin 33.7 26.9 23.6 24.7
30 Paraguay 11.5 7.5 5.0 6.0 100 Kenya 36.3 29.0 24.0 25.0
31 Mexico 10.1 9.7 6.6 6.1 101 Rwanda 49.6 36.4 28.6 25.2
32 Azerbaijan 25.0 15.0 8.1 6.2 102 Ethiopia 53.4 37.8 26.2 26.2
33 Argentina 6.6 5.4 5.2 6.6 103 Angola 63.8 42.7 25.9 26.6
33 Brazil 11.7 6.7 5.5 6.6 104 Timor-Leste — 44.8 29.4 27.0
35 Algeria 14.5 11.0 8.5 6.7 105 India 38.4 35.2 29.3 27.3
36 Kyrgyzstan 17.2 12.9 8.6 6.8 105 Uganda 36.1 28.5 30.3 27.3
37 Saudi Arabia 12.7 10.8 9.4 6.9 107 Mozambique 48.3 35.6 38.5 27.5
38 Iran (Islamic Republic of) 13.7 9.1 8.0 7.4 108 Zimbabwe 35.3 29.9 28.5 27.6
38 Peru 21.1 13.7 7.6 7.4 109 Pakistan 36.6 31.4 24.6 27.9
40 Jamaica 8.4 8.5 9.0 7.7 110 Nigeria 39.5 30.7 30.6 28.8
41 Dominican Republic 15.0 13.8 8.3 7.8 110 Papua New Guinea 33.7 32.8 30.0 28.8
42 Albania 16.0 15.5 6.2 7.9 110 Sudan — — 28.3 28.8
43 El Salvador 14.5 11.7 9.4 8.0 113 Syrian Arab Republic 13.9 16.9 25.9 30.3
43 Panama 18.7 12.7 8.1 8.0 114 Guinea-Bissau 37.6 29.6 30.2 30.5
45 Lebanon 10.2 9.1 7.5 8.1 115 Zambia 53.1 41.3 32.6 30.7
46 Ukraine 13.0 6.9 7.2 8.6 116 Afghanistan 49.6 35.7 27.1 30.8
47 Guyana 17.0 14.9 10.7 9.1 117 Sierra Leone 57.2 45.2 32.8 31.2
48 Cabo Verde 14.7 11.7 11.3 9.2 118 Korea (DPR) 43.7 30.5 26.2 31.4
48 Morocco 15.5 11.7 8.7 9.2 119 Central African Republic 48.0 43.5 32.6 31.5
50 Turkmenistan 20.2 14.4 10.5 9.5 120 Liberia 48.0 36.6 32.3 31.9
51 Oman 15.2 11.5 11.9 9.9 121 Niger 53.1 39.6 32.8 34.1
52 Thailand 18.9 12.2 9.5 10.1 122 Haiti 39.8 39.8 30.0 34.3
53 Fiji 9.6 8.8 10.6 10.2 123 Dem. Rep. of the Congo 47.2 41.2 36.2 34.9
54 Trinidad & Tobago 10.8 10.6 8.6 10.8 * Lesotho — — — 20–34.9*
55 Suriname 14.8 10.6 11.0 10.9 124 Madagascar 42.3 36.6 33.2 36.3
56 Sri Lanka 21.7 17.6 15.0 11.3 125 Chad 50.5 44.8 38.8 36.4
56 Viet Nam 26.1 20.1 14.4 11.3 126 Yemen 41.6 36.8 39.6 41.2
58 Ecuador 19.3 17.8 11.8 11.6 127 Somalia 63.3 59.0 49.8 44.1
59 Jordan 10.5 7.5 7.8 12.0 * Burundi and South Sudan — — — 35–49.9*
60 South Africa 18.0 16.9 14.0 12.5 = low = moderate = serious = alarming = extremely alarming
61 Malaysia 15.4 13.7 13.4 12.7 Note: For the 2024 GHI report, data were assessed for 136 countries. Out of these, there
were sufficient data to calculate 2024 GHI scores for and rank 127 countries (by way of
62 Mauritius 15.4 13.9 13.4 12.8
comparison, 125 countries were ranked in the 2023 report).
63 Egypt 16.1 16.8 15.4 13.2 1 Ranked according to 2024 GHI scores. Countries that have identical 2024 scores are given

64 Nicaragua 21.7 17.1 14.0 13.6 the same ranking (for example, Armenia and Bulgaria are both ranked 23rd).
2
The 22 countries with 2024 GHI scores of less than 5 are not assigned individual ranks,
65 Tajikistan 39.9 28.1 16.0 13.7
but rather are collectively ranked 1–22. Differences between their scores are minimal.
66 Ghana 28.5 22.2 16.7 13.9 — = Data are not available or not presented. Some countries did not exist in their present
67 Philippines 24.9 18.9 17.9 14.4 borders in the given year or reference period.
* For 9 countries, individual scores could not be calculated and ranks could not be deter-
68 Cambodia 41.3 24.9 18.9 14.7
mined owing to lack of data. Where possible, these countries were provisionally designated
68 Nepal 37.1 29.2 21.2 14.7 by severity: 1 as serious and 2 as alarming. For 6 countries, provisional designations could
70 Iraq 22.9 19.8 14.3 14.9 not be established (see Table A.3 in Appendix A).

2024 Global Hunger Index | Chapter 01 | Global, Regional, and National Trends in Hunger13
Low: GHI ≤ 9.9 Moderate: GHI 10.0–19.9 Serious: GHI 20.0–34.9 Alarming: GHI 35.0–49.9 Extremely alarming: GHI ≥ 50.0

FIGURE 1.3 2024 GHI SCORES AND PROGRESS SINCE 2000

55

Extremely
alarming
50

Higher
hunger

45
Somalia

Alarming
Yemen

40

Chad Madagascar
2024 Global Hunger Index score

35 Dem. Rep. of the Congo

Niger Haiti

GHI Severity Scale

Liberia
Central African Republic DPR Korea
Sierra Leone
Afghanistan Guinea-Bissau Syrian Arab Republic
30 Zambia

Nigeria Papua New Guinea

Pakistan

Serious
Mozambique Zimbabwe
India
Angola Uganda
Ethiopia
Rwanda
25 Kenya
Benin
Burkina Faso Mali Rep. of Congo
Guinea
United Rep. of Tanzania
Malawi Mauritania
Djibouti Côte d’Ivoire
Botswana
20 Bangladesh Gambia
Lao PDR Namibia
Comoros Libya
Togo Guatemala Solomon Islands
Cameroon
Gabon
Bolivia Indonesia
Moderate

Myanmar Eswatini Honduras

Senegal Venezuela
15 Cambodia Philippines Iraq
Nepal Ghana
Lower Tajikistan Egypt
hunger Nicaragua Mauritius
Malaysia
Sri South Africa Jordan
Viet Nam Lanka Ecuador Trinidad & Tobago
Suriname
10 Thailand
Fiji
Low

5
-40 -35 -30 -25 -20 -15 -10 -5 0 5 10 15 20

Higher reduction Lower reduction Increase in

in hunger in hunger hunger
Absolute change in GHI score since 2000

Source: Authors.
Note: This figure illustrates the change in GHI scores since 2000 in absolute values. It features countries where data are available to calculate 2000 and 2024 GHI scores and where 2024 GHI
scores show moderate, serious, alarming, or extremely alarming hunger levels. Some likely poor performers may not appear due to missing data.

14 Global, Regional, and National Trends in Hunger | Chapter 01 | 2024 Global Hunger Index
 Low: GHI ≤ 9.9 Moderate: GHI 10.0–19.9 Serious: GHI 20.0–34.9 Alarming: GHI 35.0–49.9 Extremely alarming: GHI ≥ 50.0

Drivers Affect All Regions, but Converge Somalia is facing a protracted hunger crisis driven by ongoing
conflict, economic challenges, and climate shocks, all in the context
Differently across Contexts of a state that has limited capacity to carry out basic government
functions. Over half the population, 51.3 percent, lacks sufficient
Africa South of the Sahara calories—the second-highest value of all countries (Figure 1.4).
Child wasting and mortality rates are also among the world’s highest.
Africa South of the Sahara is the world region with the highest and Despite significant progress since 2000, hunger remains protracted.
most concerning hunger levels. While the region’s GHI scores have In 2017, 2022, and 2023, some regions and populations faced fam-
significantly improved over the past two decades, hunger remains ine risks. While rains, humanitarian aid, and improved capacities to
serious and progress has virtually stalled since 2016 (Figure 1.2). respond to crises slightly mitigated the devastating effects of six
The high GHI score is driven by the highest undernourishment and consecutive poor rainy seasons, erratic rainfall also caused flood-
child mortality rates of any region by far. Undernourishment rose ing, displacement, and crop destruction (FSIN and GNAFC 2024;
sharply between 2015 and 2023, particularly in West and Central Humanitarian Outcomes 2023).
Africa, owing to recurring conflicts; economic challenges such as
currency devaluations, soaring inflation, stagnating production, and Sudan is facing a hunger crisis on a scale not experienced since
trade barriers; and heavy reliance on food imports (WFP 2024). In the Darfur crisis of the early 2000s. Even before fighting broke out
2022, 72 percent of the population in Africa South of the Sahara in 2023, Sudan faced very high child undernutrition and high lev-
were unable to afford a healthy diet—the highest rate of any world els of acute food insecurity. The escalating conflict, the deliberate
region (FAO et al. 2024a). In five countries—all in Africa South of the destruction of Sudan’s food system, the disruption of people’s cop-
Sahara—more than 1 in 10 children dies before their fifth birthday. ing mechanisms, and the active denial of humanitarian access have
The region also has the highest neonatal mortality rate in the world, driven the country to the brink of famine (Hoffman 2024; IFPRI
accounting for more than 40 percent of global newborn deaths (Zerfu and WFP 2024), and in July 2024 famine was confirmed in parts
2024). A recent study of 45 countries in Africa South of the Sahara
suggests that while economic growth benefits child survival, envi-
ronmental degradation undermines these gains (Fotio et al. 2024).
“Women now bring food to the
Climate change is also wreaking havoc across much of Africa
table. Men in the family and in the
South of the Sahara. Since 1961 climate change has reduced agri- community respect them more.
cultural productivity growth in Africa by 34 percent (IPCC 2022). With less stress for food and money,
Southern Africa is currently experiencing a severe drought—reported
there is also less fighting and
to be the worst on record in parts of Zambia and Zimbabwe—with
devastating impacts for the population, which depends largely on
physical violence at home.”
rainfed subsistence crop production and drought-sensitive water —Angelina Nyawway Gai, leader of mixed-gender
sources (Kimutai et al. 2024). In Malawi, the worst dry spell in a farmers group, South Sudan
century may reduce the maize harvest by 22.5 percent. The gov-
ernment has declared a state of disaster, as maize is the country’s
most important staple crop and is produced by 9 out of 10 farming “I will do everything to achieve
households (De Weerdt et al. 2024; Duchoslav et al. 2024). Since
my goal. Even if I am a woman
October 2020, large parts of Eastern Africa have faced their worst
drought in 40 years, resulting in harvest failures, livestock losses, and do not inherit anything, I can
decreased surface water availability, and increased conflict (Kimutai buy property on my own. I will not
et al. 2023). In Ethiopia, the situation is particularly severe for pas- give up farming and livestock
toralists, who have few livestock holdings and income-generating
farming because you can develop
activities in the wake of the 2020–2023 drought and the 2020–
2022 conflict (FEWS NET 2024b; FSIN and GNAFC 2024; United from these activities.”
Nations–Ethiopia 2024). —Florence (age 28), single mother, Madagascar

2024 Global Hunger Index | Chapter 01 | Global, Regional, and National Trends in Hunger15
Low: GHI ≤ 9.9 Moderate: GHI 10.0–19.9 Serious: GHI 20.0–34.9 Alarming: GHI 35.0–49.9 Extremely alarming: GHI ≥ 50.0

of North Darfur (IPC 2024b). The country is also experiencing the FIGURE 1.4 WHERE THE INDICATORS OF HUNGER ARE HIGHEST
largest and fastest-growing displacement crisis globally, resulting in
escalating needs and instability in resource-strained host commu- Child stunting (%), 2019–2023
60 55.9
nities in neighboring countries, particularly Chad and South Sudan
50 48.5 47.7 46.7 46.0
(WFP and FAO 2024). In South Sudan, more than 60 percent of the 44.6
40.0 39.8 39.8 39.6
40
population faced an acute food crisis in 2023, with famine looming
30
for more than 40,000 people (FSIN and GNAFC 2024).
20

10
South Asia
0

di

en

er

te

Af C n

R l
ag .
pu ar
Gu ew
ea

n
In South Asia, hunger remains serious, reflecting rising undernour-

an tra
ad ep
al

ta

da
un

ig

es

Pa asc

in
m

N
em

is

ric en
N

Su
-L
Ye
r

an

a
Bu

at
or
ishment and persistently high child undernutrition, driven by poor

gh
Gu
m

Af
Ti

M
diet quality, economic challenges, and the increasing impacts of
natural disasters. With 281 million undernourished people, South Child wasting (%), 2019–2023
20 18.7
Asia accounts for nearly 40 percent of the global total (FAO et al. 17.4 16.8

2024a) and has the highest child wasting rate of all regions in the 15 13.6
12.5 12.0 11.8
GHI. Poor diet quality in South Asia results in persistent undernu- 11.0 11.0 10.9
10
trition and micronutrient deficiencies, alongside rising overweight,
obesity, and related noncommunicable diseases. While South Asian 5
countries have large food-based safety net programs, these often
0
prioritize staple grains over diverse diets, hindering long-term health
a

en

ia

ria ius

pu ab
So ic
ia

sh

er
di

si
da

improvements (IFPRI 2024). Despite some economic growth in many

an

bl

al

ig
de
m

Re Ar

ay
rit
In

m
Su

N
rit
Ye

la

al
au

n
au

ng

M
M

South Asian countries, the benefits provided are uneven, leaving

M

Ba
Sy

many with low wages and high unemployment. Rapid urbanization,

Undernourishment (%), 2021–2023
climate change, and natural disasters further strain public and nat- 60
53.5
51.3 50.4
ural resources (ESCAP 2020). 50
39.7 39.5 38.4 38.1
40 37.0 36.9 35.4
The GHI scores of Afghanistan, India, and Pakistan all indicate a 30
serious level of hunger. In Afghanistan, the food security situation has 20
worsened as a result of conflict, economic instability, and disasters 10
that disrupt agriculture and aid (IPC 2024d). Since 2016, the coun- 0
try’s GHI score has risen, driven primarily by mounting undernour-
)

ia

ti

en

ria

Co .
U o

a
e ep
PR

ca

bw

ng

nd

bi
ai
al

be
as

m
th . R
H
m
(D

ga
ba
Ye

ishment rates, as it has seen the starkest increase in child stunting

Li

Za
ag
So

of em
m
a

ad
re

Zi

D
Ko

of all countries (alongside Niger). Households experiencing conflict

and other shocks are being forced to resort to extreme coping strat-
11.7 Child mortality (%), 2022
egies to deal with food shortages (Ahmadzai and Morrisey 2024). 12
10.7 10.6 10.3 10.1 9.9 9.7
10 9.6
In India, although the country’s GHI score has fallen since 2000, 9.4
8.1
child wasting and stunting remain very high (see Appendix B). Child 8

undernutrition in India goes hand in hand with the poor nutritional 6

status of mothers (IIPS and ICF 2021), suggesting an intergenera- 4
tional pattern of undernutrition and underscoring the need for atten- 2
tion to maternal health and nutrition and infant feeding. In Pakistan, 0
high inflation, fiscal deficits, and frequent natural disasters exacer-
er

ia

ia

ad

Re l
Gu .
ea

n
an tra

al
p
on

da

ni
er

al
ig

in
Ch

Be
ric en
m

Le
N

ig

Su

bate food shortages (World Bank 2024c). In 2022, extreme rainfall

N

So

Af C
ra

h
ut
er

So
Si

led to unprecedented flooding and a severe food crisis that has been
attributed to climate change (Otto et al. 2023a). Source: Authors (see Appendix A for data sources). Very high High

16 Global, Regional, and National Trends in Hunger | Chapter 01 | 2024 Global Hunger Index
 Low: GHI ≤ 9.9 Moderate: GHI 10.0–19.9 Serious: GHI 20.0–34.9 Alarming: GHI 35.0–49.9 Extremely alarming: GHI ≥ 50.0

Over the past two decades, Nepal has achieved one of the world’s among the countries with the highest increases in their GHI scores
fastest reductions in the prevalence of child stunting, though stunt- since 2016, driven mainly by spiraling undernourishment. Acute food
ing remains a major public health concern. Despite facing economic insecurity was projected to affect about 5 million people—nearly half
and political instability, Nepal made these improvements in nutrition the country’s population—between March and June 2024 (FSIN and
largely by increasing its coverage of health and nutrition services, as GNAFC 2024). Gang violence in Port-au-Prince, and increasingly
well as by enhancing household wealth, parental education, and san- beyond the capital, severely disrupts livelihoods and markets, push-
itation. It embraced a multisectoral and multistakeholder approach ing up prices, particularly in Cité Soleil. Gang violence and insecurity
through its Multi-Sectoral Nutrition Plans, which played a crucial have hindered access to essential health, nutrition, water, sanitation,
role in these achievements (Chitekwe et al. 2022; Hanley-Cook et and hygiene services. Gangs commit serious abuses against the pop-
al. 2022). In 2015 Nepal enshrined the right to food in its constitu- ulation, including large-scale sexual violence, forcing entire commu-
tion, and to advance implementation of the constitutional provision nities to move to safer areas (UN OCHA 2023).
it adopted the Right to Food and Food Sovereignty Act in 2018 along
with a supporting regulation in 2024.
West Asia and North Africa
The GHI score of West Asia and North Africa, categorized as mod-
Latin America and the Caribbean
erate, has stagnated, reflecting the overlapping effects of conflict,
Although hunger in Latin America and the Caribbean is categorized climate change, and trade shocks. The region’s heavy reliance on
as low, this is the only region where hunger has worsened since 2016, food imports has made it especially vulnerable to recent global and
driven by rising food inflation and fertilizer prices, soaring debt, and regional trade shocks, which have caused rampant inflation, dis-
worsening credit conditions, which amplify structural inequalities rupted domestic food systems, and made nutritious diets less acces-
and extreme poverty (ECLAC 2022). The region faces increases in sible and affordable. Political instability, fragility, natural disasters,
undernourishment and child stunting, a stagnating child wasting rate, and persistent conflicts contribute to large refugee populations and
and below-average reductions in child mortality. While most people broader food insecurity; by the end of 2024, the region is projected
in the region consume sufficient calories, diet quality is poor, and to have 15.8 million forcibly displaced and stateless people (UNHCR
more than half of the countries exhibit medium to very high levels of 2024a). Additionally, high vulnerability to climate change and water
stunting. Latin America and the Caribbean is the only region where scarcity poses a long-term threat to the region’s food security (IFPRI
stunting has increased since 2016, with the largest increases in 2024). The severe three-year drought that afflicted West Asia from
Argentina, Panama, Guatemala, and Mexico; in Guatemala stunting 2020 was driven by climate change and compounded by socioeco-
has reached a staggering 46 percent. Additionally, the region faces a nomic stressors, severely impacting agriculture and access to pota-
triple burden of malnutrition—undernutrition, overweight and obesity, ble water (Otto et al. 2023b).
and micronutrient deficiencies—leading to severe diet-related health
issues (Morris et al. 2020). The cost of a healthy diet is highest in Yemen’s hunger levels have stagnated for two decades, and Syria
Latin America and the Caribbean (FAO et al. 2024a). Many countries has seen the starkest increase in GHI scores since 2000 (Figure 1.3),
are vulnerable to price hikes due to their dependence on agricultural reflecting the devastating impact of conflict. In Yemen, conflict-­
and fertilizer imports, further exacerbating inequalities. Rising infla- induced economic isolation and severe shortages of food, fuel, and
tion, especially food inflation, disproportionately impacts low-­income medical supplies have had disastrous effects on undernourishment
households, which spend a high proportion of their income on food and child undernutrition. Undernourishment increased by more
(ECLAC 2022). The exceptional drought in the Amazon basin since than 15 percentage points between 2000–2002 and 2021–2023.
mid-2023 has been driven largely by climate change and compounded Almost half of Yemeni children—48.5 percent—are stunted, and
by widespread deforestation and ecological destruction, including for 16.8 percent of children are wasted. In 2023, 18 million people,
cattle production (Clarke et al. 2024; Watts 2023). more than half of the population, faced an acute food crisis (FSIN and
GNAFC 2024). In Syria, prolonged conflict, coupled with increased
Haiti’s hunger levels are climbing dramatically as the country impacts of natural hazards, has led nearly 13 million people to expe-
experiences a series of compounding shocks, including erratic rain- rience high levels of acute food insecurity (FSIN and GNAFC 2024).
fall, rampant inflation, and political turmoil that has fueled gang vio- Undernourishment, now at 34.0 percent, increased by more than
lence and internal displacement (FSIN and GNAFC 2024). Haiti is 20 percentage points between 2015–2017 and 2021–2023. The

2024 Global Hunger Index | Chapter 01 | Global, Regional, and National Trends in Hunger17
Low: GHI ≤ 9.9 Moderate: GHI 10.0–19.9 Serious: GHI 20.0–34.9 Alarming: GHI 35.0–49.9 Extremely alarming: GHI ≥ 50.0

“I farm for my kids. It is a legacy assistance (WFP and FAO 2024). The food system and agricultural
value chains have almost completely collapsed, with over half of
which I want to pass down to my farmland and many processing facilities destroyed. Since October 7,
children—Fawaz, my three-year-old, 2023, about 70 percent of livestock has been lost, and fishing has
and Ella, my seven-month-old. largely ceased due to damaged boats, fuel shortages, and security

Besides their education, I want my issues (IPC 2024a; FAO 2024c). The environmental impacts and
damage to agricultural land are likely to have enduring effects on
kids to have a healthy life, to be Gazans’ health and livelihoods (Vos and Kim 2024; UNEP 2024).
able to provide for themselves, and According to the United Nations Mine Action Service, it could take
to have organic produce. I care up to 14 years to clear all explosive threats in Gaza (FAO 2024c).

for their health and capabilities.”

—Evin Juno Badal (age 23), mother of two, Iraq East and Southeast Asia
East and Southeast Asia exhibit an overall low level of hunger,
although progress has stagnated and there are massive disparities

“It became impossible to earn between countries. In Southeast Asia, affordability of a healthy diet
lags behind the world average despite economic growth in the region
a living after the rains. There was (FAO et al. 2024a). East Asia generally has stable food security,
no cultivable land as it was all although some of its highest-income countries rely on food imports
inundated, and we could not grow and international supply chains (Agroberichten Buitenland 2022;
Hong 2023). DPR Korea, Papua New Guinea, and Timor-Leste face
any crops for the season. Laborers
serious levels of hunger. In Indonesia, Lao PDR, Mongolia, Myanmar,
had nowhere to work.” and Timor-Leste, GHI scores fell significantly until 2016, but since
—Maula Dino (age 42), father of six, Pakistan then progress has nearly halted. Hunger has worsened a great deal
in DPR Korea, where over half the population is now undernour-
ished. Some countries in the region—particularly the Philippines,
conflict, which has lasted for more than a decade, has severely dis- Indonesia, Myanmar, and China—face high exposure to natural haz-
rupted agriculture and food value chains. Many farmers are unable to ards coupled with low adaptive capacity. Vietnam and Papua New
cultivate their total land due to limited access, unavailable or high- Guinea are among the countries with the highest exposure (Bündnis
priced inputs, and lack of financial means, and many households Entwicklung Hilft and IFHV 2023).
are forced to seek low-wage, off-farm employment that barely meets
their needs (Ibrahim et al. 2024). Mongolia has reduced its GHI score by more than 80 percent
since 2000—moving from serious to low hunger—in a shift cor-
Gaza is experiencing the most severe food crisis recorded in related with a decline in poverty, a steady rise in GDP, and greater
the past 20 years, as almost the entire population of Gaza is fac- use of sanitation services (World Bank 2024d). However, dietary and
ing crisis levels of acute food insecurity, and famine might already nutritional deficiencies persist, underlined by a recent increase in
be occurring (FEWS NET 2024d; FSIN and GNAFC 2024). Despite child stunting; less than half of children aged 6–23 months receive
slight improvements in the northern governorate due to increased a minimum acceptable diet (Bromage et al. 2020; Janmohamed et
food deliveries and nutrition services in March and April, recent al. 2020). Mongolia’s reliance on pastoral livestock and rainfed agri-
assessments show that 96 percent of the population is experiencing culture, combined with fragile ecosystems, also makes the country
crisis levels of food insecurity, and the risk of famine remains high vulnerable to climate change impacts (Dagys et al. 2023).
throughout Gaza, driven by ongoing hostilities and many months of
poor nutrition and health, as well as inadequate water, sanitation,
and hygiene (IPC 2024a, c). The conflict has caused unprecedented
deaths, widespread destruction, and large-scale displacement, exac-
erbated by severe restrictions on commercial goods and humanitarian

18 Global, Regional, and National Trends in Hunger | Chapter 01 | 2024 Global Hunger Index
 Low: GHI ≤ 9.9 Moderate: GHI 10.0–19.9 Serious: GHI 20.0–34.9 Alarming: GHI 35.0–49.9 Extremely alarming: GHI ≥ 50.0

Europe and Central Asia

Despite recent challenges, the region of Europe and Central Asia is

mostly on track to achieve low hunger by 2030. The regional GHI
score exhibited notable progress between 2000 and 2016, though
this progress has largely come to a standstill since 2016, albeit at a
low level. Reductions are linked to improvements in agricultural pro-
duction and productivity, driven by economic and income growth, and
an overall increase in food availability, stability, and access (Dupouy
and Gurinovic 2020; FAO 2019). Turkmenistan and Tajikistan have
the highest GHI scores, although Tajikistan has made remarkable
progress thanks to rapid economic growth driven by remittances and
agriculture. However, climate change poses a significant obstacle to
Tajikistan’s food and nutrition security goals (Khakimov et al. 2024).
Conversely, Ukraine and Albania have seen slight increases in their
GHI scores. Prevalence of undernourishment has been on the rise in
Ukraine, while Albania’s score is influenced by an apparent deteriora-
tion in child nutrition. Worryingly, moderate and severe food insecurity
has been increasing in recent years (FAO et al. 2024a). The region
has faced significant challenges linked to COVID-19, adverse weather
events, and the Russo-Ukrainian War, which has fueled displacement;
raised food, energy, and agricultural costs; and reduced purchasing
power. Despite agriculture’s economic significance, almost all coun-
tries in the region are underinvesting in the sector (FAO 2023a).

Conclusion: Accelerated Action Is Needed

to Progress toward Zero Hunger
The significant progress made against hunger between 2000 and
2016 shows how much can be accomplished in just a decade and a
half. Over that period, the global GHI score fell by about one-third,
and hunger on the world scale moved from serious to moderate. Since
then, for the world as a whole and for many countries, progress against
hunger has stagnated, and in some countries it has even reversed—
despite the looming 2030 deadline to achieve Zero Hunger.
It is increasingly urgent for the world to reverse the alarming
trends that are pushing hunger upward and to accelerate progress
toward shaping equitable, nutritious, and resilient food systems, even
within the context of a changing climate and turbulent geopolitics.
The push for gender justice—with its benefits for agricultural produc-
tion, food security, diets, and child nutrition—can be an important
tool in reducing hunger. Protecting the gains already made, advanc-
ing progress against hunger, and ensuring the right to food for all will
demand both innovative thinking and determined action to address
the challenges of conflict and climate change, improve governance,
and generate durable solutions to the crises before us.

2024 Global Hunger Index | Chapter 01 | Global, Regional, and National Trends in Hunger19
Low: GHI ≤ 9.9 Moderate: GHI 10.0–19.9 Serious: GHI 20.0–34.9 Alarming: GHI 35.0–49.9 Extremely alarming: GHI ≥ 50.0

UNDERSTANDING THE LINKS BETWEEN GENDER INEQUALITY, CLIMATE CHANGE, AND HUNGER
BOX 1.3 

Discriminatory norms and gender-based violence often place A country’s food sector vulnerability and readiness to respond
women and sexual and gender minorities at heightened risk of food to climate change is correlated with hunger and gender inequality,
and nutrition insecurity and climate change impacts while ham- suggesting that efforts to improve gender equity may have spillover
pering their ability to cope with these challenges (see Chapter 2, benefits for resilience to climate change. Figure 1.5 below shows
“Gender Justice, Climate Resilience, and Food and Nutrition that countries with serious or alarming GHI scores, like Yemen
Security”). The patterns of national and regional food and nutri- and Chad, face both high climate risk and high levels of gender
tion insecurity shown in this year’s Global Hunger Index partially inequality, while countries with low GHI values, like Estonia and
reflect this confluence of factors, which together have impacts Latvia, exhibit low values of gender inequality and climate risk.
that go well beyond women alone. While women are not inherently more at risk from climate
Adolescent girls and women face a crisis of food and nutrition change and shocks, resource constraints and other factors can
insecurity, especially in poorer regions (UNICEF 2023). Different make them more vulnerable. Agrifood systems—which are par-
biological needs due to menstruation, pregnancy, and lactation, ticularly affected by climate impacts—are often more vital for
as well as harmful social norms and unequal access to resources, women’s livelihoods than for men’s. At the same time, women
put them at risk of food and nutrition insecurity (Briones Alonso face constraints that reduce their coping capacity, like unpaid
et al. 2018; Njuki et al. 2022). Women are 1.3 percentage points care work; limited access to opportunities, services, technology,
more likely than men to be moderately or severely food insecure—a finance, and resources; and weak tenure rights (FAO 2023b).
gender gap that widened to 3.6 percentage points during the During climate shocks like heat stress, available adaptation strat-
pandemic (FAO et al. 2024a). Over 1 billion adolescent girls and egies tend to create higher labor loads for women. Discriminatory
women worldwide suffer from undernutrition, with lifelong and gender norms restricting women’s mobility and access to climate
intergenerational impacts (UNICEF 2023). Malnourished mothers information further hinder their ability to adapt (Jost et al. 2015;
give birth to vulnerable newborns: for example, anemic mothers UN Women 2023). Women’s limited representation in climate
are at a higher risk of giving birth to premature, low-birthweight, policy decision-making on all levels exacerbates their vulnera-
and anemic infants (Allen 2000; da Silva Lopes et al. 2018). bility. Crises such as disasters and pandemics have also been
Marginalized and poorer regions bear the brunt: in 12 countries shown to worsen gender-based violence, which in turn tends to
hit by hunger between 2020 and 2022, the number of acutely harm agricultural productivity and food and nutrition security by
malnourished pregnant and breastfeeding women increased by impacting survivors’ health and resilience (UNFPA 2023). Food
25 percent. About three-quarters of low-birthweight infants reside and agriculture interventions can exacerbate gender-based vio-
in South Asia and Africa South of the Sahara (UNICEF 2023). lence risks by, for example, overburdening women or exposing
At the same time, climate change has unleashed a host of individuals to violence when accessing project sites and distri-
impacts that are impeding progress in reducing malnutrition, espe- bution points, especially if social dynamics and power relations
cially for women and children. These impacts include reduced are not well understood (FAO 2022).
crop and livestock yields, disruptions to food production and trans- Major data gaps remain, impeding effective responses. There
portation, reduced nutrient content of staple crops, environmen- is a lack of sex-disaggregated data on people’s access to produc-
tal degradation, and biodiversity loss (Fanzo et al. 2018; IFPRI tive assets, climate change adaptation, resilience, and nutrition.
2024; Medek et al. 2017; Myers et al. 2014, 2015). Also, disaster Research is also lacking on individuals who face compounded
impacts are often more pronounced for sexual and gender minori- inequalities due to factors such as age, socioeconomic status,
ties (Bündnis Entwicklung Hilft and IFHV 2023). Disaster-induced ethnicity, Indigenous identity, and remoteness (HLPE 2023).
disruptions to health services, especially antenatal, postnatal, Furthermore, data on food and nutrition security among sexual
and obstetric care, pose risks to women and their pregnancies and gender minorities is particularly sparse and sensitive to col-
and children (UNFPA 2024). Heat exposure during pregnancy is lect. Hostile environments for sexual and gender minorities often
associated with a greater risk of preterm birth, low-birth-weight reinforce binary gender norms and pose risks to those express-
deliveries, and stunting (Bekkar et al. 2020; Blom et al 2022). ing nonbinary identities. Studies from Northern America suggest
A study in Ethiopia revealed that both short-term and prolonged that transgender and gender-nonconforming individuals experi-
drought exposure beyond the 1,000-day window from conception ence higher levels of food and nutrition insecurity (Russomanno
to age two increased the likelihood of child stunting, with girls more and Jabson Tree 2020; Ferrero et al. 2023). Impact evaluations
susceptible to growth impairments than boys (Bahru et al. 2019). and systematic reviews related to the SDGs largely ignore gender

20 Global, Regional, and National Trends in Hunger | Chapter 01 | 2024 Global Hunger Index
 Low: GHI ≤ 9.9 Moderate: GHI 10.0–19.9 Serious: GHI 20.0–34.9 Alarming: GHI 35.0–49.9 Extremely alarming: GHI ≥ 50.0

and equity, resulting in limited evidence and understanding of 2023b). Bridging labor and productivity gaps between women and
the impact of development interventions on equity (Engelbert et men could increase global GDP by 1 percent and lift 45 million
al. 2023). people out of food insecurity (FAO 2023b). Better integration of
A number of steps can be taken to make the links between gen- maternal health across sectors and improved ties between the
der, climate change, and food and nutrition security work in pro- climate and nutrition communities are necessary. Currently, only
ductive ways. Despite discrimination and constraints, women are 23 out of 119 Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs)—key
crucial to food systems, making up nearly 40 percent of agrifood national climate policy documents—mention maternal and new-
workers. Increasing women’s agency, access to and control over born health (UNFPA 2023). Finally, filling evidence gaps is cru-
assets, and gender equality in agrifood systems has the potential cial to the development of targeted interventions that effectively
to boost household food security, child nutrition, economic growth, address disparities based on gender identity, sexual orientation,
income, productivity, and resilience (Bapolisi et al. 2021; FAO and intersecting inequalities.

FIGURE 1.5 GENDER INEQUALITY GOES HAND IN HAND WITH HUNGER AND RISKS TO FOOD SYSTEMS
FIGURE 1.5 GFROM
ENDER INEQUALITY
CLIMATE GOES
CHANGE IN HAND
MANYIN HAND WITH HUNGER AND RISKS TO FOOD SYSTEMS
COUNTRIES
FROM CLIMATE CHANGE IN MANY COUNTRIES

0.8

Chad

Yemen
Higher risk

0.7 Madagascar
Somalia
Risk to food systems from climate change

Côte d’Ivoire
Mauritania
0.6

Suriname Botswana

Thailand Fiji
0.5 Croatia

0.4
Lower risk

Latvia
0.3 Estonia

0.2
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9

Lower inequality Higher inequality

Gender Inequality Index

Hunger
Hunger status
status
Alarming  
Alarming Serious  
Serious Moderate  
Moderate Low
Low

Source: Authors, based on the Gender Inequality Index (UNDP 2024) and data on climate change vulnerability and readiness from ND-GAIN (2023).
Source: Authors, based on the Gender Inequality Index (UNDP 2024) and data on climate change vulnerability and readiness from ND-GAIN (2023).
Note: The Gender Inequality Index (GII) of the United Nations Development Programme is a composite measure using three dimensions: reproductive health, empowerment, and the labor
Note: The Gender Inequality Index (GII) of the United Nations Development Programme is a composite measure using three dimensions: reproductive health, empowerment, and the
market. GII values range from 0 (low inequality) to 1 (high inequality). The Notre Dame Global Adaptation Initiative (ND-GAIN) evaluates countries based on their vulnerability to and
labor market. GII values range from 0 (low inequality) to 1 (high inequality). The Notre Dame Global Adaptation Initiative (ND-GAIN) evaluates countries based on their vulnerability
readiness for climate change. Food systems’ risk from climate change consists of their vulnerability adjusted by their readiness. Risk values range from 0 (low risk) to 1 (high risk). The red
to and readiness for climate change. Food systems’ risk from climate change consists of their vulnerability adjusted by their readiness. Risk values range from 0 (low risk) to 1 (high
lines represent the median along each axis.
risk). The red lines represent the median along each axis.

2024 Global Hunger Index | Chapter 01 | Global, Regional, and National Trends in Hunger21
 FIGURE 1.6 2024 GLOBAL HUNGER INDEX BY SEVERITY
Greenland

Iceland Finland
Sweden
Canada Norway
Estonia
Latvia
United Denmark Lithuania
Kingdom Belarus
Neth. Poland
Ireland Germany
Bel.
Lux. Czech Rep. Ukraine
Slovakia
France Austria Hungary Rep. of
Switz. Slov. Moldova
Croatia Romania
Italy Serbia
Bos.&
United States Herz. Mont. Bulgaria
Spain N. Mace.
of America Portugal Albania
Greece Türkiye
Cyprus
Tunisia Lebanon
Morocco Israel/Palestinian
Territories
Algeria
Bahamas Libya Egypt
Mexico
Cuba Western Sahara

Jamaica Dominican Rep. Mauritania

Belize Haiti
Mali Niger
Honduras Cabo Verde Sudan
Guatemala Senegal Chad
El Salvador Nicaragua Gambia
Trinidad & Tobago Guinea-Bissau Guinea Burkina Faso
Costa Rica Panama Benin Nigeria
Côte Ghana
Venezuela Guyana Sierra Leone
d'Ivoire
Central South
Suriname Togo African Sudan*
French Guiana Liberia Republic
Colombia Cameroon
Equatorial Guinea Rep. of Uganda
Congo
Ecuador Gabon Rwanda
Dem.
Rep. of Burundi*
the Congo

Peru
Brazil
Angola Malawi
Zambia
Bolivia
Zimbabwe
Namibia
Botswana
Paraguay
Chile
Eswatini

South Lesotho*

Uruguay Africa

Argentina

Extremely alarming ≥ 50.0

Alarming 35.0–49.9

Serious 20.0–34.9

Moderate 10.0–19.9

Low ≤ 9.9

Not included or not designated (see Appendix A for details)

* Provisional severity designation (see Table A.3 for details)
 Russian Federation

Kazakhstan Mongolia

DPR Korea
Georgia Uzbekistan Kyrgyzstan
Azerbaijan Japan
Armenia Turkmenistan Tajikistan Rep. of Korea
China
Syrian Arab
Republic Afghanistan
Iraq Iran
Jordan Pakistan
Kuwait Nepal Bhutan
Bahrain
Saudi Qatar Bangladesh
Arabia U. A. E. India
Myanmar
Lao
Oman
PDR
Philippines
Eritrea Yemen Thailand
Cambodia
Djibouti
Viet Nam

Ethiopia Somalia Sri Lanka

Brunei Darussalam
Maldives Malaysia
Singapore
Indonesia Papua
Kenya New
Guinea
United Rep.
of Tanzania Timor-Leste Solomon Islands
Comoros
Mozambique

Vanuatu
Mauritius
Madagascar Fiji

Australia

Source: Authors.
Note: For the 2024 GHI, data on the proportion of undernourished are for 2021–2023;
data on child stunting and wasting are for the latest year in the period 2019–2023 for
which data are available; and data on child mortality are for 2022. GHI scores were not
calculated for countries for which data were not available and for countries that did not
meet the GHI inclusion criteria; see Appendix A for details. New Zealand
The boundaries and names shown and the designations used on this map do not imply
official endorsement or acceptance by Welthungerhilfe (WHH), Concern Worldwide, or
the Institute for International Law of Peace and Armed Conflict (IFHV).
Recommended citation: Welthungerhilfe (WHH), Concern Worldwide, and Institute
for International Law of Peace and Armed Conflict (IFHV). 2024. “Figure 1.6: 2024
­Global ­­Hunger Index by Severity.” Map in 2024 Global Hunger Index: How Gender
Justice Can Advance Climate Resilience and Zero Hunger. Bonn/Berlin: WHH; Dublin:
Concern Worldwide; Bochum: IFHV.
02

Efforts to promote gender justice can lead to

self-sufficiency and resilience for both women and men.
In Uganda, men and women take cooking classes
together in preparation to start their own businesses.
GENDER JUSTICE, CLIMATE RESILIENCE,
AND FOOD AND NUTRITION SECURITY
Nitya Rao, University of East Anglia
Siera Vercillo, Wageningen University
Gertrude Dzifa Torvikey, University of Ghana

Key Messages corporate control over production systems, and lack of high-­
quality basic services—must be addressed for real systemic and
> Gender inequality, food insecurity, and climate change converge social change to happen. Redistribution of power and resources
to place households, communities, and countries under extreme at the household and community levels must be underpinned
stress. Women and girls are typically hardest hit by food insecu- by universal social protection and macroeconomic measures,
rity and malnutrition. They also suffer disproportionately from the such as tax and trade policies, that support the most vulnerable.
effects of weather extremes and climate emergencies.

> Gender justice—that is, equity between people in all spheres of

S
life—is critical to a just world and to achieving climate and food ome of the world’s poorest countries are now on the front lines
justice. It consists of three interconnected dimensions: recogni- of the climate crisis. Madagascar, for example, is facing a pro-
tion, redistribution, and representation. longed drought, attributed to climate change, that is afflicting
the entire southern region (Rigden et al. 2024). The country is also
> Recognitional justice entails transforming gender discriminatory hard hit by hunger and malnutrition as a result of weather extremes
norms in order to change how households, communities, and the and economic shocks. In 2023, 2.2 million people suffered from
wider culture view gender roles and capacities. It means acknowl- acute food insecurity (FSIN and GNAFC 2024). Compounding these
edging that different groups of people have different needs, vul- challenges is widespread gender inequality: in Madagascar girls have
nerabilities, and opportunities and that their physical location and limited access to education, women face scarce economic opportuni-
social position can intersect to intensify injustices. ties, and rates of sexual and gender-based violence are high (World
Bank 2023b). Malagasy women are more likely than men to face
> Redistributional justice involves directing resources and opportu- food insecurity, and they appear to be disproportionately vulnerable
nities to redress gender inequalities. By ensuring women’s access to the impacts of climate change on their labor burden and health
to and control over critical productive resources, it can challenge (FAO 2024d; World Bank 2023b).
inequitable power dynamics and create an enabling environment The situation in Madagascar is just one illustration of how gen-
for food and nutrition security. der inequality, food insecurity, and climate change converge to place
households, communities, and countries under extreme stress. Gender
> Representation refers to closing the gender gap in women’s par- is intertwined with climate and food security challenges in ways that
ticipation in politics and decision-making at multiple levels. Legal respective policies and interventions often ignore. Women and girls
changes and women’s political participation and leadership may are typically hardest hit by food insecurity and malnutrition. They also
help push policies toward gender equity, though such outcomes suffer disproportionately from the effects of weather extremes and
are not assured and can take time. climate emergencies (Harris-Fry and Grijalva-Eternod 2016; Hlahla
2022; Jain et al. 2023; Rao 2020). Various forms of discrimination—
> Reforms are needed to incorporate gender justice at all scales formal and informal, systemic and individual—block them from the
and levels, ranging from individuals to entire systems and from resources and opportunities they need to take effective action for
formal mechanisms to informal social and cultural norms. While the well-being of themselves and others, and to contribute to trans-
enabling access to resources for women is essential, structural formative change across food systems and for climate resilience.
inequalities—including class dynamics, rising income inequality, In this essay, we unravel the nexus of gender justice, climate
resilience, and food and nutrition security to identify the strategies,
Note: The views expressed in this chapter are those of the authors. They do not necessarily re-
both immediate and structural, that can contribute to a gender-just,
flect the views of Welthungerhilfe (WHH), Concern Worldwide, or the Institute for International
Law of Peace and Armed Conflict (IFHV). climate-resilient, and food-secure world.

2024 Global Hunger Index | Chapter 02 | Gender Justice, Climate Resilience, and Food and Nutrition Security25
Gender Inequality in Food Systems and Nutrition Is between the ages of 15 and 49 (WHO 2023) and almost half of all
Severe—and Climate Change Is Making It Worse women in West Africa and South Asia.
Food systems more broadly also discriminate against women. Agri-
Despite decades of galvanizing rhetoric about the need to ensure food policy approaches and finance policies often fail to respond to
equal rights and opportunities for men and women, severe gender the underlying power relations between men and women, such as
inequality persists. The Global Gender Gap Index,1 at 68.5 percent, discriminatory norms, labor burdens, and land inheritance regimes,
reveals stubborn disparities in men’s and women’s economic and yet they rely on women’s unpaid farm labor and caregiving to sustain
political participation and empowerment at a global level, and in an unjust food system (Njuki et al. 2021). Even in countries where
many countries the gap is much wider (WEF 2024a). The effects women’s land rights are enshrined in law, sociocultural norms and
of the gender gap cascade throughout women’s lives and have stark practices constrain their land access and ownership.
implications for the world’s food security, nutrition, and resilience At the same time, climate change has disproportionate impacts
to a changing climate. on women. In its report The Unjust Climate, the Food and Agriculture
Among the undernourished, women consistently remain the most Organization notes that heat waves and floods widen the gap not only
food insecure. The gap in food security between men and women between the poor and nonpoor but also between male- and female-
is as high as 19 percentage points in some countries (Broussard headed households. A study of 24 low- and middle-income countries
2019), and the situation for women is especially severe in countries finds that if global temperatures rise by another one degree Celsius,
affected by conflict (FSIN and GNAFC 2024). Women who are poor, female-headed households are projected to lose 34 percent more of
rural, migrants, refugees, or engaged in informal employment are even their income than male-headed households (FAO 2024d). As climate
more vulnerable (see Box 2.1). Even in peacetime, women and girls change and poverty push many men to migrate away from farms in
around the world sometimes eat last and least, given the inequalities South Asia, for example, women are taking on an increasing share of
prevalent in cultures, communities, and households. agricultural labor and are experiencing a rise in their work burdens,
As a result, women suffer from widespread nutritional deficien- without commensurate control over the output and incomes from
cies. The specific nutritional needs of pregnant and lactating women these farms. These women farmers lack timely agricultural exten-
are rarely sufficiently addressed in households or in state interven- sion information and adequate capital to recover from shocks (FAO
tions. Anemia, for example, affects 30 percent of all women globally 2024d; Leder 2022; Maharjan et al. 2020; Pandey 2019).
To cope with the impacts of climate change, women often face
1
The Global Gender Gap Index measures scores on a percentage scale of 0–100. Scores rep-
increasing work burdens, including the need to travel farther to fetch
resent the distance covered toward parity (that is, the percentage of the gender gap that has
been closed), so a higher score signifies a smaller gender gap. water. They are forced to take on multiple livelihoods, worsening

HOW GENDER INTERSECTS WITH OTHER IDENTITIES AND EXPERIENCES

BOX 2.1 

Gender refers to the socially determined characteristics of women in varied ways depending on their stage of life and social
women and men, which are learned, are changeable over time, position. As conditions intersect and overlap, they can combine
and vary both within cultures and from culture to culture. While to create cumulative burdens. The women worst affected by food
gender relations signify the social relations of power and the insecurity and nutritional deficiencies are likely to be poor, rural
roles, responsibilities, opportunities, and expectations facing women with little education (HLPE 2023), Indigenous women
women and men, these categories are not homogeneous. Rather, (Lemke and Delormier 2017), the urban poor (Roy et al. 2023),
the experience of gender is rooted in intersectionality, reflect- and the elderly (Assoumou et al. 2023). These intersecting driv-
ing the multiple overlapping sources of identity and oppression, ers, however, are not systematically documented or considered
whether race, ethnicity, caste, or sexual identity. in policy (Lemke and Delormier 2017; Rao 2020).
Food security is not just about vitamins, minerals, and
dietary diversity but is part of a wider system that can affect

26 Gender Justice, Climate Resilience, and Food and Nutrition Security | Chapter 02 | 2024 Global Hunger Index
their time poverty,2 with implications for food and nutrition security FIGURE 2.1 DIMENSIONS OF GENDER JUSTICE
(Chaudhuri et al. 2021). Women’s time poverty is now recognized as
a major reason for poor child nutrition outcomes, alongside adverse
effects on women’s own health (Johnston et al. 2018; Rao and Raju
Recognition of: Redistribution of:
2019). The resulting deepening poverty and food insecurity also
> multiple and intersecting > public resources,
expose women to different forms of gender-based violence, includ- discriminatory norms, values, especially social protection
perceptions, and differences measures, in an equitable way
ing trafficking (Forsythe 2023; Rao 2020; van Daalen et al. 2022).
> different people’s varied needs, > land, employment opportunities,
vulnerabilities, and opportunities inputs, and technologies
women’s environmental > access to credit, extension
Gender Justice Is a Cornerstone to Achieving Climate >
knowledge and values services, and other resources
Resilience and Food and Nutrition Security > access to education, skills, and
knowledge services
Gender justice—that is, equity between people in all spheres of life—
is critical to a just world and to achieving climate and food justice.
Representation of:
It consists of three interconnected dimensions: recognition, redistri-
> women and other marginalized groups
bution, and representation (Fraser 2009). Recognition entails trans- in politics and decision-making at all levels
forming gender discriminatory norms by acknowledging that different > communities affected by climate change and food
insecurity in relevant policymaking
groups of people have different needs, vulnerabilities, and opportuni-
> women’s interests in accountability mechanisms
ties and that their physical location and social position can intersect for policies on gender equality, climate resilience,
and food and nutrition security
to intensify injustices. This calls for a nuanced understanding and
appropriate responses. Redistribution involves directing resources and
opportunities to redress gender inequalities. Representation refers
to closing the gender gap in women’s participation in politics and Source: Authors, based on framework from Fraser (2009).

decision-making at multiple levels. Together, these three dimensions

represent a transformational approach to gender equity (Figure 2.1).
Several examples illustrate the potential for change across the
gender-food-climate nexus as well as the challenges to achieving providing drinking water, collecting firewood, and producing nutri-
such synergies. tious food for the family, more difficult to fulfill (Tahirindray 2022).
In this context, a program of gender-equity training has shown
Recognitional Justice: Transforming Gender-Discriminatory Norms the potential for changing household and community norms con-
Exercising recognitional justice means changing how households, cerning gender roles. A Welthungerhilfe (WHH) project in the region3
communities, and the wider culture view gender roles and capacities. has carried out a number of activities related to food and nutrition
Such initiatives can trigger transformative changes at the micro level, security, with a focus on women’s care groups and the promotion of
contributing to both food and nutrition security and climate resilience. positive masculinity. Farmer field schools and demonstration plots
In Madagascar’s Atsimo-Atsinanana region, as elsewhere in the not only provide women with new information and nutrition-sensitive
country, men, often polygamous, have greater entitlement to and agricultural techniques that make their soils and seeds more resilient
control over resources and decision-making than women. In addi- to a changing climate but also position them as visible and capable
tion to supporting their husbands on farms, women are expected to contributors in the public domain of production, thus challenging
rear children and manage domestic chores and care work. Women traditional perceptions of gender roles. Neighborhood care groups
are not allowed to use or inherit land or conduct their own income-­ provide both education on nutrition and health and much-needed
generating activities, as this could be perceived as lack of respect social recognition and support for care work. Workshops on progres-
for their husbands (ProSAR 2024a, b). The disruptions caused by sive gender roles demonstrate the complementarity and interdepen-
extreme weather make women’s household responsibilities, such as dence between men and women.
3
This WHH project in the Atsimo-Atsinanana region is part of the German Development
Agency’s Food Security, Nutrition, and Enhanced Resilience Project (ProSAR). It aims to
2
Time poverty occurs when people, particularly women, have no time to fulfill personal sched- improve knowledge of nutrition, hygiene, and health to influence the use of food. Additionally,
ules, rest, or hobbies owing to the double burden of productive and reproductive work, which it facilitates access to food through training in financial resource management and support
occupies all of their time (Hyde et al. 2020). for income-generating activities.

2024 Global Hunger Index | Chapter 02 | Gender Justice, Climate Resilience, and Food and Nutrition Security27
 This multi-pronged intervention has set in motion processes of
gender transformation. Many participating couples now work together
CASE STUDY
in the fields, jointly invest loan funds, start small businesses, or pur-
Empowering Women for Nutrition and
chase additional rice fields, helping them meet the family’s basic
Climate Resilience in Nepal
needs, diversify their livelihoods, and invest in their children’s edu-
cation. As implied by a study in Uganda, joint decision-making about
In the conservative Terai region of Nepal, strict patriarchal norms
sustainable land management, livelihood diversification, and educa-
dictate family decisions. Women in the region—especially those
tion can make households more resilient to a changing climate and
from ethnic minorities and with low social status—experience
improve household food security (Waiswa and Akullo 2021).
high levels of poverty, social exclusion, and marginalization and
“During training on progressive masculinity and femininity, I prom-
are unable to freely exercise their economic, reproductive health,
ised myself to stop drinking alcohol, to no longer hide money from my
and political rights.
wife, and to no longer see other women,” said Frédéric, the husband
These challenges are evident in the life of Nita Patel, a young
of a care group volunteer. “Now I try to keep my promise, and together
mother whose three-year-old daughter was diagnosed with severe
me and my wife work hard to have a better life” (ProSAR 2024b).
acute malnutrition one year ago. Today Nita remains unsure
whether her daughter is out of danger, as she could not attend
Redistributional Justice: Access to Resources and Opportunities
either her child’s second screening or the regular nutrition meet-
Women are typically held responsible for household food security,
ings she once eagerly enrolled in. Smita Pal, who works with
yet they often have access to few household, community, and wider
FORWARD Nepal under the Nutrition Smart CommUNITY pro-
resources. Redistributional justice, ensuring women’s access to and
gram,5 says health workers often struggle to retain rural women
control over critical productive resources, can challenge inequitable
like Nita in such programs. “They cannot go out without per-
power dynamics and, in turn, create an enabling environment for
mission or without a man’s company. They lack the space and
food and nutrition security.
opportunity to make their own decisions,” Pal explains. Any
Access to credit is one example of the power of resource dis-
form of change often meets resistance from in-laws or families,
tribution. In South Sudan, as part of an integrated, intersectoral
making it essential to advocate for behavior change among both
approach,4 village savings and loan associations have increased wom-
men and women.
en’s access to credit and information. Preliminary observations sug-
The Nutrition Smart CommUNITY approach combines sys-
gest that these resources have led women to invest in vegetable
temic interventions at various levels to address the root causes
gardening and agroforestry, enabling them to earn incomes; giving
of chronic hunger and malnutrition through four key strategies:
them more voice about what to grow, how to use their income, and
fostering behavior change at the household level, strengthen-
what to cook; and, in turn, improving the households’ food and nutri-
ing and supporting community-based institutions, activating
tion security. It is suggested that activities to boost climate adapta-
and improving nutrition-relevant services, and advocating for
tion, like tree planting and agroforestry, picked up significantly when
a multisectoral, community-based approach to realizing the
both women and men were equally involved in decision-making and
right to food.
ownership of resources. Progress, though, is slow. Despite gradual
The program aims to build the skills of caregivers to prevent
shifts in gender relations, the patriarchal nature of South Sudanese
malnutrition in both the family and the wider community. This
society has not fully changed, and community resources are still
controlled largely by men (interview, WHH South Sudan, May 2024; 5
This case study was prepared by Welthungerhilfe (WHH). Nutrition Smart CommUNITY
UNDP 2022). is a multisectoral approach designed to help village communities tackle the complex
Elsewhere, efforts have sought to improve women’s access to causes of hunger holistically through self-help and sustainable practices. In Nutrition
Smart CommUNITYs, people, local organizations, and authorities collaborate to improve
technology. In Nepal, cultivation of finger millet—a climate-resilient nutrition by advancing agriculture, health, natural resource management, and water,
sanitation, and hygiene (WASH), integrating best practices from nutrition projects all
over the world. Initially starting with two villages, the program has since expanded
4 to 670 model villages in Bangladesh, India, and Nepal. Over a four-year period, the
The WHH project, funded by the German Federal Ministry for Economic Cooperation and
villages have become centers of knowledge and learning, including for neighboring
Development (BMZ), aims to improve food and nutrition security and stabilize the livelihoods
communities. WHH is now extending the concept to Burundi, Ethiopia, Malawi, Sierra
of internally displaced persons and small farming families from conflict-­affected (host) com-
Leone, and Tajikistan. The initiative is funded mainly by the German Federal Ministry
munities in Rubkona County, Unity State, South Sudan. Activities include training on nutrition,
for Economic Cooperation and Development (BMZ) and Irish Aid.
small business management, and climate-­sensitive ­farming techniques, as well as sessions
on gender equality, gender stereotypes, and women’s participation in decision-making at the
household and community levels.

28 Gender Justice, Climate Resilience, and Food and Nutrition Security | Chapter 02 | 2024 Global Hunger Index
WHH’s health volunteers Nita and Reshmi in conversation with Smita from the Nutrition Smart CommUNITY program
in the Terai region of Nepal.

includes training to prepare Super Cereals—a highly nutritious and climate-resilient crop varieties like millet as well as homemade
prepared food containing a selection of locally available, climate-­ bio-fertilizers and bio-pesticides known as jholmal. Nita and her
resilient food items such as maize, millets, pulses, peas, wheat, father-in-law practice these techniques together on her farm, con-
soybeans, brown rice, and various seasonal fruits. Nita learned this tributing to climate resilience. Training is also provided to govern-
recipe and has incorporated it into her daughter’s daily diet. “I don’t ment entities to institutionalize change sustainably and enhance
have to beg or ask for extra money from my husband or in-laws. service delivery in line with community needs. To improve the sta-
These ingredients are readily available at our farm or at home,” tus of women in the communities and beyond, the program also
says Nita. Men migrate for work, often leaving financial control of strengthens women’s leadership skills and agency as they take on
the family to their own fathers. Women thus frequently lack finan- decision-making roles in local governance, such as micro-planning
cial freedom or purchasing power. Promoting low-cost recipes and processes, savings groups, or water committees.
improving women’s access to knowledge on the linkages between Challenging patriarchy and fostering behavior change takes
agriculture, natural resource management, and water, sanitation, time, especially in regions like the Terai, where it faces resistance.
and hygiene is vital to increase women’s agency and address mal- Yet seeing women like Nita become more conscious of their chil-
nutrition. To create lasting change, the program also trains men dren’s and their own health shows that education, training, listen-
on the importance of nutritious food. ing, timing, and empowerment of families to pick up new behaviors
Through farmer field schools, both men and women in the com- in order to overcome resistance do indeed pay off.
munity learn about diversified crops and healthy diets as well as
sustainable farming practices that enhance nutrition and climate
resilience. These practices include the use of traditional, local,

2024 Global Hunger Index | Chapter 02 | Gender Justice, Climate Resilience, and Food and Nutrition Security29
and nutritious crop—is widespread, but it intensifies the labor bur- representation in national parliaments leads to more stringent climate
den on women. The promotion of small machinery, such as the fin- change policies across countries (Mavisakalyan and Tarverdi 2019).
ger millet pedal thresher and fork weeder, has helped reduce the Bangladesh has had women leaders at the helm for the past
drudgery of women’s work and reduce time poverty (Devkota et al. three decades. It has made major strides in women’s status and
2016), with potential positive impacts on community nutrition.6 In empowerment, currently ranking first among all South Asian coun-
the Indian state of Odisha, research and development on millets tries in the Global Gender Gap Index (WEF 2024a). In the coun-
has shifted in response to Indigenous women’s needs for production try’s National Adaptation Plan (2023–2050), one of the guiding
and post­harvest support. The government has now started testing principles for coping with climate change is gender responsiveness.
millet-­related tools and technologies for their gender sensitivity when The plan was formulated through a participatory process involving
considering state subsidies. Recognition that millets are cultivated more than 100 group discussions across the country, including with
mainly by women farmers has led to a reallocation of R&D budgets to women and third-gender persons at the local subdistrict (upazila)
build technologies that can improve yields, incomes, and overall well- level (MoEFCC 2022).
being (Rao et al. 2022). While microfinance redistributes resources Women’s representation can also make a difference in local gov-
to individual women, the scenario is Odisha is an example of a sys- ernance, enabling demands from local communities to be channeled
temic shift in state priorities. upward. In 1993, India instituted a 33 percent quota for women in
In some cases, collective action has created demand for resource the local government bodies known as Panchayati Raj Institutions.
redistribution. In India, women farmers’ groups in the state of Kerala Women elected leaders were found to invest more than men in infra-
have gained access to government extension services and bank credit structure responsive to issues raised by rural women (such as drinking
through their collectives, not solely to enhance their production water projects), which reduces women’s work and boosts the nutri-
but also to help them diversify into climate-resilient, nutrition-rich tional status of rural communities (Chattopadhyay and Duflo 2004).
crops. Incomes have increased, as has diet quality, as these women Legal changes and women’s high-level political leadership, how-
now grow diverse crops for both consumption and sale (Agarwal ever, do not necessarily lead to advances in gender equity (Childs
2019). While male farmers are mainly engaged in the production of and Crook 2008). In recent years the government of Pakistan has
export-oriented, commercial plantation crops like pepper and rub- significantly improved the status of women’s rights, centering them
ber, the state here recognizes the contribution of the women’s groups within the Constitution and adopting several legislative and policy
to food production and food security and prioritizes this in its plan- frameworks focused on women’s empowerment and participation. Yet
ning processes. The success of women farmers’ groups in Kerala is despite legal and policy changes, as well as some redistribution of
now being replicated across the country through the National Rural resources, Pakistan ranks 145th out of 146 countries in the Global
Livelihood Mission. Gender Gap Index (WEF 2024a). Training and livelihood opportunities
aimed at empowering women entrepreneurs are often unsuccessful at
Representational Justice: Gender-Equitable Laws and Policies getting women to enroll and participate because they feel unentitled
In the 1970s, research on women and politics suggested that ensur- to such resources, are constrained by labor burdens, and face phys-
ing a minimum threshold of women in decision-making bodies could ical restrictions on their movements. During climate-related disas-
contribute to gender-sensitive policies and investments (Dahlerup ters like the 2022 floods, which affected 33 million people, women
1988; Kanter 1977). This work helped to introduce quotas for wom- lost more of their assets and savings than men. Displaced women,
en’s representation in a number of parliaments across the world, far from their families and male counterparts meant to keep them
increasing from 118 countries in 2013 to 132 in 2021 (International safe, were housed in shelters, where they faced an increased risk of
IDEA 2024). Only 6 countries, however, have more than 50 percent sexual violence and unsafe living conditions (Soomar et al. 2023).
women in their parliaments (UN Women 2024). Experiences in some This contradiction—progressive legal change alongside poor
countries suggest that women’s leadership and political participation gender equity outcomes—reflects the structural and sociocul-
can push policies toward gender equity, and one study shows women’s tural barriers, gender stereotypes, and discrimination women face
throughout their lives (Weldon and Htun 2013). Pakistan, though per-
6
haps an extreme example, is not unusual in experiencing persistent
This project is implemented by Aasaman Nepal and Local Initiatives for Biodiversity, Research
and Development (LI-BIRD) through the WHH global program LANN+ (Linking Agriculture and unjust gender norms that do not quickly respond to formal changes.
Natural Resource Management towards Nutrition Security), funded by the German Federal
Nonetheless, there are some positive signs: Observers of the situa-
Ministry for Economic Cooperation and Development (BMZ). The project includes gender,
climate change resilience, and nutrition advocacy components. tion in Pakistan suggest that women are increasingly taking part in

30 Gender Justice, Climate Resilience, and Food and Nutrition Security | Chapter 02 | 2024 Global Hunger Index
 CASE STUDY
Using Livestock Management to Improve Climate Resilience, Nutrition, and Gender Equity in Somalia

income from her small husbandry business, which enabled her

to sell milk and meat at the local market. However, prolonged
droughts caused the death of four goats, and rising food prices
left her struggling to feed her children and provide for their edu-
cation. Just after she had had to sell her last two goats to meet
her family’s basic needs, a project to advance climate resilience,
nutrition, and gender equity provided relief:7
“I was very happy when I heard that I was selected to receive
five goats, as I had just recently lost my livestock. It took me
almost a day to believe that I had been given goats at a time
when I was stressed,” Madiino recalls.
Since receiving the goats, along with training on sustain-
able livestock management, Madiino’s situation has drastically
improved. The goats have reproduced, bringing her herd size to
Madiino Sheeq Ahmadeey has a bustling husbandry ­ eight. She sold one goat and used the proceeds to buy chick-
business that allows her to sell fresh milk in Beledweyne ens and expand her husbandry. Now, with seven goats and four
District, Somalia.
chickens, she sells fresh milk and eggs daily, giving her a steady
income and boosting her family’s food and nutrition security. Her
In Somalia, climate change impacts the entire food system, from role as a primary income earner in her household also empow-
production to consumption. The increasing frequency of natu- ers her within her household and community.
ral disasters and economic crises exacerbates food insecurity,
7
particularly affecting vulnerable populations. Gender inequal- This case study was prepared by Welthungerhilfe (WHH). The WHH project, imple-
mented by the Centre for Peace and Democracy (CPD) and Sustainable Development
ities complicate these challenges, limiting women’s access to and Peacebuilding Initiatives (SYPD), with funding from the Norwegian Agency for
resources and decision-making power. Addressing these inter- Development Cooperation (NORAD), aims to promote gender equity and increase food
security and resilience among small-scale farmers, pastoralists, and agro-pastoralists
twined issues is crucial for ushering in sustainable development. affected by high food prices and the current drought, as well as vulnerable households
at risk of malnutrition. Interventions include, for example, the provision of community
Madiino Sheeq Ahmadeey, a 40-year-old mother of eight in
assets for climate-resilient agricultural food production, gender equity and inclusion
Beledsalaam Village, Beledweyne District, received her main training, and social safety net measures.

development and cultural activities, some women-led civil society been able to make greater profits, this has often resulted in men
organizations are forming and gaining prominence, and it is claimed taking over their livelihoods. Striving for policies that focus narrowly
that women-led businesses have more opportunities (interview with on individual women, such as permitting land ownership, for exam-
WHH and Concern Pakistan). ple, is inadequate for transformation in most contexts where few
Without critical feminist, gender-justice approaches to climate men own or control land (O’Laughlin 2007). Interventions can offer
resilience and food security that address intersecting social factors, new opportunities for women, yet if they support women’s ability to
there is a risk that even those policies and interventions that include produce and provide for the household without considering the gen-
or target women with resources to help develop their livelihoods or dered divisions of labor, relations, and intersecting power dynamics,
ways to feed their families can deepen their work burdens or result including class, such interventions can put women at risk of losing
in a backlash—sometimes violent—to any profits generated (Vercillo control over their harvests and assets, while potentially adding to
2020, 2022; Vercillo et al. 2023). Where individual women have their work burdens and food responsibilities.

2024 Global Hunger Index | Chapter 02 | Gender Justice, Climate Resilience, and Food and Nutrition Security31
 Implications for Policy and Programming networks, empower women through education, and support their land
tenure and use rights (Caroli et al. 2022). In fact, educational inter-
The need for climate action and food systems transformation is evi- ventions, including the introduction of relevant gender equality con-
dent. Gender equity and equality—a human right in and of itself—is cepts in the content of school curricula and pedagogical practices,
central to such a transformation. Yet achieving gender justice requires have been recognized as an important strategy for changing discrim-
change at the various scales and levels at which gender relations inatory gender norms (UNESCO 2013). These actions are especially
operate (Figure 2.2). These range from individuals to entire systems, important for Indigenous women and those who are nutritionally vul-
and from formal conditions like legal rights and material resource nerable, like pregnant and lactating women, widows, divorced women,
claims to more informal social and cultural norms that often conflict and single mothers. Yet civil society activists have noted that the
with relationships of respect and dignity. guidelines do not go far enough in recognizing intersectional disad-
At the level of government action, various international and inter- vantages or addressing the prevalence of violence against women,
governmental bodies have developed guidelines to help point the girls, and diverse genders (CSIPM 2024).
way toward gender equality in both food systems transformation Nonetheless, these guidelines can inform a number of processes
and climate action. In 2023, the Committee on World Food Security that are already underway to address climate change and food sys-
adopted Voluntary Guidelines on Gender Equality and Women’s and tems transformation, such as the national food systems transforma-
Girls’ Empowerment, which call for strengthening nondiscriminatory tion pathways, which were initiated following the 2021 United Nations
laws and access to legal services alongside targeted health, labor, Food Systems Summit. Over the past three years, 127 countries have
and social protection measures. The guidelines recommend that developed national food systems transformation pathways and 108
governments use affirmative action to draw women into leadership have submitted voluntary country reports. Many of these reports
and managerial positions, support women’s rights organizations and present bold measures to address the complex inequalities faced by

FIGURE 2.2 SCALES AND LEVELS OF CHANGE TO ACHIEVE GENDER JUSTICE FOR CLIMATE RESILIENCE AND FOOD SECURITY

Formal change

Redistribution Representation
> Equal entitlements to productive resources (such > Representation in decision-making fora includ-
as credit and finance, seeds, water, land and com- ing parliaments, local governments, and sectoral
mon property, and extension services) bodies
> Equal opportunities for education and employment > Strengthened legal entitlements and policies (such
Individual change

Systemic change

> Equal distribution of social protection as around land and labor rights)

Recognition Recognition
> Increased agency and empowerment in relation to > Recognition of women as farmers, entrepreneurs,
resource control and decision-making and workers
> Raised women’s and men’s consciousness around > Reduced drudgery of women’s work through public
equitable food production and provisioning investments in care, education, and health
> Elimination of discriminatory cultural norms around
food, farming, environment, and markets

Informal change

Source: Authors.

32 Gender Justice, Climate Resilience, and Food and Nutrition Security | Chapter 02 | 2024 Global Hunger Index
 CASE STUDY
Exploring New Gender Norms in Malawi

Margaret Kamwendo and her husband, Jackson Adam, live in a

small rural village in Mangochi District, Malawi, where they are
enrolled in Concern Worldwide’s Graduation Programme, an anti-
poverty program that includes a gender transformation element.
One of the poorest countries in the world, Malawi consis-
tently ranks low on the Human Development Index—it was
172nd out of 193 countries in 2022 (UNDP 2024). Eighty per-
cent of the population relies on agriculture for income, so they
are particularly vulnerable to damaging climate shocks. To sup-
port a pathway out of poverty and increase resilience to climate
change, the Graduation Programme in Malawi offers a package Jackson Adam and his wife, Margaret Kamwendo, of
of interventions, such as cash transfers, business training, and Mangochi District, Malawi, have participated in all 12 sessions
of Umodzi, a program designed to shift gender norms.
climate-smart agriculture training, depending on the needs of
the individual.
Part of this program, known as Umodzi (meaning “united”), share in household duties and childcare and that conflict and
engages couples to reflect on and discuss issues such as gen- violence in the home have declined.
der norms, power, decision-making, budgeting, violence, pos- Jackson and Margaret completed all 12 sessions of the
itive parenting, and healthy relationships. In individual and
8 Umodzi program. Together, they have seen many benefits, such
joint dialogue sessions, the couples examine stereotypes and as shared decision-making. When they receive income, they sit
challenges. As a result of the sessions, wives report that their down, discuss it, and agree on how to spend it. Jackson is doing
husbands now consult them on decisions and have started to more household chores and childcare than before. They have
8
also shared these lessons with their six children, teaching them
This case study was prepared by Concern Worldwide. Umodzi was a gender-transfor-
mative approach in the Graduation Programme that ran in Malawi from 2017 to 2023, about respect and mutual support in relationships. Margaret
with funding from the European Union. It was delivered in partnership with Sonke
wishes the whole village could take part in such training: “If
Gender Justice. The program was the basis for research conducted by Trinity College
Dublin, which looked at barriers faced by women pursuing a pathway out of poverty. the whole village was involved, there would be a great impact.”

women, youth, and other marginalized groups. Since 2021, as part interventions and the practices they entail, while contributing to food
of its own transformation pathway, the government of Fiji, for exam- and nutrition security, often do not address the nexus of gender, cli-
ple, reported that it has designed, developed, and implemented a mate, and food. Women may continue to lack access to land and
Gender in Agriculture Policy alongside a Gender Responsive Budget other productive assets, while interventions increase demands on their
targeted at advancing equitable livelihoods, decent work, and empow- labor and time (World Bank et al. 2015). Like assets and resources,
ered communities in the context of a changing climate (pers. comm. labor needs to be redistributed more equitably within households
from UNFSS coordination hub, June 7, 2024). and communities, alongside the transformation of unequal institu-
Similarly, the Enhanced Lima Work Programme on Gender seeks tions and social structures.
to integrate gender considerations into countries’ nationally deter- What is needed is a new model of farming that includes climatic,
mined contributions and national action plans for climate change market, and gender justice factors. Agroecology encourages delib-
(UNFCCC 2024). Still, many climate action plans fail to directly men- erative dialogue and community-led education on social inequality.
tion the people most directly affected by climate crises, including Farmers share knowledge among themselves, which encourages exper-
women (FAO 2024d; Singh et al. 2021). Climate-smart agriculture imentation and reduces dependence on global agricultural markets,

2024 Global Hunger Index | Chapter 02 | Gender Justice, Climate Resilience, and Food and Nutrition Security33
 Mahadia applies climate-smart agriculture techniques, like crop diversification and conservation agriculture, in Sila region, Chad.

CASE STUDY
Training on Farming and Nutrition to Boost Climate Resilience in Chad

Mahadia, age 24, is a married mother of three in one of 2,400 we would go and plant, and if someone planted well, they would
households that are part of the Concern Worldwide’s Green harvest and make some money from selling in the market. When
Graduation Programme in Sila region, Chad. The program offers
9
there was no rainfall, we would stay like that. We did not have
a number of supporting elements designed to enable individuals anything else to do to get money.”
and families to meet their basic needs, strengthen their liveli- Through the Green Graduation Programme, Mahadia received
hoods, and improve their coping strategies on a sustainable basis. cash transfers, which she used for school fees for her two older
In Chad, about 80 percent of the population depends on children. When a Village Savings and Loans Association was
rainfed subsistence farming and livestock for their livelihoods—a established in the community and members received busi-
way of living that is becoming more challenging as inconsis- ness training, Mahadia was able to save money and thus
tent rainfall leads to droughts and floods (Bahal’okwibale and afford healthcare.
Woldegiorgis 2023). For Mahadia and her family, who depend on Mahadia also received training in climate-smart agriculture,
rainfed crop production, their source of food and income became learning about techniques such as conservation agriculture,
unreliable. Without an income, Mahadia could not access health- which prevents soil degradation and increases soil fertility, and
care or afford to send her children to school. crop diversification. She now produces food in a way that adapts
“Our lives were very difficult,” she says. “We would just to the effects of climate change. “[Concern] has also given us
work on our farms, and we did not have much else to do. We a lot of training about hygiene and sanitation, about gardening.
were always dependent on the rains. When there was rainfall, In my garden, I have planted watermelons, beans, tomatoes,
cucumbers, and peas. I usually sell these crops in the market,
9
This case study was prepared by Concern Worldwide. The Green Graduation approach and the money I get helps my family,” says Mahadia. Finally,
is implemented in programs across Bangladesh, Burundi, Chad, Democratic Republic
of the Congo, Ethiopia, Rwanda, and Somalia. It is estimated that more than nutritional training has shown Mahadia how to provide healthier
320,000 people will benefit from the programs between 2023 and 2027. The Green
and more nutritious meals for her family by incorporating fresh
Graduation Programme in Chad is funded by Irish Aid, with co-funding from the Whole
Planet Foundation. vegetables and fruits harvested from their garden.

34 Gender Justice, Climate Resilience, and Food and Nutrition Security | Chapter 02 | 2024 Global Hunger Index
while still increasing soil quality and food production. According to gender relations, food systems transformation, and climate policies
studies conducted in Malawi, agroecology offers particularly empow- as well as a scarcity of gender-disaggregated data can mean that
ering spaces for women. Women experience greater autonomy and policymakers operate in a context of uncertainty, with interventions
authority in household decision-making and labor distribution, and having unintended, often negative, consequences. Overlapping and
improvements occur in childhood nutrition, dietary diversity, and intersectional sources of vulnerability add complexity to the design
households’ overall reported health status (Bezner Kerr et al. 2021; and implementation of interventions and policies, and hence are
Nyantakyi-Frimpong et al. 2017). often included only in general vision statements rather than in spe-
This situation illustrates the need for reforms to gender relations cific strategies.
at a structural scale. While enabling access to resources for women Nonetheless, gender justice holds the promise of transformative
is important, without addressing structural inequalities—including change. We can take hope from and build on the many interventions
class dynamics, rising income inequality, corporate control over pro- and examples from across the globe that seek to achieve sustainable
duction systems, and lack of high-quality basic services—hunger will and equitable outcomes by simultaneously addressing the challenges
persist. Furthermore, redistribution at the household and commu- to gender, food, and climate justice. By recognizing people’s diverse
nity levels needs to go hand in hand with macroeconomic measures, needs, contributions, and vulnerabilities; redistributing resources
such as tax and trade policies and universal social protection, that to enable more equitable production and consumption; and, impor-
support the most vulnerable, including women. Indeed, there is a tantly, giving representation in decision-making platforms to those
growing recognition that universal social protection measures can who have been denied, especially women, gender justice will enable
play an important part in leveling the playing field, providing much- all people to bring their voices, knowledge, and skills to the table,
needed support to the most vulnerable in order to meet the triple with the aim of finding innovative solutions and pathways toward a
challenges of climate change, hunger, and gender inequality. As just, food-secure, and resilient world.
part of its effort to achieve Zero Hunger, Brazil created the world’s
largest conditional cash transfer program, the Bolsa Família, target-
ing poor women. The program has empowered women by reducing
poverty and enhancing their incomes and employment, while boost-
ing the health and education of their children (Gerard et al. 2021).
Variations of this program have emerged, such as the Bolsa Verde in
the Amazonia region, which provides social assistance to households
to conserve the natural environment.

Conclusion
The problem of gender inequity has been recognized for decades, and
a road map toward gender justice has been set out in various fora,
policies, and programs. The experiences of many countries in con-
fronting the challenges of the gender-food security-climate change
nexus show that it is time for governments, development agencies,
and civil society to follow this road map and accelerate progress.
Some ongoing global policy frameworks and fora, such as the UN
Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) or the UN Food
Systems Summit (UNFSS), should work to integrate gender justice
concerns into all their actions.
There is still a long way to go. Despite progressive interventions,
it remains true that deep-seated gender norms and the unequal
power relations they signify are not easy to change. The scarcity of
gender-disaggregated data often becomes an excuse to not address
gender concerns. A lack of understanding of the linkages between

2024 Global Hunger Index | Chapter 02 | Gender Justice, Climate Resilience, and Food and Nutrition Security35
03

Ritu Ray is a cow farmer in rural southwest Bangladesh, a

region prone to flooding, where people are increasingly employing
climate-resilient solutions. Ritu uses an innovative technique to
produce eco-friendly fuel from cow dung, providing a sustainable
energy source for her remote community.
POLICY RECOMMENDATIONS

These recommendations highlight that climate, nutrition, and food evaluation. For example, they should update their Nationally
systems policies should be guided by human rights obligations and Determined Contributions (NDCs), National Adaptation Plans
international law, emphasizing the principles of equity and justice. (NAPs), and national food systems pathways to focus on equity,
They stress the need for greater urgency and coherence across pol- inclusivity, and rights-based approaches. Recommended mea-
icies to address hunger. sures include gender budgeting and social and gender audits.

1 Strengthen accountability to international law and the enforce- 3 Make investments that integrate and promote gender, climate,
ability of the right to adequate food. and food justice.
> States need to uphold and expand their legal obligations to elim- > Governments must redistribute public resources to redress struc-
inate gender discrimination, ensure the right to food, and alle- tural inequalities and enable gender-equitable access. For example,
viate hunger, including during disasters and conflicts, based on public investments in care, education, health, and rural devel-
the Voluntary Guidelines to Support the Progressive Realization opment should be used to address discriminatory norms and
of the Right to Food and related guidance. promote equitable distribution of labor within households and
> States must formalize the right to food in concrete laws and regula- communities. Commitments to maternal, infant, and child health
tions, accompanied by transparent monitoring and robust account- must be strengthened through, for example, the extension of the
ability mechanisms. Food and nutrition security analysis should World Health Assembly targets and the upcoming Nutrition for
include the perspectives and experiences of affected communi- Growth Summit.
ties, and hunger early warning systems should be directly linked to > Development partners and governments should harmonize pol-
prompt political action and automatic funding for relief. Citizens, icies across sectors and coordinate relevant ministries. For
civil society, and national human rights institutions must be sup- example, governments need to invest in and promote food sys-
ported so they can advocate for the right to food. tems that produce affordable, nutritious, climate-resilient foods,
> Governments, multilateral organizations, and civil society orga- reduce women’s time poverty, improve their socioeconomic sta-
nizations must strengthen capacities and systems to document, tus, and increase their agency. Agricultural support should focus
investigate, and report the use of starvation as a weapon of war. on climate mitigation and gender-transformative, locally led
Stakeholders with an influence on parties to conflicts need to adaptation.
promote compliance with human rights, humanitarian, and crim- > International financial institutions, governments, and creditors
inal law, and support judicial efforts against perpetrators. UN urgently need to address the worsening debt crisis and lack of fis-
Resolution 2417 on the protection of civilians in armed conflict cal space in low- and middle-income countries. Debt restructuring,
must be fully operationalized and rigorously implemented. debt relief, and credit enhancements must be linked to invest-
ments in realizing the right to food, achieving the Sustainable
2 Promote gender-transformative approaches to food systems and Development Goals, and fulfilling the Paris Agreement.
climate policies and programs. > Essential responses to shocks and crises should not come at the
> To formulate effective, context-sensitive policies and programs expense of impactful long-term investments. Donor countries
that avoid adverse effects, policymakers and practitioners must should make good on their commitments to increase develop-
recognize how food systems and climate resilience are influenced ment funding to at least 0.7 percent of GDP. The donor com-
by diverse needs and vulnerabilities and complex socioeconomic munity should also provide climate support in the form of grants
factors such as gendered power dynamics and divisions of labor. to empower affected communities, especially women, youth,
> All climate and food systems policy processes and initiatives must and Indigenous peoples, to implement local climate actions.
ensure the representation and leadership of women and margin- Within the recently created Loss and Damage Fund, a small-
alized groups and draw on their expertise in managing natural grant window with simplified procedures should be established
resources. Governments need to establish inclusive, participatory for these groups.
governance structures with adequate decision-making power and
budgets at all levels, from local citizens’ councils to the global
Committee on World Food Security.
> Policymakers must integrate gender considerations into legal
frameworks and policy design, implementation, monitoring, and

2024 Global Hunger Index | Chapter 03 | Policy Recommendations37

A APPENDIXES

After years of conflict, Yemen is facing one of the worst development

and humanitarian crises in the world, which is leaving millions of
people in need of humanitarian assistance and protection services.
In an internally displaced persons camp in Aden, a father and child
return to their home after receiving a cholera and hygiene kit.
METHODOLOGY B
A

Note: The results within this 2024 Global Hunger Index report supersede all previous GHI results. The 2000, 2008, and 2016 scores and
indicator data contained within this report are currently the only data that can be used for valid comparisons of the GHI over time.

T
he Global Hunger Index (GHI) is a tool designed to compre-
hensively measure and track hunger at global, regional, and
BOX A.1 WHAT IS MEANT BY “HUNGER”?
national levels, reflecting multiple dimensions of hunger over
time.1 The GHI is intended to raise awareness and understanding of The problem of hunger is complex, and different terms are
the struggle against hunger, provide a way to compare levels of hun- used to describe its various forms.
ger between countries and regions, and call attention to those areas Hunger is usually understood to refer to the distress
of the world where hunger levels are highest and where the need for associated with a lack of sufficient calories. The Food
additional efforts to eliminate hunger is greatest. and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO)
defines food deprivation, or undernourishment, as the habit-
How the GHI Is Calculated ual consumption of too few calories to provide the minimum
dietary energy an individual requires to live a healthy and
Each country’s GHI score is calculated based on a formula that com- productive life, given that person’s sex, age, stature, and
bines four indicators that together capture the multidimensional physical activity level.3
nature of hunger: Undernutrition goes beyond calories and signifies defi-
ciencies in any or all of the following: energy, protein, and/
Undernourishment: the share of the population whose or essential vitamins and minerals. Undernutrition is the
caloric intake is insufficient; result of inadequate intake of food in terms of either quan-
tity or quality, poor utilization of nutrients in the body due
to infections or other illnesses, or a combination of these
Child stunting: the share of children under the age of five immediate causes. These, in turn, result from a range of
who have low height for their age, reflecting underlying factors, including household food insecurity;
chronic undernutrition; inadequate maternal health or childcare practices; or inade-
quate access to health services, safe water, and sanitation.
Child wasting: the share of children under the age of five Malnutrition refers more broadly to both undernutrition
who have low weight for their height, reflecting acute (problems caused by deficiencies) and overnutrition (prob-
undernutrition; and lems caused by unbalanced diets that involve consuming
too many calories in relation to requirements, with or with-
Child mortality: the share of children who die before their out low intake of micronutrient-rich foods). Overnutrition—
fifth birthday, reflecting in part the fatal mix of inade- resulting in overweight, obesity, and noncommunicable
quate nutrition and unhealthy environments.2 diseases—is increasingly common throughout the world,
with implications for human health, government expendi-
Using this combination of indicators to measure hunger offers tures, and food systems development. While overnutrition
several advantages (see Table A.1). The indicators included in the is an important concern, the GHI focuses specifically on
GHI formula reflect caloric deficiencies as well as poor nutrition. issues relating to undernutrition.
The undernourishment indicator captures the food access situa- In this report, “hunger” refers to the index based on the
tion of the population as a whole, while the indicators specific to four component indicators (undernourishment, child stunt-
children reflect the nutrition status within a particularly vulnerable ing, child wasting, and child mortality). Taken together, the
subset of the population for whom a lack of dietary energy, pro- component indicators reflect deficiencies in calories as well
tein, and/or micronutrients (essential vitamins and minerals) leads as in micronutrients.
to a high risk of illness, poor physical and cognitive development,
and death. The inclusion of both child wasting and child stunting
allows the GHI to document both acute and chronic undernutrition.
3
The average minimum dietary energy requirement varies by country—from
1 about 1,655 to 2,111 kilocalories (commonly, albeit incorrectly, referred to as
For further background on the GHI concept, see Wiesmann, von Braun, and Feldbrügge
calories) per person per day for all countries with available data for 2023 (FAO
(2000), Wiesmann (2006), and Wiesmann et al. (2015).
2 2024a).
According to Black et al. (2013), undernutrition is responsible for 45 percent of deaths
among children under the age of five.

2024 Global Hunger Index | Appendix A | Methodology39

 period is 76.5 percent, so the threshold for standardization is set
TABLE A.1 HOW THE FOUR INDICATORS UNDERLYING THE GHI
A CAPTURE THE MULTIDIMENSIONAL NATURE OF HUNGER slightly higher, at 80 percent.5 In a given year, if a country has an
undernourishment prevalence of 40 percent, its standardized under-
nourishment score for that year is 50. In other words, that country
is approximately halfway between having no undernourishment and

Undernourishment Child stunting Child wasting Child mortality

reaching the maximum observed level. Here are the formulas used
to standardize each indicator:
• Measures inadequate • Go beyond calorie • Reflects that death
food access, an important availability, consider is the most serious Prevalence of undernourishment standardized under­
x 100 =
indicator of hunger aspects of diet quality consequence of hunger, 80 nourishment value
• Refers to the entire and utilization and children are the most
Child stunting rate s tandardized child
population, both children • Reflect children’s vulnerable x 100 =
70 ­stunting value
and adults particular vulnerability to • Improves the GHI’s ability
• Is used as a lead nutritional deficiencies to reflect deficiencies of Child wasting rate standardized child
x 100 =
indicator for international • Are sensitive to uneven essential vitamins and 30 ­wasting value
hunger reduction targets, distribution of food within minerals
Child mortality rate standardized child
x 100 =
including Sustainable the household • Complements stunting 35 ­mortality value
Development Goal 2 (Zero • Are used as nutrition and wasting, which only
Hunger) indicators for SDG 2 partially capture the Step 3: The standardized scores are aggregated to calculate the
(Zero Hunger) mortality risk of under-
nutrition
GHI score for each country. Undernourishment and child mortality
each contribute one-third of the GHI score, while child stunting and
child wasting each contribute one-sixth of the score, as shown in
By combining multiple indicators, the index minimizes the effects the formula (Figure A.1).
of random measurement errors. These four indicators are all part This calculation results in GHI scores on a 100-point scale, where
of the indicator set used to measure progress toward the United 0 is the best score (no hunger) and 100 is the worst. In practice, nei-
Nations Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). ther of these extremes is reached. A value of 100 would signify that a
country’s undernourishment, child wasting, child stunting, and child
GHI scores are calculated using a three-step process: mortality levels each exactly meets the thresholds set slightly above
Step 1: Values are determined for the four component indicators the highest levels observed worldwide in recent decades. A value of
for each country, drawing on the latest published data available from 0 would mean that a country had no undernourished people in the
internationally recognized sources. population, no children younger than five who were wasted or stunted,
Step 2: Each of the four component indicators is given a standard- and no children who died before their fifth birthday.
ized score based on thresholds set slightly above the highest country-­ 5
The threshold for undernourishment is 80, based on the observed maximum of 76.5 percent;
level values observed worldwide for that indicator since 1988.4 For the threshold for child wasting is 30, based on the observed maximum of 26.0 percent; the
threshold for child stunting is 70, based on the observed maximum of 68.2 percent; and the
example, the highest value for undernourishment estimated in this threshold for child mortality is 35, based on the observed maximum of 32.6 percent. While
the thresholds were originally established based on the maximum values observed between
4
The thresholds for standardization are set slightly above the highest observed values to al- 1988 and 2013, covering 25 years’ worth of available data prior to the methodological review
low for the possibility that these values could be exceeded in the future. process, these values have not been exceeded since then.

FIGURE A.1 COMPOSITION OF GHI SCORES AND SEVERITY DESIGNATIONS

1/3 + 1/6 + 1/6 + 1/3 = GHI

Undernourishment Child stunting Child wasting Child mortality SCORE

Note: All indicator values are standardized.

GHI Severity of Hunger Scale

Low Moderate Serious Alarming Extremely alarming

GHI ≤ 9.9 GHI 10.0–19.9 GHI 20.0–34.9 GHI 35.0–49.9 GHI ≥ 50.0

100-point scale

40 Methodology | Appendix A | 2024 Global Hunger Index

Where the Indicator Data Come From For some countries, data are missing because of violent conflict
or political unrest (FAO et al. 2017; Martin-Shields and Stojetz 2019), B
A
Data used in the calculation of GHI scores come from various UN and which are strong predictors of hunger and undernutrition. The coun-
other multilateral agencies, as shown in Table A.2. The GHI scores tries with missing data may often be those facing the greatest hunger
reflect the latest revised data available for the four indicators.6 Where burdens. Of the two countries provisionally designated as a­ larming—
original source data were unavailable, estimates for the GHI compo- Burundi and South Sudan—it is possible that with complete data,
nent indicators were made based on the most recent available data. one or both of them would fall into the extremely alarming category.
Similarly, Lesotho might fall from serious to alarming. However, with-
out sufficient information to confirm that this is the case, we have
How Hunger Severity Is Determined for
conservatively categorized these countries as alarming or serious.
Countries with Incomplete Data
In some cases even a provisional severity designation could not
In this year’s GHI report 136 countries met the criteria for inclusion be determined, such as if the country had never previously had a
in the GHI, but 9 had insufficient data to allow for calculation of a prevalence of undernourishment value, GHI score, or GHI designa-
2024 GHI score. To address this gap and give a preliminary picture tion since the first GHI report was published in 2006. In the case
of hunger in the countries with missing data, provisional designations of South Sudan, data were unavailable for two out of four GHI indi-
of the severity of hunger were determined based on several known cators. However, a review of the relevant information in the 2022,
factors (Table A.3): 2023, and 2024 editions of the Global Report on Food Crises as well
> those GHI indicator values that are available, as consultations with experts on food and nutrition insecurity in this
> the country’s last known GHI severity designation, country made clear that the designation of alarming was justified.
> the country’s last known prevalence of undernourishment, 7

> the prevalence of undernourishment for the subregion in

which the country is located, and/or
> assessment of the relevant findings of the 2022, 2023, and
2024 editions of the Global Report on Food Crises (FSIN and
GNAFC 2022, 2023, 2024).8

6
For previous GHI calculations, see von Grebmer et al. (2023, 2022, 2021, 2020, 2019,
2018, 2017, 2016, 2015, 2014, 2013, 2012, 2011, 2010, 2009, 2008); IFPRI, WHH, and
Concern Worldwide (2007); and Wiesmann, Weingärtner, and Schöninger (2006).
7
Previously published undernourishment values, GHI scores, and GHI severity classifications
are not considered valid once superseding reports have been issued, but are used as bench-
marks to consider the plausibility of a country falling into a broad range of undernourishment
values and GHI scores.
8

The Global Reports on Food Crises report on acute food insecurity, which is different from
chronic hunger as measured by the prevalence of undernourishment. However, the 2022,
2023, and 2024 GRFCs were used to confirm whether a country experienced extreme hunger
crises such as famine, threat of famine, and/or repeated hunger crises in 2021, 2022, and
2023.

TABLE A.2 DATA SOURCES AND REFERENCE YEARS FOR THE GLOBAL HUNGER INDEX COMPONENT INDICATORS,
2000, 2008, 2016, AND 2024

Reference years for indicator data

Indicator Data sources 2000 2008 2016 2024

GHI scores GHI scores GHI scores GHI scores
(123 countries) (126 countries) (127 countries) (127 countries)

Prevalence of
FAO 2024a 2000–2002 a 2007–2009 a 2015–2017 a 2021–2023 a
Undernourishment a

WHO 2024; UNICEF et al. 2023;

Child stunting
UNICEF 2024, 2013, and 2009; 1998–2002 b 2006–2010 c 2014–2018 d 2019–2023 e
and wasting b
MEASURE DHS 2024

Child
UN IGME 2024a 2000 2008 2016 2022
mortality c

Note: The number of countries for which sufficient data were available to calculate GHI scores for each year or time span is shown in parentheses.
a
Three-year average.
b
Data collected from the years closest to 2000; where data from 1998 and 2002 or 1999 and 2001 were available, an average was used.
c
Data collected from the years closest to 2008; where data from 2006 and 2010 or 2007 and 2009 were available, an average was used.
d
Data collected from the years closest to 2016; where data from 2014 and 2018 or 2015 and 2017 were available, an average was used.
e
The latest data gathered in this period.

2024 Global Hunger Index | Appendix A | Methodology41

 TABLE A.3 EXISTING DATA AND PROVISIONAL SEVERITY DESIGNATIONS OF COUNTRIES WITH INCOMPLETE DATA
A
Range of prevalence
2024 GHI Last prevalence of Subregional
Child stunting, Child wasting, Child mortality, Last GHI of undernourishment
Country provisional severity undernourishment prevalence of
2019–2023 (%) 2019–2023 (%) 2022 (%) categorization values for provisional
designation value (%) undernourishment (%)
designation (%)

Lesotho Serious 31.6* 2.2* 7.2 Alarming (2023) 46.0 (2023) 9.4 10.4–46.4

Burundi Alarming 55.9 6.0 5.0 Extremely alarming 67.3 (2014) 29.0 32.5–68.5
(2014)

South Sudan Alarming — — 9.9 — 19.6 (2024) 29.0 **

Bahrain Not designated 1.8* 0.7* 0.7 — — 12.0 N/A

Bhutan Not designated 18.8* 2.5* 2.4 — — 14.2 N/A

Equatorial Guinea Not designated 19.2* 2.3* 7.3 — — 28.9 N/A

Eritrea Not designated — — 3.7 Extremely alarming 61.3 (2014) 29.0 N/A
(2014)

Maldives Not designated 13.7* 9.0* 0.6 — — 14.2 N/A

Qatar Not designated 6.2* 1.5* 0.5 — — 12.0 N/A

Source: Authors, based on sources listed in Appendix A and previous GHI publications included in the bibliography.
Note: Years in parentheses show when the relevant information was published in the GHI report.
*Authors’ estimate. **Designation based on FSIN and GNAFC (2022, 2023, 2024) and expert consultation.
N/A = not applicable; — = not available.

Understanding and Using the Global Hunger Index: one or more of these countries would have a higher GHI score than
FAQs Somalia—the country with the highest 2024 GHI score—if suffi-
cient data were available.
Which countries are included in the GHI?

Inclusion in the GHI is determined based on prevalence of under- Why is a certain country’s GHI score so high (or so low)?
nourishment and child mortality data dating back to 2000. Countries The key to understanding a country’s GHI score lies in that country’s
with values above the “very low” threshold for one or both of these indicator values, especially when compared with the indicator values
indicators since 2000 are included in the GHI. Specifically, coun- for other countries in the report (see Appendix B for these values).
tries are included if the prevalence of undernourishment was at or For some countries, high scores are driven by high rates of under-
above 5.0 percent and/or if the child mortality rate was at or above nourishment, reflecting a lack of calories for large swathes of the
1.0 percent for any year since 2000. Data on child stunting and child population. For others, high scores result from high levels of child
wasting, the other indicators used in the calculation of GHI scores, wasting, reflecting acute undernutrition; child stunting, reflecting
are not included in the inclusion criteria because their availability chronic undernutrition; and/or child mortality, reflecting children’s
varies widely from country to country, with data especially limited hunger and nutrition levels, in addition to other extreme challenges
for higher-income countries.9 Non-independent territories are not facing the population. Broadly speaking, then, a high GHI score can
included in the GHI, nor are countries with very small populations be evidence of a lack of food, a poor-quality diet, inadequate child
(under 500,000 inhabitants), owing to limited data availability. caregiving practices, an unhealthy environment, or a combination
Because data for all four indicators in the GHI formula are not of these factors.
available for every country, GHI scores could not be calculated for While it is beyond the scope of this report to provide a detailed
some. However, where possible, countries with incomplete data are explanation of the circumstances facing each country with a GHI score,
provisionally categorized according to the GHI Severity of Hunger Chapter 1 describes the situation in select countries. Furthermore,
Scale based on existing data and complementary reports (see Table this report offers other avenues for examining a country’s hunger
A.3). Several of these countries are experiencing unrest or violent and nutrition situation: country rankings based on 2024 GHI scores
conflict, which affects the availability of data as well as the food appear in Table 1.1, GHI scores for selected years for each country
security and nutrition situation in the country. It is possible that appear in Appendix C, and regional comparisons appear in Appendix
D. (Case studies of the hunger situation in specific countries appear
9
Even though food insecurity is a serious concern for segments of the population in certain on the GHI website: www.globalhungerindex.org.)
high-income countries, nationally representative data for child stunting and child wasting
are not regularly collected in most high-income countries. In addition, although data on
child mortality are usually available for these countries, child mortality does not reflect un-
dernutrition in high-income countries to the same extent it does in low- and middle-income
countries.

42 Methodology | Appendix A | 2024 Global Hunger Index

Does the 2024 GHI reflect the situation in 2024? Moreover, the methodology for calculating GHI scores has been
The GHI uses the most up-to-date data available for each of the GHI revised in the past and may be revised again in the future. In 2015, for B
A
indicators, meaning the scores are only as current as the data. For example, the GHI methodology was changed to include data on child
the calculation of the 2024 GHI scores, undernourishment data are stunting and wasting and to standardize the values (see Wiesmann et
from 2021–2023; child stunting and child wasting data are from al. 2015). This change caused a major shift in the GHI scores, and
2019–2023, with the most current data from that range used for the GHI Severity of Hunger Scale was modified to reflect this shift.
each country; and child mortality data are from 2022. Any changes In the GHI reports published since 2015, almost all countries have
that occur in 2024 are not yet reflected in the data and scores in had much higher GHI scores compared with their scores in reports
this year’s report. published in 2014 and earlier. This does not necessarily mean their
hunger levels rose in 2015—the higher scores merely reflect the
How can I compare GHI results over time? revision of the methodology. The 2000, 2008, 2016, and 2024 GHI
Each report includes GHI scores and indicator data for three ref- scores shown in this year’s report are all comparable because they
erence years in addition to the focus year. In this report, the 2024 all reflect the revised methodology and the latest revisions of data.
GHI scores can be directly compared with the GHI scores given for
three reference years—2000, 2008, and 2016 (Appendix C). The Can I compare the GHI rankings in this report to those in previous
reference years are selected to provide an assessment of progress reports to understand how the situation in a country has changed over
over time while also ensuring there is no overlap in the range of years time relative to other countries?
from which the data are drawn. No—like the GHI scores and indicator values, GHI rankings cannot
be compared between GHI reports, for two main reasons. First, the
Can I compare the GHI scores and indicator values in this report with data and methodology used to calculate GHI scores have been revised
results from previous reports? over time, as described above. Second, the ranking in each year’s
No—GHI scores are comparable within each year’s report, but not report often includes different countries because the set of coun-
between different years’ reports. The current and historical data on tries for which sufficient data are available to calculate GHI scores
which the GHI scores are based are continually being revised and varies from year to year. Thus, if a country’s ranking changes from
improved by the United Nations agencies that compile them, and each one report to the next, this may be in part because it is being com-
year’s GHI report reflects these changes. Comparing scores between pared with a different group of countries.
reports may create the impression that hunger has changed posi-
tively or negatively in a specific country from year to year, whereas
in some cases the change may partly or fully reflect a data revision.

DATA UNDERLYING THE CALCULATION OF THE 2000, 2008, 2016, AND 2024 GLOBAL HUNGER INDEX SCORES B
Guide to the colors shown in Appendix B

The colors shown in the table represent the following categories:

= Very low = Low = Medium = High = Very high

They are based on thresholds for the different indicator values, as follows:

Category Undernourishment Child wasting Child stunting Child mortality

Very low < 5% < 2.5% < 2.5% < 1%

Low 5–< 15% 2.5–< 5% 2.5–< 10% 1–< 4%
Medium 15–< 25% 5–< 10% 10–< 20% 4–< 7%
High 25–< 35% 10–< 15% 20–< 30% 7–< 10%
Very high ≥ 35% ≥ 15% ≥ 30% ≥ 10%

Threshold values for the prevalence of undernourishment are adapted from FAO (2015). Threshold values for stunting and wasting are from de Onis et al. (2019). Threshold values
for under-five mortality are adapted from those shown in UN IGME (2024b) but condensed to the five categories shown.

2024 Global Hunger Index | Appendix A | Appendix B43

 DATA UNDERLYING THE CALCULATION OF THE 2000, 2008, 2016, AND 2024 GLOBAL HUNGER INDEX SCORES
B
A Undernourishment
(% of population)
Child wasting
(% of children under five years old)
Child stunting
(% of children under five years old)
Child mortality
(% of children under five years old)
Country
'00–'02 '07–'09 '15–'17 '21–'23 '98–'02 '06–'10 '14–'18 '19–'23 '98–'02 '06–'10 '14–'18 '19–'23 2000 2008 2016 2022
Afghanistan 46.0 25.1 20.5 30.4 8.9 * 7.2 * 5.1 3.6 54.4 * 50.8 * 38.2 44.6 13.2 9.6 7.0 5.8
Albania 4.9 7.4 4.3 4.5 6.5 * 9.6 1.6 3.9 * 32.8 * 23.2 11.3 12.5 * 2.7 1.6 0.9 0.9
Algeria 7.5 5.2 2.6 < 2.5 3.1 4.1 4.0 * 2.7 23.6 15.4 12.0 * 9.8 4.2 3.0 2.5 2.2
Angola 67.4 43.3 14.9 23.2 8.2 * 8.3 4.9 5.3 * 49.9 * 29.2 37.6 32.1 * 20.3 13.7 8.4 6.7
Argentina 2.9 3.2 3.0 3.2 2.1 * 1.2 1.8 * 2.7 10.2 * 8.2 8.0 * 12.3 1.9 1.5 1.1 0.9
Armenia 25.9 5.9 < 2.5 < 2.5 2.5 4.1 4.4 3.1 * 17.3 20.9 9.4 9.5 * 3.1 2.1 1.4 1.0
Azerbaijan 16.9 < 2.5 < 2.5 < 2.5 9.0 6.8 3.8 * 3.3 * 24.2 26.5 12.4 * 10.2 * 7.5 4.3 2.5 1.8
Bahrain — — — — 0.9 * 0.8 * 0.7 * 0.7 * 2.4 * 1.9 * 1.8 * 1.8 * 1.2 0.9 0.7 0.7
Bangladesh 15.5 12.9 14.4 11.9 12.5 17.5 12.8 11.0 51.1 43.2 33.8 23.6 8.6 5.5 3.7 2.9
Belarus < 2.5 < 2.5 < 2.5 < 2.5 2.5 * 2.1 * 2.0 * 2.0 * 6.1 * 3.8 * 3.3 * 3.1 * 1.3 0.7 0.4 0.3
Benin 17.2 10.4 9.7 10.3 9.0 5.2 4.8 8.3 36.2 37.4 33.1 34.1 13.6 11.3 9.5 8.1
Bhutan — — — — 2.6 4.5 3.0 * 2.5 * 47.7 34.9 24.1 * 18.8 * 7.9 4.6 2.9 2.4
Bolivia (Plurinat. State of) 26.4 22.9 15.6 23.0 1.6 1.4 2.0 1.5 * 33.2 27.1 16.1 17.2 * 7.6 4.7 3.0 2.4
Bosnia & Herzegovina 3.5 < 2.5 < 2.5 < 2.5 7.4 4.0 3.5 * 3.2 * 12.1 11.8 8.0 * 6.6 * 1.0 0.7 0.6 0.6
Botswana 23.7 22.3 20.9 24.3 5.9 7.3 7.3 * 6.3 * 29.1 28.9 17.4 * 13.9 * 7.8 6.4 4.7 3.9
Brazil 10.4 4.9 < 2.5 3.9 2.9 * 1.8 2.3 * 3.4 10.1 * 7.0 6.9 * 7.2 3.5 2.1 1.7 1.4
Bulgaria 4.2 4.6 4.1 < 2.5 5.1 * 4.7 6.0 4.2 * 11.0 * 9.2 7.0 5.9 * 1.8 1.1 0.8 0.6
Burkina Faso 22.7 15.7 13.9 15.4 15.5 11.3 7.5 9.8 41.4 35.1 26.8 21.9 17.8 13.2 9.7 7.9
Burundi — — — — 8.1 5.9 * 5.1 6.0 64.0 56.7 * 55.9 55.9 15.4 10.3 6.4 5.0
Cabo Verde 14.9 13.3 16.7 12.6 3.5 * 2.8 * 2.4 2.5 * 14.1 * 8.5 * 6.0 5.8 * 3.4 2.7 1.7 1.2
Cambodia 24.1 13.5 7.0 4.6 17.1 9.1 9.7 9.6 49.0 39.5 32.4 21.9 10.6 5.1 3.0 2.4
Cameroon 22.6 11.1 5.3 5.7 7.4 7.6 5.2 4.3 36.6 37.6 31.7 28.9 14.5 11.8 8.6 7.0
Central African Republic 38.2 32.3 22.6 23.5 10.4 12.1 6.4 5.3 44.4 43.6 37.7 40.0 16.5 13.6 11.2 9.7
Chad 38.4 28.1 26.1 35.1 13.9 16.3 13.4 7.8 38.9 38.7 36.0 31.9 18.4 15.6 12.5 10.3
Chile 3.2 3.3 3.2 < 2.5 0.5 0.3 0.3 0.4 * 3.0 2.0 1.8 1.8 * 1.1 0.9 0.8 0.6
China 10.1 4.0 < 2.5 < 2.5 2.5 2.6 1.9 1.6 * 17.8 9.8 4.8 4.2 * 3.7 1.8 1.0 0.7
Colombia 8.6 11.1 4.6 4.2 1.0 0.9 1.6 1.0 * 18.2 12.6 12.7 9.6 * 2.5 2.0 1.5 1.2
Comoros 24.9 19.9 13.5 16.9 13.3 8.5 * 7.6 * 5.1 46.9 36.1 * 24.5 * 18.2 9.6 7.7 5.9 4.8
Congo (Republic of) 26.9 35.6 29.5 26.8 9.8 * 8.0 * 8.2 6.7 * 31.7 * 26.8 * 21.2 21.6 * 11.3 6.9 5.1 4.2
Costa Rica 4.3 2.7 < 2.5 < 2.5 1.8 * 0.8 1.8 1.1 * 10.9 * 5.6 9.0 4.2 * 1.3 1.1 0.9 0.8
Côte d'Ivoire 20.2 18.1 11.9 9.6 6.9 14.3 6.1 8.1 31.2 39.0 21.6 23.4 14.1 11.0 8.4 6.9
Croatia 7.0 < 2.5 < 2.5 < 2.5 2.2 * 1.6 * 1.6 * 1.4 * 2.5 * 1.4 * 1.5 * 1.1 * 0.8 0.6 0.5 0.5
Dem. Rep. of the Congo 30.4 30.9 32.1 37.0 15.9 10.4 7.3 6.6 * 44.4 45.8 42.3 36.0 * 15.9 12.2 9.2 7.6
Djibouti 41.9 21.2 12.8 12.9 19.4 17.0 12.5 * 10.6 27.1 33.0 23.8 * 20.9 10.0 8.1 6.3 5.2
Dominican Republic 20.5 16.2 6.7 4.6 1.5 2.3 1.4 * 2.2 7.7 10.1 5.6 * 6.7 4.0 3.5 3.5 3.2
Ecuador 20.1 20.3 9.1 13.9 2.7 2.1 1.6 0.9 27.9 25.9 23.9 17.5 2.9 2.1 1.5 1.2
Egypt 4.8 5.1 6.5 8.5 6.9 7.9 9.5 5.3 * 24.4 30.7 22.3 21.1 * 4.7 3.1 2.2 1.8
El Salvador 6.7 9.4 8.5 6.8 1.5 1.6 2.1 2.9 32.3 20.8 13.6 10.0 3.3 2.1 1.5 1.2
Equatorial Guinea — — — — 9.2 2.1 * 1.9 * 2.3 * 42.7 22.6 * 19.1 * 19.2 * 15.5 12.0 9.0 7.3
Eritrea — — — — 15.0 14.6 — — 43.0 52.5 — — 8.6 6.0 4.5 3.7
Estonia 3.6 < 2.5 < 2.5 < 2.5 1.6 * 1.5 * 1.5 1.6 * 1.8 * 1.2 * 1.2 1.1 * 1.1 0.5 0.3 0.2
Eswatini 10.4 11.5 15.9 12.4 1.7 1.1 2.0 1.8 36.5 40.4 25.5 20.0 11.4 10.4 6.1 5.0
Ethiopia 46.6 26.8 14.0 22.2 12.4 11.4 * 10.0 6.8 57.4 48.4 * 38.3 36.8 14.1 9.2 6.0 4.6
Fiji 4.0 3.7 7.5 7.8 7.3 * 6.6 * 7.0 4.6 7.0 * 5.9 * 6.2 7.2 2.3 2.3 2.2 2.8
Gabon 10.8 14.7 15.3 20.1 4.2 3.5 * 3.6 * 3.4 25.9 19.9 * 15.5 * 14.4 8.4 6.7 4.9 3.9
Gambia 17.9 11.3 12.1 20.5 9.1 8.5 6.1 5.1 24.1 25.5 16.3 17.5 11.3 8.0 5.7 4.6
Georgia 7.3 3.6 6.7 4.0 3.1 1.3 0.6 0.6 * 16.1 11.8 5.8 5.1 * 3.6 1.7 1.0 0.9
Ghana 14.9 8.1 9.8 6.2 9.9 8.7 5.8 5.8 30.6 28.4 18.2 17.4 10.0 7.6 5.3 4.2
Guatemala 22.5 18.1 14.8 12.6 3.7 1.0 1.9 0.8 51.0 51.5 43.5 46.0 5.2 3.8 2.7 2.2
Guinea 17.9 17.7 13.2 10.3 10.3 7.2 8.1 6.4 46.9 34.0 32.4 26.1 16.6 12.7 11.0 9.6
Guinea-Bissau 15.7 16.1 28.3 32.2 11.8 5.9 6.0 6.4 33.8 32.0 27.6 27.9 17.3 12.6 8.9 7.2
Guyana 6.0 7.0 3.5 < 2.5 12.1 6.9 6.4 6.5 13.9 18.6 11.3 9.1 4.7 3.9 3.2 2.7
Haiti 48.1 46.1 39.1 50.4 5.5 10.2 3.7 5.0 28.8 29.6 21.9 22.0 10.3 8.3 6.8 5.6
Honduras 21.2 20.0 14.4 20.4 1.3 1.4 1.3 * 1.9 35.5 29.8 22.2 * 18.7 3.7 2.6 2.0 1.6
Hungary < 2.5 < 2.5 < 2.5 < 2.5 1.0 * 0.9 * 0.9 * 0.8 * 6.0 * 4.8 * 4.2 * 3.8 * 1.0 0.7 0.5 0.4
India 18.3 15.6 11.5 13.7 17.7 20.0 20.8 18.7 51.0 47.8 37.9 35.5 9.2 6.5 4.1 2.9
Indonesia 18.2 16.5 6.7 7.2 5.5 14.8 10.2 10.0 * 42.3 40.1 30.8 26.8 * 5.2 3.7 2.6 2.1
Iran (Islamic Republic of) 4.9 5.8 7.2 6.5 6.1 4.6 * 4.3 4.1 * 20.4 8.7 * 4.8 5.3 * 3.6 2.2 1.5 1.2
Iraq 20.1 15.6 16.6 16.1 6.6 5.8 3.0 4.0 * 28.1 27.5 12.6 15.5 * 4.4 3.7 2.9 2.4
Jamaica 7.2 9.0 7.6 7.3 3.0 2.6 3.3 3.2 7.2 6.2 9.3 4.6 2.1 1.9 1.9 1.9
Jordan 8.9 6.4 7.8 17.9 2.5 1.6 1.8 * 2.3 11.7 8.2 8.0 * 8.3 2.7 2.1 1.7 1.4
Kazakhstan 6.5 4.3 < 2.5 < 2.5 2.5 4.9 3.1 3.2 * 13.2 17.5 8.0 8.8 * 4.2 2.5 1.1 1.0
Kenya 31.9 26.9 21.8 34.5 7.4 6.9 6.7 4.5 40.8 35.5 28.6 17.6 9.6 5.8 4.6 4.1
Korea (DPR) 36.0 40.5 44.2 53.5 12.2 5.2 2.5 6.4 * 51.0 32.4 19.1 16.8 10.3 3.2 2.0 1.7
Kuwait 2.6 < 2.5 < 2.5 < 2.5 2.1 2.3 2.3 3.4 3.9 5.1 6.3 6.3 1.3 1.1 0.9 0.9
Kyrgyzstan 14.6 8.5 5.7 6.1 2.6 * 1.4 2.4 1.0 21.0 * 22.6 12.3 8.6 4.9 3.4 2.1 1.7
Lao PDR 31.1 18.5 7.1 5.4 17.5 7.4 9.4 10.7 47.5 47.7 34.3 32.8 10.7 7.5 5.1 4.0
Latvia 4.7 < 2.5 < 2.5 < 2.5 1.8 * 1.6 * 1.6 * 1.6 0.9 * 0.6 * 0.6 * 0.5 1.4 0.9 0.5 0.3
Lebanon 7.6 8.7 5.8 9.6 3.5 * 3.0 * 2.7 * 1.4 13.5 * 10.7 * 9.7 * 7.0 2.0 1.3 1.3 1.7

44 Data Underlying the Calculation of Global Hunger Index Scores | Appendix B | 2024 Global Hunger Index
DATA UNDERLYING THE CALCULATION OF THE 2000, 2008, 2016, AND 2024 GLOBAL HUNGER INDEX SCORES
Undernourishment
(% of population)
Child wasting
(% of children under five years old)
Child stunting
(% of children under five years old)
Child mortality
(% of children under five years old)
B
Country
'00–'02 '07–'09 '15–'17 '21–'23 '98–'02 '06–'10 '14–'18 '19–'23 '98–'02 '06–'10 '14–'18 '19–'23 2000 2008 2016 2022
Lesotho — — — — 6.1 * 3.8 2.5 2.2 * 43.6 * 42.0 34.0 31.6 * 11.1 11.0 7.8 7.2
Liberia 36.2 30.1 34.9 38.4 7.4 7.9 4.3 3.4 45.3 39.6 30.1 29.8 18.9 10.8 8.6 7.3
Libya 3.5 5.9 8.0 11.4 6.4 * 6.5 10.2 9.3 * 27.2 * 21.0 38.1 35.1 * 2.8 1.9 1.3 1.0
Lithuania < 2.5 < 2.5 < 2.5 < 2.5 5.1 * 4.6 * 4.4 * 4.4 1.5 * 1.0 * 0.9 * 0.9 1.1 0.7 0.5 0.4
Madagascar 33.9 30.5 32.3 39.7 9.4 * 8.9 * 6.4 7.2 54.3 * 49.4 41.6 39.8 10.5 7.5 6.6 6.6
Malawi 23.3 15.7 15.8 19.9 6.8 1.9 3.6 2.8 54.7 48.8 38.6 34.8 17.3 9.3 5.3 4.0
Malaysia 2.5 3.6 3.0 < 2.5 15.3 13.2 11.6 11.0 20.7 17.5 20.8 21.2 1.0 0.8 0.8 0.8
Maldives — — — — 13.4 10.6 9.1 9.0 * 31.9 19.0 15.3 13.7 * 3.9 1.6 0.9 0.6
Mali 16.6 8.7 4.4 9.6 12.6 12.2 10.6 10.6 42.5 32.7 26.4 21.8 18.8 14.3 11.2 9.4
Mauritania 8.1 6.9 6.9 9.3 15.3 8.1 14.8 13.6 38.6 23.6 27.9 25.1 9.8 6.1 4.8 3.9
Mauritius 5.8 5.1 6.9 5.9 14.7 * 13.8 * 12.4 * 12.5 * 12.5 * 11.1 * 9.3 * 8.4 * 1.9 1.5 1.5 1.5
Mexico 3.0 4.1 3.7 3.1 2.0 3.5 2.0 1.0 21.4 17.4 10.0 12.5 2.8 2.0 1.6 1.3
Moldova (Republic of) 24.6 22.1 2.7 < 2.5 3.3 * 3.2 * 3.4 * 3.3 * 10.9 * 8.5 * 7.2 * 6.6 * 3.1 1.8 1.5 1.4
Mongolia 30.4 21.9 8.2 < 2.5 7.1 1.7 1.2 1.3 * 29.8 15.4 7.3 11.5 * 6.3 3.1 1.8 1.3
Montenegro — < 2.5 < 2.5 < 2.5 — 4.2 2.9 * 2.2 — 7.9 7.7 * 7.2 — 0.8 0.4 0.3
Morocco 5.8 4.8 3.7 6.9 4.0 * 3.4 * 2.6 2.3 25.0 * 18.8 * 15.1 14.2 5.2 3.5 2.2 1.7
Mozambique 36.8 29.0 44.4 24.8 8.1 4.2 4.4 3.8 50.7 43.5 42.3 36.7 17.2 11.4 7.9 6.6
Myanmar 38.6 18.2 4.2 5.3 10.7 7.9 6.6 6.6 * 40.8 35.1 29.4 25.2 * 8.9 10.1 4.9 4.0
Namibia 15.6 26.5 20.7 22.2 10.0 7.6 6.1 * 6.2 * 29.3 29.2 18.0 * 14.5 * 7.8 5.5 4.5 3.8
Nepal 23.9 13.0 5.7 5.7 11.3 12.7 11.7 7.0 56.1 49.1 37.2 24.8 7.9 5.3 3.6 2.7
Nicaragua 25.9 19.9 18.3 19.6 2.3 1.5 1.3 * 1.1 * 25.1 23.1 16.2 * 14.1 * 3.8 2.6 1.9 1.5
Niger 23.2 17.7 12.6 13.3 16.2 13.4 10.4 10.9 53.5 45.4 41.3 47.7 22.8 14.7 12.5 11.7
Nigeria 8.8 6.7 10.7 18.0 12.5 * 9.2 * 9.1 6.5 48.2 * 39.5 * 38.3 31.5 18.3 14.1 12.5 10.7
North Macedonia 7.5 2.9 3.5 < 2.5 1.9 2.5 * 2.3 * 3.4 8.0 6.6 * 5.6 * 4.3 1.6 1.2 1.1 0.5
Oman 13.3 9.7 7.2 5.7 7.8 7.1 9.3 7.0 * 15.8 9.8 11.4 10.6 * 1.6 1.2 1.1 1.1
Pakistan 20.7 15.2 11.2 20.7 14.1 11.9 * 7.1 10.1 * 41.4 41.1 * 37.6 33.2 * 10.8 9.1 7.4 6.1
Panama 23.6 13.4 6.6 5.6 1.5 * 1.2 1.0 * 1.1 23.2 * 19.0 13.1 * 15.9 2.6 2.0 1.7 1.3
Papua New Guinea 26.6 27.5 27.2 27.7 8.1 * 7.9 * 7.2 * 6.9 * 47.3 * 46.7 * 41.6 * 39.8 * 7.2 6.1 5.0 4.1
Paraguay 9.9 3.4 2.6 4.5 1.6 1.5 * 1.0 1.2 * 13.5 * 11.2 * 5.6 7.6 * 3.4 2.7 2.1 1.7
Peru 20.3 10.8 6.4 7.0 1.4 0.8 0.8 0.5 34.5 28.0 12.2 11.7 3.8 2.2 1.7 1.5
Philippines 18.8 11.3 8.6 5.9 8.0 6.6 6.8 5.4 38.3 32.0 33.1 26.7 3.7 3.1 2.8 2.7
Qatar — — — — 1.9 * 1.4 * 1.4 * 1.5 * 9.1 * 6.2 * 5.6 * 6.2 * 1.2 1.0 0.7 0.5
Romania < 2.5 < 2.5 < 2.5 < 2.5 4.3 3.3 * 3.3 * 3.1 * 12.8 10.2 * 9.4 * 8.1 * 2.1 1.4 0.8 0.7
Russian Federation 4.1 < 2.5 < 2.5 < 2.5 4.9 2.9 * 2.9 * 2.8 * 17.4 * 11.3 * 11.0 * 10.3 * 1.9 1.1 0.8 0.5
Rwanda 37.7 36.6 33.6 31.4 8.7 5.1 2.2 1.1 47.9 46.6 37.6 33.1 18.5 7.6 4.6 3.8
Saudi Arabia 5.0 5.3 4.1 3.0 7.0 * 6.1 * 4.9 4.5 19.4 * 16.3 * 17.1 10.8 2.2 1.4 0.9 0.6
Senegal 24.4 11.8 8.5 4.6 10.0 8.9 * 7.1 10.2 26.0 21.7 * 17.1 17.5 13.0 7.4 4.8 3.7
Serbia — 2.8 < 2.5 < 2.5 — 4.0 3.9 2.6 — 7.3 6.0 5.4 — 0.8 0.6 0.5
Sierra Leone 50.1 39.9 24.9 28.4 11.6 7.5 5.9 6.3 35.5 32.7 30.2 26.3 22.5 17.5 12.6 10.1
Slovakia 6.2 5.1 5.3 3.6 1.1 * 1.0 * 1.0 * 1.0 * 7.6 * 5.8 * 5.5 * 5.3 * 1.0 0.7 0.6 0.6
Solomon Islands 12.6 12.7 17.7 19.4 6.7 * 4.3 8.5 5.5 * 35.4 * 32.8 31.7 27.4 * 3.1 2.8 2.2 1.8
Somalia 70.2 70.1 59.5 51.3 19.3 14.3 11.9 * 11.8 * 29.2 25.3 25.8 * 25.6 * 17.2 16.6 12.9 10.6
South Africa 3.7 3.6 6.3 8.1 4.5 5.4 2.5 2.9 * 30.1 25.0 27.4 17.5 * 7.1 6.8 3.7 3.5
South Sudan — — — 19.6 — — — — — — — — — — 9.9 9.9
Sri Lanka 16.6 11.0 4.3 4.1 15.9 13.5 15.1 10.8 * 18.3 18.6 17.3 12.6 * 1.7 1.2 0.8 0.6
Sudan — — 10.0 11.4 — — 16.3 17.4 * — — 38.2 39.6 * — — 6.3 5.2
Suriname 11.1 7.9 9.8 10.1 7.0 5.0 5.5 5.2 * 14.1 9.7 8.3 9.1 * 3.1 2.4 2.0 1.7
Syrian Arab Republic 7.7 5.5 13.4 34.0 4.9 10.9 14.5 * 12.0 * 24.3 28.3 37.6 * 31.3 * 2.3 1.9 3.5 2.1
Tajikistan 40.1 29.9 14.2 8.7 9.4 5.6 3.5 5.1 * 42.1 34.0 19.6 18.4 * 8.3 4.6 3.7 3.0
Tanzania (United Rep. of) 32.6 25.0 22.5 23.8 5.6 2.9 4.5 3.1 48.3 43.2 34.5 30.0 12.9 7.7 5.2 4.1
Thailand 17.4 10.8 7.3 5.6 7.8 * 4.7 5.4 7.2 22.1 * 15.7 10.5 12.4 2.1 1.4 1.0 0.8
Timor-Leste 42.4 28.8 12.4 15.9 13.7 21.3 12.2 8.3 55.7 57.2 49.2 46.7 — 7.7 6.0 4.9
Togo 31.5 22.8 20.7 12.8 12.2 6.0 5.7 4.4 * 28.8 26.9 23.8 21.3 * 12.0 9.4 7.3 6.0
Trinidad & Tobago 9.6 9.4 6.8 12.6 5.2 5.4 * 4.9 * 5.0 * 5.3 5.9 * 5.3 * 5.7 * 2.8 2.4 1.9 1.5
Tunisia 4.1 3.6 3.1 3.2 2.9 3.4 2.1 2.8 * 16.8 9.0 8.4 8.1 * 2.9 2.0 1.7 1.1
Türkiye 3.9 < 2.5 < 2.5 < 2.5 3.0 1.0 1.9 1.7 18.8 12.5 10.0 6.0 3.8 2.1 1.3 1.0
Turkmenistan 6.4 4.0 3.3 4.1 8.0 7.2 4.2 4.1 27.2 18.9 11.5 7.2 6.9 4.5 4.3 4.0
Uganda 21.0 19.7 37.5 36.9 5.0 5.3 4.7 3.6 44.9 38.3 29.7 25.4 14.6 8.7 5.3 4.1
Ukraine 3.0 < 2.5 < 2.5 5.8 8.2 2.4 * 2.5 * 2.5 * 22.9 16.3 * 16.8 * 16.5 * 1.8 1.3 0.9 0.9
United Arab Emirates 3.3 7.5 4.4 2.7 3.5 * 3.0 * 3.1 * 2.9 * 3.0 * 2.5 * 2.8 * 2.4 * 1.1 0.9 0.7 0.5
Uruguay 3.2 < 2.5 < 2.5 < 2.5 1.8 1.5 0.9 1.3 * 15.3 11.8 10.8 9.1 * 1.7 1.2 0.8 0.7
Uzbekistan 18.0 6.4 < 2.5 < 2.5 9.0 4.4 1.8 2.4 24.9 19.6 10.8 6.5 6.2 3.6 1.9 1.3
Venezuela (Boliv. Rep. of) 14.1 2.6 17.2 17.6 3.9 4.5 3.6 * 3.7 * 17.4 14.6 12.2 * 14.4 * 2.2 1.7 2.4 2.4
Viet Nam 19.5 12.7 7.5 5.2 9.0 9.4 6.1 4.7 42.5 30.8 24.3 19.5 3.0 2.4 2.2 2.0
Yemen 24.4 23.7 41.3 39.5 16.2 * 13.8 13.0 * 16.8 57.0 * 57.0 44.5 * 48.5 9.3 6.0 4.8 4.1
Zambia 50.1 45.4 32.3 35.4 5.9 5.6 6.2 4.2 59.2 45.8 40.0 34.6 15.6 8.8 6.5 5.6
Zimbabwe 32.8 27.2 35.5 38.1 8.3 2.4 3.3 2.9 33.8 35.1 27.1 23.5 9.4 9.3 5.7 4.8
Note: The colors shown in the table represent the following categories: = very low = low = medium = high = very high. For more information, see page 43.
— = Data not available or not presented. Some countries did not exist in their present borders in the given year or reference period. *GHI estimates.

2024 Global Hunger Index | Appendix B | Data Underlying the Calculation of Global Hunger Index Scores45
 2000, 2008,
2005, 2010,
2016, AND 2019
2024 GLOBAL HUNGER INDEX SCORES, AND CHANGE SINCE 2000
2016
C
A Country 2000 2008 2016 2024
Absolute
change since
% change
since Country 2000 2008 2016 2024
Absolute
change since
% change
since
with data from '98–'02 ‘06–’10 ‘14-’18 ‘19–’23 2016 2016 with data from '98–'02 ‘06–’10 ‘14-’18 ‘19–’23 2016 2016

Afghanistan 49.6 35.7 27.1 30.8 3.7 13.7 Lebanon 10.2 9.1 7.5 8.1 0.6 8.0
Albania 16.0 15.5 6.2 7.9 1.7 27.4 Lesotho — — — — — —
Algeria 14.5 11.0 8.5 6.7 -1.8 -21.2 Liberia 48.0 36.6 32.3 31.9 -0.4 -1.2
Angola 63.8 42.7 25.9 26.6 0.7 2.7 Libya 14.2 12.9 19.3 19.2 -0.1 -0.5
Argentina 6.6 5.4 5.2 6.6 1.4 26.9 Lithuania <5 <5 <5 <5 — —
Armenia 19.2 11.7 6.4 5.1 -1.3 -20.3 Madagascar 42.3 36.6 33.2 36.3 3.1 9.3
Azerbaijan 25.0 15.0 8.1 6.2 -1.9 -23.5 Malawi 43.0 28.1 22.8 21.9 -0.9 -3.9
Bahrain — — — — — — Malaysia 15.4 13.7 13.4 12.7 -0.7 -5.2
Bangladesh 33.8 30.6 24.7 19.4 -5.3 -21.5 Maldives — — — — — —
Belarus <5 <5 <5 <5 — — Mali 41.9 31.8 24.7 24.0 -0.7 -2.8
Benin 33.7 26.9 23.6 24.7 1.1 4.7 Mauritania 30.4 18.8 22.3 21.1 -1.2 -5.4
Bhutan — — — — — — Mauritius 15.4 13.9 13.4 12.8 -0.6 -4.5
Bolivia (Plurinat. State of) 27.0 21.2 14.3 16.8 2.5 17.5 Mexico 10.1 9.7 6.6 6.1 -0.5 -7.6
Bosnia & Herzegovina 9.4 6.4 <5 <5 — — Moldova (Rep. of) 17.6 14.7 6.1 5.6 -0.5 -8.2
Botswana 27.5 26.3 21.4 20.7 -0.7 -3.3 Mongolia 29.7 16.7 7.5 5.6 -1.9 -25.3
Brazil 11.7 6.7 5.5 6.6 1.1 20.0 Montenegro — 5.7 <5 <5 — —
Bulgaria 8.9 7.8 7.5 5.1 -2.4 -32.0 Morocco 15.5 11.7 8.7 9.2 0.5 5.7
Burkina Faso 44.9 33.7 25.6 24.6 -1.0 -3.9 Mozambique 48.3 35.6 38.5 27.5 -11.0 -28.6
Burundi — — — — — — Myanmar 40.2 29.9 17.1 15.7 -1.4 -8.2
Cabo Verde 14.7 11.7 11.3 9.2 -2.1 -18.6 Namibia 26.5 27.5 20.6 19.7 -0.9 -4.4
Cambodia 41.3 24.9 18.9 14.7 -4.2 -22.2 Nepal 37.1 29.2 21.2 14.7 -6.5 -30.7
Cameroon 36.0 29.0 20.8 18.3 -2.5 -12.0 Nicaragua 21.7 17.1 14.0 13.6 -0.4 -2.9
Central African Republic 48.0 43.5 32.6 31.5 -1.1 -3.4 Niger 53.1 39.6 32.8 34.1 1.3 4.0
Chad 50.5 44.8 38.8 36.4 -2.4 -6.2 Nigeria 39.5 30.7 30.6 28.8 -1.8 -5.9
Chile <5 <5 <5 <5 — — North Macedonia 7.6 5.3 5.1 <5 — —
China 13.4 7.2 <5 <5 — — Oman 15.2 11.5 11.9 9.9 -2.0 -16.8
Colombia 10.8 10.1 7.2 5.7 -1.5 -20.8 Pakistan 36.6 31.4 24.6 27.9 3.3 13.4
Comoros 38.1 28.9 21.3 18.8 -2.5 -11.7 Panama 18.7 12.7 8.1 8.0 -0.1 -1.2
Congo (Republic of) 34.9 32.2 26.8 24.0 -2.8 -10.4 Papua New Guinea 33.7 32.8 30.0 28.8 -1.2 -4.0
Costa Rica 6.6 <5 <5 <5 — — Paraguay 11.5 7.5 5.0 6.0 1.0 20.0
Côte d'Ivoire 33.1 35.2 21.5 20.6 -0.9 -4.2 Peru 21.1 13.7 7.6 7.4 -0.2 -2.6
Croatia 5.5 <5 <5 <5 — — Philippines 24.9 18.9 17.9 14.4 -3.5 -19.6
Dem. Rep. of the Congo 47.2 41.2 36.2 34.9 -1.3 -3.6 Qatar — — — — — —
Djibouti 44.2 33.9 24.0 21.2 -2.8 -11.7 Romania 7.9 5.7 5.0 <5 — —
Dominican Republic 15.0 13.8 8.3 7.8 -0.5 -6.0 Russian Federation 10.4 5.9 5.4 <5 — —
Ecuador 19.3 17.8 11.8 11.6 -0.2 -1.7 Rwanda 49.6 36.4 28.6 25.2 -3.4 -11.9
Egypt 16.1 16.8 15.4 13.2 -2.2 -14.3 Saudi Arabia 12.7 10.8 9.4 6.9 -2.5 -26.6
El Salvador 14.5 11.7 9.4 8.0 -1.4 -14.9 Senegal 34.3 22.1 16.1 15.3 -0.8 -5.0
Equatorial Guinea — — — — — — Serbia — 5.9 <5 <5 — —
Eritrea — — — — — — Sierra Leone 57.2 45.2 32.8 31.2 -1.6 -4.9
Estonia <5 <5 <5 <5 — — Slovakia 6.0 <5 <5 <5 — —
Eswatini 24.8 24.9 19.6 15.7 -3.9 -19.9 Solomon Islands 20.4 18.2 21.7 19.4 -2.3 -10.6
Ethiopia 53.4 37.8 26.2 26.2 0.0 0.0 Somalia 63.3 59.0 49.8 44.1 -5.7 -11.4
Fiji 9.6 8.8 10.6 10.2 -0.4 -3.8 South Africa 18.0 16.9 14.0 12.5 -1.5 -10.7
Gabon 21.0 19.2 16.7 17.4 0.7 4.2 South Sudan — — — — — —
Gambia 29.0 23.1 17.8 19.9 2.1 11.8 Sri Lanka 21.7 17.6 15.0 11.3 -3.7 -24.7
Georgia 12.0 6.6 5.4 <5 — — Sudan — — 28.3 28.8 0.5 1.8
Ghana 28.5 22.2 16.7 13.9 -2.8 -16.8 Suriname 14.8 10.6 11.0 10.9 -0.1 -0.9
Guatemala 28.5 24.0 20.1 18.8 -1.3 -6.5 Syrian Arab Republic 13.9 16.9 25.9 30.3 4.4 17.0
Guinea 40.1 31.5 28.2 23.2 -5.0 -17.7 Tajikistan 39.9 28.1 16.0 13.7 -2.3 -14.4
Guinea-Bissau 37.6 29.6 30.2 30.5 0.3 1.0 Tanzania (United Rep. of) 40.5 29.7 25.0 22.7 -2.3 -9.2
Guyana 17.0 14.9 10.7 9.1 -1.6 -15.0 Thailand 18.9 12.2 9.5 10.1 0.6 6.3
Haiti 39.8 39.8 30.0 34.3 4.3 14.3 Timor-Leste — 44.8 29.4 27.0 -2.4 -8.2
Honduras 21.5 18.7 13.9 15.6 1.7 12.2 Togo 38.2 28.2 24.4 18.6 -5.8 -23.8
Hungary <5 <5 <5 <5 — — Trinidad & Tobago 10.8 10.6 8.6 10.8 2.2 25.6
India 38.4 35.2 29.3 27.3 -2.0 -6.8 Tunisia 10.1 7.4 6.1 5.9 -0.2 -3.3
Indonesia 25.7 28.2 18.3 16.9 -1.4 -7.7 Türkiye 11.4 6.5 5.4 <5 — —
Iran (Islamic Republic of) 13.7 9.1 8.0 7.4 -0.6 -7.5 Turkmenistan 20.2 14.4 10.5 9.5 -1.0 -9.5
Iraq 22.9 19.8 14.3 14.9 0.6 4.2 Uganda 36.1 28.5 30.3 27.3 -3.0 -9.9
Jamaica 8.4 8.5 9.0 7.7 -1.3 -14.4 Ukraine 13.0 6.9 7.2 8.6 1.4 19.4
Jordan 10.5 7.5 7.8 12.0 4.2 53.8 United Arab Emirates 5.1 6.3 <5 <5 — —
Kazakhstan 11.2 11.1 5.6 5.3 -0.3 -5.4 Uruguay 7.6 5.3 <5 <5 — —
Kenya 36.3 29.0 24.0 25.0 1.0 4.2 Uzbekistan 24.3 13.2 5.9 <5 — —
Korea (DPR) 43.7 30.5 26.2 31.4 5.2 19.8 Venezuela (Boliv. Rep. of) 14.3 8.7 14.4 15.1 0.7 4.9
Kuwait <5 <5 <5 <5 — — Viet Nam 26.1 20.1 14.4 11.3 -3.1 -21.5
Kyrgyzstan 17.2 12.9 8.6 6.8 -1.8 -20.9 Yemen 41.6 36.8 39.6 41.2 1.6 4.0
Lao PDR 44.2 30.3 21.2 19.8 -1.4 -6.6 Zambia 53.1 41.3 32.6 30.7 -1.9 -5.8
Latvia <5 <5 <5 <5 — — Zimbabwe 35.3 29.9 28.5 27.6 -0.9 -3.2
Note: — = Data are not available or not presented. See Table A.3 for provisional designations of the severity of hunger for some countries with incomplete data. Some countries did not exist in
their present borders in the given year or reference period. = low = moderate = serious = alarming = extremely alarming

46 2000, 2008, 2016, and 2024 Global Hunger Index Scores | Appendix C | 2024 Global Hunger Index
COUNTRIES’ 2024 GHI SCORES BY REGION
D
B
WEST ASIA AND NORTH AFRICA

60
= extremely alarming = alarming = serious = moderate = low

50

41.2
40

30.3
30

20 19.2
World = 18.3
14.9
13.2
12.0 West Asia and North Africa = 13.2
9.9 9.2
10 8.1 7.4 6.9 6.7
5.9
<5 <5 <5
0
Yemen

Syrian Arab
Republic

Libya

Iraq

Egypt

Jordan

Oman

Morocco

Lebanon

Iran

Saudi Arabia

Algeria

Tunisia

Kuwait

Türkiye

United Arab
Emirates
Note: Bahrain and Qatar are in the West Asia and North Africa region but are not shown, owing to insufficient data for the calculation of GHI scores. Existing data and provisional indicator values
for these countries were included in the calculation of regional and global GHI scores. See Table A.3 regarding provisional designations of hunger severity for countries with incomplete data.
Countries with GHI scores less than 5 are presented in alphabetical order.

WEST AFRICA

60
= extremely alarming = alarming = serious = moderate = low

50

40
34.1
31.9 31.2 30.5
30 28.8
24.7 24.6 Africa South of the Sahara = 26.8
24.0 23.2
21.1 20.6 19.9
20 18.6
World = 18.3
15.3
13.9

10 9.2

0
Niger

Liberia

Sierra Leone

Guinea-Bissau

Nigeria

Benin

Burkina Faso

Mali

Guinea

Mauritania

Côte d'Ivoire

Gambia

Togo

Senegal

Ghana

Cabo Verde

2024 Global Hunger Index | Appendix D | Countries’ 2024 GHI Scores by Region47
D
A
CENTRAL AND SOUTHERN AFRICA

60
= extremely alarming = alarming = serious = moderate = low

50

40
36.4
34.9
31.5
30
26.6 Africa South of the Sahara = 26.8
24.0
20.7 19.7
20 18.3 17.4
15.7 World = 18.3
12.5
10

0
Chad

Dem. Rep. of
the Congo

Central African
Rep.

Angola

Rep. of Congo

Botswana

Namibia

Cameroon

Gabon

Eswatini

South Africa
Note: Equatorial Guinea and Lesotho are in the Central and Southern Africa subregions but are not shown, owing to insufficient data for the calculation of GHI scores. Existing data and provision-
al indicator values for these countries were included in the calculation of regional and global GHI scores. See Table A.3 regarding provisional designations of hunger severity for countries with
incomplete data.

EAST AFRICA

60
= extremely alarming = alarming = serious = moderate = low

50
44.1

40
36.3

30.7
30 28.8 27.6 27.5 27.3 26.2 25.2 25.0 Africa South of the Sahara = 26.8
22.7 21.9 21.2
20 18.8
World = 18.3
12.8
10

0
Somalia

Madagascar

Zambia

Sudan

Zimbabwe

Mozambique

Uganda

Ethiopia

Rwanda

Kenya

United Rep. of
Tanzania

Malawi

Djibouti

Comoros

Mauritius

Note: Burundi, Eritrea, and South Sudan are in the East Africa subregion but are not shown, owing to insufficient data for the calculation of GHI scores. Existing data and provisional indicator
values for these countries were included in the calculation of regional and global GHI scores. See Table A.3 regarding provisional designations of hunger severity for countries with incomplete data.

48 Countries’ 2024 GHI Scores by Region | Appendix D | 2024 Global Hunger Index
 D
B
SOUTH AMERICA

60
= extremely alarming = alarming = serious = moderate = low

50

40

30

20
16.8 World = 18.3
15.1
11.6 10.9 10.8
10 9.1 Latin America and
7.4 6.6 6.6 Caribbean = 8.4
6.0 5.7
<5 <5
0
Bolivia

Venezuela

Ecuador

Suriname

Trinidad &
Tobago

Guyana

Peru

Argentina

Brazil

Paraguay

Colombia

Chile

Uruguay
Note: Countries with GHI scores less than 5 are presented in alphabetical order.

CENTRAL AMERICA AND THE CARIBBEAN

60
= extremely alarming = alarming = serious = moderate = low

50

40
34.3

30

20 18.8
World = 18.3
15.6
13.6
Latin America and
10 8.0 8.0 7.8 7.7
6.1 Caribbean = 8.4
<5
0
Haiti

Guatemala

Honduras

Nicaragua

Panama

El Salvador

Dominican Rep.

Jamaica

Mexico

Costa Rica

2024 Global Hunger Index | Appendix D | Countries’ 2024 GHI Scores by Region49
D
A
X
SOUTH, EAST, AND SOUTHEAST ASIA

60
= extremely alarming = alarming = serious = moderate = low

50

40

31.4 30.8
30 28.8 27.9
27.3 27.0
South Asia = 26.2

19.8 19.4 19.4

20
16.9 15.7 World = 18.3
14.7 14.7 14.4
12.7 East and South-
11.3 11.3
10.2 10.1 east Asia
10
5.6 = 8.3
<5
0
DPR Korea

Afghanistan

Papua New
Guinea

Pakistan

India

Timor-Leste

Lao PDR

Bangladesh

Solomon Islands

Indonesia

Myanmar

Cambodia

Nepal

Philippines

Malaysia

Viet Nam

Sri Lanka

Fiji

Thailand

Mongolia

China
Note: Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Maldives, Nepal, Pakistan, and Sri Lanka are in South Asia for the purposes of Figure 1.2, whereas the remaining countries are in East and South-
east Asia. Bhutan and Maldives are not shown, owing to insufficient data for the calculation of GHI scores. Existing data and provisional indicator values for these countries were included in the
calculation of regional and global GHI scores. See Table A.3 regarding provisional designations of hunger severity for countries with incomplete data.

EUROPE AND CENTRAL ASIA

60
= extremely alarming = alarming = serious = moderate = low

50

40

30

20
World = 18.3
13.7

10 9.5 8.6
7.9 6.8 Europe and Central Asia
6.2 5.6 5.3 5.1 5.1
= 5.7
<5 <5 <5 <5 <5 <5 <5 <5 <5 <5 <5 <5 <5 <5 <5
0
Tajikistan

Turkmenistan

Ukraine

Albania

Kyrgyzstan

Azerbaijan

Moldova

Kazakhstan

Armenia

Bulgaria

Belarus
Bosnia &
Herzegovina
Croatia

Estonia

Georgia

Hungary

Latvia

Lithuania

Montenegro
North Mace-
donia
Romania
Russian
Federation
Serbia

Slovakia

Uzbekistan

Note: Countries with GHI scores less than 5 are presented in alphabetical order.

50 Countries’ 2024 GHI Scores by Region | Appendix D | 2024 Global Hunger Index
BIBLIOGRAPHY

A C
Agarwal, B. 2019. “Does Group Farming Empower Rural Women? Lessons from India’s Caroli, G., K. Tavenner, S. Huyer, C. Sarzana, A. Belli, M. Elias, G. Pacillo, and P. Läderach.
Experiments.” Journal of Peasant Studies 47 (4): 841–872. https://doi.org/10.1080/03066 2022. The Gender-Climate Security Nexus: Conceptual Framework, CGIAR Portfolio Review,
150.2019.1628020. and Recommendations towards an Agenda for One CGIAR. Position Paper No. 2022/1. CGIAR
FOCUS Climate Security.
Agroberichten Buitenland. 2022. “South Korea’s Grain Self-Sufficiency Rate Dropped below
20%, Creating Serious Concerns for the Country’s Food Security.“ News, August 7. The Hague: Carrington, D. 2024. “World’s Top Climate Scientists Expect Global Heating to
Netherlands Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries, Food Security, and Nature.” Blast Past 1.5C Target.” Guardian, May 8. https://amp-theguardian-com.cdn.
a mp p r oj e c t .o r g /c / s /a mp.th e g u a r dia n.c o m /e nv ir o nm e n t /a r ti cl e / 2 0 24 / m a y / 0 8 /
Ahmadzai, H., and O. Morrissey. 2024. “Climate Shocks, Household Food Security and Welfare world-scientists-climate-failure-survey-global-temperature.
in Afghanistan.” CREDIT Research Paper. Nottingham, UK: Centre for Research in Economic
Development and International Trade, University of Nottingham. Chattopadhyay, R., and E. Duflo. 2004. “Women As Policy Makers: Evidence from a Randomized
Policy Experiment in India.” Econometrica 72 (5): 1409–1443.
Allen, L. H. 2000 “Anemia and Iron Deficiency: Effects on Pregnancy Outcome.” American Journal
of Clinical Nutrition 71 (Suppl. 5): 1280S–4S. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/10799402/. Chaudhuri, S., M. Roy, L. M. McDonald, and Y. Emendack. 2021. “Coping Behaviours and
the Concept of Time Poverty: A Review of Perceived Social and Health Outcomes of Food
Assoumou, B. O. M. T., C. Coughenour, A. Godbole, and I. McDonough. 2023. “Senior Food Insecurity on Women and Children.” Food Security 13 (4): 1049–1068. https://doi.org/10.1007/
Insecurity in the USA: A Systematic Literature Review.” Public Health Nutrition 26 (1): 229– s12571-021-01171-x.
245. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1368980022002415.
Childs, S., and M. L. Crook. 2008. “Critical Mass Theory and Women’s Political Representation.”

B Political Studies 56 (10): 725–736.

Bahal’okwibale, M., and M. Woldegiorgis. 2023. “Chad Accelerates Its Race to Adapt to Climate Chiriac, D., and B. Naran. 2020. Examining the Climate Finance Gap for Small-Scale Agriculture.
Change. What’s Next?“ UNDP Blog (United Nations Development Programme), December 6. San Francisco and Rome: Climate Policy Initiative and International Fund for Agricultural
https://www.undp.org/blog/chad-accelerates-its-race-adapt-climate-change-whats-next. Development.

Bahru B. A., C. Bosch, R. Birner, and M. Zeller. 2019. “Drought and Child Undernutrition in Chitekwe, S., H. Torlesse, and V. M. Aguayo. 2022. “Nutrition in Nepal: Three Decades of
Ethiopia: A Longitudinal Path Analysis.” PLoS ONE 14 (6): e0217821. https://doi.org/10.1371/ Commitment to Children and Women.” Maternal and Child Nutrition 18 (S1): e13229. https://
journal.pone.0217821. onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/mcn.13229.

Bapolisi, W. A., G. Ferrari, G. Bisimwa, and S. Merten. 2021. “Gendered Determinants of Food Clarke, B., C. Barnes, R. Rodrigues, M. Zachariah, S. Stewart, E. Raju, et al. 2024. “Climate
Insecurity in Ongoing Regional Conflicts, North and South Kivu, the Democratic Republic of Change, Not El Niño, Main Driver of Exceptional Drought in Highly Vulnerable Amazon River
Congo.” Agriculture and Food Security 10: 13. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40066-021-00285-x. Basin.” Report. London: Imperial College London.

Bekkar, B., S. Pacheco, R. Basu, and N. DeNicola. 2020. “Association of Air Pollution and Heat CSIPM (Civil Society and Indigenous Peoples’ Mechanism). 2024. “Feminist Reflections
Exposure with Preterm Birth, Low Birth Weight, and Stillbirth in the US: A Systematic Review.” on the CFS Gender Voluntary Guidelines.” March 28. https://www.csm4cfs.org/
JAMA Network Open 3 (6): e208243. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7303808/. feminist-reflections-on-the-cfs-gender-voluntary-guidelines/.

Bezner Kerr, R., S. Madsen, M. Stüber, J. Liebert, S. Enloe, N. Borghino, P. Parros, D. M.

Mutyambai, M. Prudhon, and A. Wezel. 2021. “Can Agroecology Improve Food Security and D
Nutrition? A Review.” Global Food Security 29: 100540. Dagys, K., B. Agipar, S. Tsolmon, C. Ringler, K. Bellisario, and J. Fanzo. 2023. “Maximizing
Nutrition in Key Food Value Chains of Mongolia under Climate Change.” Food Policy 117:
Black, R. E., C. G. Victora, S. P. Walker, Z. A. Bhutta, P. Christian, M. de Onis, M. Ezzati, et al. 102468. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodpol.2023.102468.
2013. “Maternal and Child Undernutrition and Overweight in Low-Income and Middle-Income
Countries.” Lancet 832 (9890): 427–451. Dahlerup, D. 1988. “From a Small to a Large Minority: Women in Scandinavian Politics.”
Scandinavian Political Studies 11 (4): 275–297.
Blom, S. A. Ortiz-Bobea, and J. Hoddinott. 2022. “Heat Exposure and Child Nutrition: Evidence
from West Africa.” Journal of Environmental Economics and Management 115: 102698. https:// da Silva Lopes, K., Y. Takemoto, M. N. Garcia-Casal, and E. Ota. 2018. “Nutrition-Specific
doi.org/10.1016/j.jeem.2022.102698. Interventions for Preventing and Controlling Anaemia throughout the Life Cycle: An Overview
of Systematic Reviews.” Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews, Issue 8 (August 10):
Briones Alonso, E., L. Cockx, and J. Swinnen. 2018. “Culture and Food Security.” Global Food CD013092. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6513621/pdf/CD013092.pdf.
Security 17: 113–127. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gfs.2018.02.002.
Davies, S., T. Pettersson, and M. Öberg. 2023. “Organized Violence 1989–2022, and the
Bromage, S., T. Daria, R. L. Lander, S. Tsolmon, L. A. Houghton, E. Tserennadmid, et al. Return of Conflict between States.” Journal of Peace Research 60 (4): 691–708. https://doi.
2020. “Diet and Nutrition Status of Mongolian Adults.” Nutrients 12 (5): 1514. https://doi. org/10.1177/00223433231185169.
org/10.3390/nu12051514.
de Onis, M., E. Borghi, M. Arimond, P. Webb, T. Croft, K. Saha, et al. 2019. “Prevalence
Broussard, N. H. 2019. “What Explains Gender Differences in Food Insecurity?” Food Policy Thresholds for Wasting, Overweight and Stunting in Children under 5 Years.” Public Health
83: 180–194. Nutrition 22 (1): 175–179.

Bündnis Entwicklung Hilft and IFHV. 2023. World Risk Report 2023. Berlin: Bündnis
Entwicklung Hilft. https://weltrisikobericht.de/wp-content/uploads/2023/10/WRR_2023_
english_online161023.pdf.

2024 Global Hunger Index | Bibliography51

Devkota, R., K. Khadka, H. Gartaula, A. Shrestha, S. Karki, K. Patel, and P. Chaudhary. FAO. 2024b. GIEWS Country Brief: The Republic of Mali. Global Information and Early
2016. “Gender and Labor Efficiency in Finger Millet Production in Nepal.” In J. Njuki, Warning System on Food and Agriculture. May 7. Rome: FAO. https://reliefweb.int/report/mali/
J. R. Parkins, and A. Kaler, eds., Transforming Gender and Food Security in the Global South. giews-country-brief-mali-07-may-2024.
London: Routledge. London.
FAO. 2024c. Protecting the Right to Adequate Food and Saving Lives in the Gaza Strip. Briefing
de Waal, A. 2024. “Mass Starvation: Recent Media Commentary from Alex de Waal on Gaza, Sudan, Note on the Occupied Palestinian Territory. Rome: FAO. https://doi.org/10.4060/cd1622en.
and Tigray.” Blog, March 13. World Peace Foundation. https://worldpeacefoundation.org/blog/
mass-starvation-recent-media-commentary-from-alex-de-waal-on-gaza-sudan-and-tigray/?s=09. FAO. 2024d. The Unjust Climate: Measuring the Impacts of Climate Change on Rural Poor,
Women and Youth. Rome. https://doi.org/10.4060/cc9680en.
De Weerdt, J., C. Arndt, J. Thurlow, J. Duchoslav, J. Glauber, L. You, and W. Anderson.
2024. “El Niño: Malawi’s Harvest of Its Staple Food Maize May Fall by FAO, IFAD (International Fund for Agricultural Development), UNICEF (United Nations Children’s
22.5% This Year.” The Conversation, January 28. https://theconversation.com/ Fund), WFP, and WHO (World Health Organization). 2017. The State of Food Security and
el-nino-malawis-harvest-of-its-staple-food-maize-may-fall-by-22-5-this-year-221349. Nutrition in the World 2017: Building Resilience for Peace and Food Security. Rome: FAO. http://
www.fao.org/3/a-I7695e.pdf.
Duchoslav, J., M. Chiduwa, S. Denhere, J. De Weerdt, R. Mzonde, and G. Phiri. 2024.
“Responding to Malawi’s Impending Food Crisis.” IFPRI Blog, May 31. International Food FAO, IFAD, UNICEF, WFP, and WHO. 2024a. The State of Food Security and Nutrition in the
Policy Research Institute. https://www.ifpri.org/blog/responding-malawis-looming-food-crisis/. World 2024: Financing to End Hunger, Food Insecurity, and Malnutrition in All Its Forms. Rome.
https://doi.org/10.4060/cd1254en.
Dupouy, E., and M. Gurinovic. 2020. “Sustainable Food Systems for Healthy Diets in Europe
and Central Asia: Introduction to the Special Issue.” Food Policy 96: 101952. https://doi. FAO, IFAD, UNICEF, WFP, and WHO. 2024b. The State of Food Security and Nutrition in
org/10.1016/j.foodpol.2020.101952. the World 2024: Financing to End Hunger, Food Insecurity, and Malnutrition in All Its Forms:
Supplementary Material. Rome. https://openknowledge.fao.org/server/api/core/bitstreams/
f83abbb0-c87d-4eed-b90f-d26bba998dcb/content.
E
ECLAC (Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean). 2022. Toward Sustainable Ferrero, E. M., A. G. Yunker, S. Cuffe, S. Gautam, K. Mendoza, S. N. Bhupathiraju, and J. Mattei.
Food and Nutrition Security in Latin America and the Caribbean in Response to the Global Food 2023. “Nutrition and Health in the Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, Transgender, Queer/Questioning
Crisis. Santiago: ECLAC. Community: A Narrative Review.” Advances in Nutrition 14 (6): 1297–1306.

Elver, H. 2023. “Right to Food.” Journal of Agricultural and Environmental Ethics 36: art. 21. FEWS NET (Famine Early Warning Systems Network). 2024a. El Niño 2023–2024. https://
https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10806-023-09916-8. fews.net/topics/special-topics/el-nino-2023-2024.

Engelbert, M., Z. Ravat, C. Yavuz, D. Menon, C. Grywatz, K. Wolf. 2023. Half-Time for SDG FEWS NET. 2024b. Ethiopia Food Security Outlook, February–September: Hunger and Acute
Evidence Generation, 2023. 3ie Working Paper 59. New Delhi: International Initiative for Impact Malnutrition Outpace the Scale-up of Food Assistance. Washington, DC: FEWS NET.
Evaluation (3ie). https://doi.org/10.23846/WP0059.
FEWS NET. 2024c. FEWS NET’s Projected Population in Need (PIN) of Urgent Food Assistance
ESCAP (Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific). 2020. Economic and in December 2024. Food Assistance Outlook Brief. Washington, DC: FEWS NET. https://fews.
Social Survey of Asia and the Pacific 2020: Towards Sustainable Economies. Bangkok: ESCAP. net/sites/default/files/2024-06/FAOB-June%202024.pdf.

F FEWS NET. 2024d. Gaza Strip Targeted Analysis, May 31, 2024. Washington, DC: FEWS
NET. https://fews.net/sites/default/files/2024-06/Gaza-Targeted-Analysis-Update-042024-
Fanzo, J., C. Davis, R. McLaren, and J. Choufani. 2018. “The Effect of Climate Change across Final%20%282%29.pdf.
Food Systems: Implications for Nutrition Outcomes.” Global Food Security 18: 12–19. https://
doi.org/10.1016/j.gfs.2018.06.001. Forsythe, L. 2023. “Gender-Based Violence in Food Systems.” Nature Food 4: 472–475. https://
doi.org/10.1038/s43016-023-00777-y.
FAO (Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations). 2015. FAO Hunger Map 2015.
http://www.fao.org/3/a-i4674e.pdf. Fotio, H. K., R. M. Gouenet, and P. N. Tedga. 2024. “Beyond the Direct Effect of Economic
Growth on Child Mortality in Sub-Saharan Africa: Does Environmental Degradation Matter?”
FAO. 2019. Regional Overview of Food Security and Nutrition in Europe and Central Asia 2019: Sustainable Development 32 (1): 588–607.
Structural Transformations of Agriculture for Improved Food Security, Nutrition and Environment.
Budapest: FAO. Fraser, N. 2009. Scales of Justice: Reimagining Political Space in a Globalizing World. New
York: Columbia University Press.
FAO. 2022. Practical Guide on How to Eliminate Gender-Based Violence and Protect Rural
Communities through Food Security and Agriculture Interventions: Guidance for FAO Staff and FSIN (Food Security Information Network) and GNAFC (Global Network against Food Crises).
Partners, 2nd ed. Rome: FAO. https://doi.org/10.4060/cc3347en. 2022. Global Report on Food Crises 2022: Joint Analysis for Better Decisions. https://www.wfp.
org/publications/global-report-food-crises-2022.
FAO. 2023a. Europe and Central Asia: Regional Overview of Food Security and Nutrition 2023:
Statistics and Trends. Budapest: FAO. https://doi.org/10.4060/cc8608en. FSIN and GNAFC. 2023. Global Report on Food Crises 2023: Joint Analysis for Better Decisions.
Rome. https://www.wfp.org/publications/global-report-food-crises-2023.
FAO. 2023b. The Status of Women in Agrifood Systems: Overview. Rome: FAO.
FSIN and GNAFC. 2024. Global Report on Food Crises 2024: Joint Analysis for Better Decisions.
FAO. 2024a. “Data: Suite of Food Security Indicators.” Accessed July 30, 2024. http://www. https://www.fsinplatform.org/sites/default/files/resources/files/GRFC2024-full.pdf.
fao.org/faostat/en/#data/FS.

52 Bibliography | 2024 Global Hunger Index

G I
Generation Nutrition. 2024. Rethinking the EU’s ODA Investments in Nutrition: Catalyzing IASC (Inter-Agency Standing Committee). 2024. “Statement by Principals of
Transformative Change. https://www.alliance2015.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/06/Generation- the Inter-Agency Standing Committee on the Democratic Republic of the Congo,
Nutrition-Rapport-EU-ODA-funding.pdf. Crushing Levels of Violence, Displacement Fuel Unprecedented Civilian Suffering.”
April 30. Geneva: IASC. https://interagencystandingcommittee.org/inter-agency-standing-committee/
Gerard, F., J. Naritomi, and J. Silva. 2021. Cash Transfers and Formal Labor Markets: Evidence statement-principals-inter-agency-standing-committee-democratic-republic-congo-crushing-levels.
from Brazil. Policy Research Working Paper 9778. Washington, DC: World Bank.
Ibrahim, K., M. Bavorova, and E. Zhllima. 2024. “Food Security and Livelihoods in Protracted Crisis:
Glauber, J. 2024. “Ukraine and Global Agricultural Markets Two Years Later.” IFPRI Blog, The Experience of Rural Residents in Syria’s War Zones.” Food Security 16: 659–673. https://doi.
February 26. International Food Policy Research Institute. https://www.ifpri.org/blog/ org/10.1007/s12571-024-01446-z.
ukraine-and-global-agricultural-markets-two-years-later/.
IDMC (Internal Displacement Monitoring Centre). 2024. Global Report on Internal Displacement
Glauber, J., and A. Mamun. 2024a. “Impacts of Red Sea Shipping Disruptions on Global Food 2024. Geneva: IDMC. https://api.internal-displacement.org/sites/default/files/publications/
Security.” IFPRI Blog, January 17. International Food Policy Research Institute. https://www. documents/IDMC-GRID-2024-Global-Report-on-Internal-Displacement.pdf.
ifpri.org/blog/impacts-red-sea-shipping-disruptions-global-food-security/.
IFPRI (International Food Policy Research Institute). 2024. 2024 Global Food Policy Report:
Glauber, J., and A. Mamun. 2024b. “India’s Export Restrictions on Rice Food Systems for Healthy Diets and Nutrition. Washington, DC: IFPRI. https://www.ifpri.org/
Continue to Disrupt Global Markets, Supplies, and Prices.” IFPRI Blog, global-food-policy-report-2024/.
February 7. International Food Policy Research Institute. https://www.ifpri.org/blog/
indias-export-restrictions-rice-continue-disrupt-global-markets-supplies-and-prices//. IFPRI and WFP. 2024. Food Security and Social Assistance in Sudan during Armed Conflict: Evidence
from the First Round of the Sudan Rural Household Survey (November 2023–January 2024).

H Washington, DC, and Rome: IFPRI and WFP.

Hanley-Cook, G., A. Argaw, P. Dahal, S. Chitekwe, S. Rijal, R. P. Bichha, K. R. Parajuli, and IFPRI, WHH (Welthungerhilfe), and Concern Worldwide. 2007. The Challenge of Hunger 2007: Global
P. Kolsteren. 2022. “Elucidating the Sustained Decline in Under-Three Child Linear Growth Hunger Index: Facts, Determinants, and Trends. Washington, DC, Bonn, and Dublin.
Faltering in Nepal, 1996–2016.” Maternal and Child Nutrition 18 (S1): e12982.
IIPS (International Institute for Population Sciences) and ICF. 2021. National Family Health Survey
Harris-Fry, H., and C. Grijalva-Eternod. 2016. “Forest Conservation in Central and West Africa: (NFHS-5), 2019–21: India: Volume I. Mumbai: IIPS.
Opportunities and Risks for Gender Equity.” In C. J. P. Colfer, B. S. Basnett, and M. Elias,
eds., Gender and Forests: Climate Change, Tenure, Value Chains, and Emerging Issues. New International IDEA (Institute for Democracy and Electoral Assistance). 2024. Gender Quotas
York: Routledge. Database. Retrieved July 4, 2024. https://www.idea.int/data-tools/data/gender-quotas-database/
legislative-overview.
Headey, D., and M. Ruel. 2023. “Food Inflation and Child Undernutrition in Low and
Middle Income Countries.” Nature Communications 14: 5761. https://doi.org/10.1038/ IPC (Integrated Food Security Phase Classification). 2024a. Famine Review Committee: Gaza Strip,
s41467-023-41543-9. June 2024. Rome: IPC. https://www.ipcinfo.org/fileadmin/user_upload/ipcinfo/docs/IPC_Famine_
Review_Committee_Report_Gaza_June2024.pdf.
Hlahla, S. 2022. “Gender Perspectives of the Water, Energy, Land, and Food Security Nexus
in Sub-Saharan Africa.” Frontiers in Sustainable Food Systems 6. https://doi.org/10.3389/ IPC. 2024b. Famine Review Committee: Combined Review of: i) The Famine Early Warning System
fsufs.2022.719913. Network (FEWS NET) IPC Compatible Analysis for IDP Camps in El Fasher, North Darfur; and ii) The
IPC Sudan Technical Working Group Analysis of Zamzam Camp (North Darfur), Sudan: Conclusions
HLPE (High Level Panel of Experts on Food Security and Nutrition). 2023. Reducing Inequalities and Recommendations. Rome: IPC.
for Food Security and Nutrition. Rome: HLPE.
IPC. 2024c. Gaza Strip: IPC Acute Food Insecurity Special Snapshot, 1 May–30 September 2024.
Hoffman, A. 2024. From Catastrophe to Famine: Immediate Action Needed in Sudan to Contain Rome: IPC. https://www.ipcinfo.org/fileadmin/user_upload/ipcinfo/docs/IPC_Gaza_Strip_Acute_
Mass Starvation. CRU Policy Brief. The Hague: Clingendael. https://www.clingendael.org/sites/ Food_Insecurity_MaySept2024_Special_Snapshot.pdf.
default/files/2024-02/PB_Sudan_famine.pdf.
IPC. 2024d. “Afghanistan: Acute Food Insecurity Situation for March–April 2024 and Projection
Hong, A. 2023. “Securing Singapore’s Future (I/III): The 30 by 30 Food Security for May–October 2024.” Rome: IPC. https://www.ipcinfo.org/ipc-country-analysis/details-map/
Initiative.” Illuminem, October 28. https://illuminem.com/illuminemvoices/ en/c/1157027/?iso3=AFG.
securing-singapores-future-the-30-by-30-food-security-initiative.
IPCC (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change). 2022. Climate Change 2022: Impacts,
Humanitarian Outcomes. 2023. Somali Capacities to Respond to Crisis Are Changing; How Adaptation and Vulnerability. Contribution of Working Group II to the Sixth Assessment Report of
Are Humanitarian Actors Responding? United Kingdom Humanitarian Innovation Lab. https:// the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, ed. H.-O. Pörtner, D.C. Roberts, M. Tignor, E.S.
humanitarianoutcomes.org/sites/default/files/publications/ho_ukhih_somalia_1023_2.pdf. Poloczanska, K. Mintenbeck, A. Alegría, M. Craig, S. Langsdorf, S. Löschke, V. Möller, A. Okem,
and B. Rama. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
Hyde, E., M. E. Greene, and G. L. Darmstadt. 2020. “Time Poverty: Obstacle to Women’s
Human Rights, Health and Sustainable Development.” Journal of Global Health 10 (2): 020313. IPES-Food (International Panel of Experts on Sustainable Food Systems). 2023. Breaking the Cycle of
Unsustainable Food Systems, Hunger, and Debt. https://ipes-food.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/03/
DebtFoodCrisis.pdf.

2024 Global Hunger Index | Bibliography53

J M
Jain, V., N. Tewathia, and K. Barik. 2023. “Gender-Differentiated Labor and Adaptation Effects Maharjan, A., R. Safra de Campos, C. Singh, et al. 2020. “Migration and Household Adaptation
of Climate Change in Rural Areas: A Systematic Literature Review.” Gender Issues 40 (2): 168– in Climate-Sensitive Hotspots in South Asia.” Current Climate Change Reports 6: 1–16.
184. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12147-023-09310-8.
Mahler, D. G., N. Yonzan, C. Lakner. 2022. The Impact of COVID-19 on Global Inequality and
Janmohamed, A., M. Luvsanjamba, B. Norov, E. Batsaikhan, B. Jamiyan, J. L. Blankenship. Poverty. Policy Research Working Paper 10198. Washington, DC: World Bank.
2020. “Complementary Feeding Practices and Associated Factors among Mongolian Children
6–23 Months of Age.” Maternal and Child Nutrition 16 (S2): e12838. https://doi.org/10.1111/ Martin-Shields, C. P., and W. Stojetz. 2019. “Food Security and Conflict: Empirical Challenges
mcn.12838. and Future Opportunities for Research and Policy Making on Food Security and Conflict.” World
Development 119 (July): 150–164.
Johnston, D., S. Stevano, H. J. Malapit, E. Hull, and S. Kadiyala. 2018. “Review: Time Use
As an Explanation for the Agri-Nutrition Disconnect: Evidence from Rural Areas in Low and Mavisakalyan, A., and Y. Tarverdi. 2019. “Gender and Climate Change: Do Female
Middle-Income Countries. Food Policy 76 (April): 8–18. Parliamentarians Make Difference?” European Journal of Political Economy 56: 151–164.

Jost, C., F. Kyazze, J. Naab, S. Neelormi, J. Kinyangi, R. Zougmore, et al. 2015. “Understanding MEASURE DHS. 2024. “Demographic and Health Surveys.” Calverton, MD, USA. Accessed
Gender Dimensions of Agriculture and Climate Change in Smallholder Farming Communities.” May 25, 2024. http://www.dhsprogram.com/.
Climate and Development 8 (2): 133–144. https://doi.org/10.1080/17565529.2015.1050978.
Medek, D. E., J. Schwartz, and S. S. Myers. 2017. “Estimated Effects of Future Atmospheric
CO2 Concentrations on Protein Intake and the Risk of Protein Deficiency by Country and Region.”
K Environmental Health Perspectives 125 (8): 087002. https://doi.org/10.1289/EHP41.
Kanter, R. M. 1977. “Some Effects of Proportions on Group Life.” American Journal of Sociology
82 (5): 965–990. MoEFCC (Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change). 2022. National Adaptation
Plan of Bangladesh 2023–2050. Dhaka: Government of the People’s Republic of Bangladesh.
Kemmerling, B., C. Schetter, and L. Wirkus. 2021. Addressing Food Crises in Violent Conflicts.
Food Systems Summit Brief. United Nations Food Systems Summit 2021 Scientific Group. Morris, M., A. R. Sebastian, V. M. E. Perego, et al. 2020. Future Foodscapes: Re-imagining
https://sc-fss2021.org/wp-content/uploads/2021/06/FSS_Brief_Food_Crisis_in_Violent_ Agriculture in Latin America and the Caribbean. Washington, DC: World Bank.
Conflicts.pdf.
Myers, S., A. Zanobetti, I. Kloog, P. Huybers, A. D. B. Leakey, A. J. Bloom, et al. 2014.
Khakimov, P., J. Aliev, T. S. Thomas, J. Ilyasov, S. Pechtl, and S. Dunston. 2024. Climate “Increasing CO2 Threatens Human Nutrition.” Nature 510: 139–142. https://doi.org/10.1038/
Change Effects on Food Security in Tajikistan. Central Asia Policy Brief 9. Washington, DC: nature13179.
International Food Policy Research Institute. https://cgspace.cgiar.org/server/api/core/
bitstreams/a1033a5b-9905-421c-807c-dd4b02404619/content. Myers, S. S., K. R. Wessells, I. Kloog, A. Zanobetti, and J. Schwartz. 2015. “Effect of Increased
Concentrations of Atmospheric Carbon Dioxide on the Global Threat of Zinc Deficiency: A
Kimutai, J., C. Barnes, M. Zachariah, S. Philip, S. Kew, I. Pinto, et al. 2023. “Human-Induced Modelling Study.” Lancet 3 (10): e639–645. https://www.thelancet.com/journals/langlo/article/
Climate Change Increased Drought Severity in Horn of Africa.” Report. London: Imperial College PIIS2214-109X(15)00093-5/fulltext.
London. https://doi.org/10.25561/103482.

Kimutai, J., M. Zachariah, B. Nhantumbo, T. Nkemelang, S. Jain, I. Pinto, et al. 2024. “El N
Niño Key Driver of Drought in Highly Vulnerable Southern African Countries.” Report. London: ND-GAIN (Notre Dame Global Adaptation Initiative). 2023. Download Data. Accessed June 1,

Imperial College London. 2024. https://gain.nd.edu/our-work/country-index/download-data/.

Kotz, M., A. Levermann, and L. Wenz. 2024. “The Economic Commitment of Climate Change.” Njuki, J., S. Eissler, H. Malapit, R. Meinzen-Dick, E. Bryan, and A. Quisumbing. 2021. A Review

Nature 628: 551–557. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-024-07219-0. of Evidence on Gender Equality, Women’s Empowerment, and Food Systems. IFPRI Discussion
Paper 02034. Washington, DC: International Food Policy Research Institute. https://ebrary.
Kowalzig, J., T. Cherry-Virdee, R. B. Sørensen, and S. Cutts. 2024. Climate Finance Short- ifpri.org/digital/collection/p15738coll2/id/134469.
changed, 2024 Update: Estimating the Real Value of the $100 Billion Commitment for 2021–22.
Oxfam Methodology Note. Oxfam International. https://unfccc.int/sites/default/files/resource/ Njuki, J., S. Eissler, H. Malapit, R. Meinzen-Dick, E. Bryan, and A. Quisumbing. 2022. “A

Oxfam_Climate_Finance_Short-Changed_2024_update_CSNA_Estimate_Methodology_Note.pdf. Review of Evidence on Gender Equality, Women’s Empowerment, and Food Systems.” Global
Food Security 33: 100622. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gfs.2022.100622.

L Nyantakyi-Frimpong, H., J. Kangmennaang, R. B. Kerr, I. Luginaah, L. Dakishoni, E. Lupafya,

Leder, S. 2022. “Beyond the ‘Feminization of Agriculture’: Rural Out-Migration, Shifting L. Shumba, and M. Katundu. 2017. “Agroecology and Healthy Food Systems in Semi-Humid
Gender Relations and Emerging Spaces in Natural Resource Management.” Journal of Rural Tropical Africa: Participatory Research with Vulnerable Farming Households in Malawi. Acta
Studies 91: 157–169. Tropica 175: 42–49.

Lemke, S., and T. Delormier. 2017. “Indigenous Peoples’ Food Systems, Nutrition, and Gender:
Conceptual and Methodological Considerations.” Maternal and Child Nutrition 13 (S3): e12499. O
https://doi.org/10.1111/mcn.12499. OECD (Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development). 2024. “International Aid
Rises in 2023 with Increased Support to Ukraine and Humanitarian Needs.” Press release,
April 11. https://www.oecd.org/en/about/news/press-releases/2024/04/international-aid-rises-
in-2023-with-increased-support-to-ukraine-and-humanitarian-needs.html.

O’Laughlin, B. 2007. “A Bigger Piece of a Very Small Pie: Intrahousehold Resource Allocation
and Poverty Reduction in Africa.” Development and Change 38 (1): 21–44.

54 Bibliography | 2024 Global Hunger Index

Otto, F. E. L., M. Zachariah, F. Saeed, A. Siddiqi, S. Kamil, H. Mushtaq, et al. 2023a. “Climate Sutton, W. R., A. Lotsch, and A. Prasann. 2024. Recipe for a Livable Planet: Achieving Net
Change Increased Extreme Monsoon Rainfall, Flooding Highly Vulnerable Communities in Zero Emissions in the Agrifood System: Overview. Agriculture and Food Series. Washington,
Pakistan.” Environmental Research: Climate 2: 025001. DC: World Bank. https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/server/api/core/bitstreams/
c68a6f57-d4fb-4176-9a85-e313dd34c4e2/content.
Otto, F., B. Clarke, M. Rahimi, M. Zachariah, C. Barnes, J. Kimutai, et al. 2023b. “Human-
Induced Climate Change Compounded by Socio-economic Water Stressors Increased Severity
of Drought in Syria, Iraq and Iran.” London: Imperial College London. T
Tahirindray, P. H. 2022. “Madagascar, Environment, and Gender Equality.” Reflections blog,
P March 8. Social Justice and Ecology Secretariat. https://www.sjesjesuits.global/sj-reflections/
Pandey, R. 2019. “Male Out-Migration from the Himalaya: Implications for Gender Roles and madagascar-environment-and-gender-equality/.
Household Food (In)Security in the Kaligandaki Basin, Nepal.” Migration and Development

U
10 (3): 313–341.

ProSAR (Projet de Sécurité Alimentaire, Nutrition et Renforcement de Résilience). 2024a. “MDG Ulimwengu, J. M., E. M. Kwofie, and J. Collins, eds. 2023. African Food Systems Transformation

1093: Projet de Sécurité Alimentaire, Nutrition et Renforcement de Résilience.” Welthungerhilfe and the Post-Malabo Agenda. ReSAKSS 2023 Annual Trends and Outlook Report. Kigali and

Submission Report. Berlin: Welthungerhilfe. Washington, DC: AKADEMIYA2063 and International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI).

ProSAR. 2024b. “Success Stories: Projet de Sécurité Alimentaire, Nutrition et Renforcement UNCTAD (United Nations Conference on Trade and Development). 2024. A World of Debt Report

de Résilience.” Welthungerhilfe Submission Report. Berlin: Welthungerhilfe. 2024: A Growing Burden to Global Prosperity. Geneva: UNCTAD.

UNDP (United Nations Development Programme). 2022. South Sudan Agricultural Value Chain:
R Challenges and Opportunities. Juba, South Sudan: UNDP.
Rao, N. 2020. “The Achievement of Food and Nutrition Security in South Asia Is Deeply
Gendered.” Nature Food 1 (April): 206–209. https://www.nature.com/articles/ UNDP. 2024. Human Development Report 2023–24: Breaking the Gridlock: Reimagining
s43016-020-0059-0. Cooperation in a Polarized World. New York: UNDP.

Rao, N., and S. Raju. 2019. “Gendered Time, Seasonality and Nutrition: Insights from Two UNEP (United Nations Environment Programme). 2024. “Damage to Gaza Causing
Indian Districts.” Feminist Economics 26 (2): 95–125. New Risks to Human Health and Long-Term Recovery: New UNEP Assessment.”
Press release, June 18. https://www.unep.org /news-and-stories/press-release/
Rao, N., A. Mitra, and R. Rengalakshmi. 2022. “Equity, Gender and Millets in India: Implications damage-gaza-causing-new-risks-human-health-and-long-term-recovery.
for Policy.” In S. Padulosi, I. O. King, D. Hunter, and M. S. Swaminathan, eds., Orphan Crops
for Sustainable Food and Nutrition Security. London: Routledge. UNESCO (United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization). 2013. Gender
Equality in Education. Education Sector Technical Notes. Paris: UNESCO.
Rigden, A., C. Golden, D. Chan, and P. Huybers. 2024. “Climate Change Linked to Drought in
Southern Madagascar.” npj Climate and Atmospheric Science 7: 41. https://doi.org/10.1038/ UNFCCC (United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change). 2024. “The
s41612-024-00583-8. Enhanced Lima Work Programme on Gender.” https://unfccc.int/topics/gender/workstreams/
the-enhanced-lima-work-programme-on-gender.
Roy, A.-S., M. Mazaniello-Chézol, M. Rueda-Martinez, S. Shafique, and A. M. Adams. 2023.
“Food Systems Determinants of Nutritional Health and Wellbeing in Urban Informal Settlements: UNFPA (United Nations Population Fund). 2023. Taking Stock: Sexual and Reproductive Health
A Scoping Review in LMICs.” Social Science and Medicine 322: 115804. https://doi. and Rights in Climate Commitments. New York: UNFPA. https://www.unfpa.org/sites/default/
org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2023.115804. files/resource-pdf/UNFPA-NDC-Global%20Report-Summary_2023.pdf.

Russomanno, J., and J. M. Jabson Tree. 2020. “Food Insecurity and Food Pantry Use among UNFPA. 2024. “Humanitarian Emergencies.” https://www.unfpa.org/emergencies.
Transgender and Gender Non-Conforming People in the Southeast United States.” BMC Public
Health 20: 590. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-020-08684-8. UNHCHR (United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights). 1999. “CESCR General
Comment No. 12: The Right to Adequate Food (Art. 11).” https://www.refworld.org/legal/general/
cescr/1999/en/87491.
S
Schalatek, L., and J.-A. Richards. 2024. The Loss and Damage Fund Board: Getting It Right UNHCHR. 2023. “Adverse Impact of Climate Change on the Full Realization of the Right to
from the Start. Washington, DC: Heinrich Böll Stiftung. https://us.boell.org/en/2024/03/18/ Food.” A/HRC/53/47. https://documents.un.org/doc/undoc/gen/g23/103/43/pdf/g2310343.
loss-and-damage-fund-board-getting-it-right-start. pdf?token=SIwiuLXNyF7X7VBRMZ&fe=true.

Singh, C., D. Solomon, and N. Rao. 2021. “How Does Climate Change Adaptation Policy in UNHCHR. 2024. “Measures for Minimizing the Adverse Impact of Climate Change on the
India Consider Gender? An Analysis of 28 State Action Plans.” Climate Policy 21 (7): 958–975. Full Realization of the Right to Food.” A/HRC/55/37. https://www.ohchr.org/en/documents/
DOI: 10.1080/14693062.2021.1953434 thematic-reports/ahrc5537-measures-minimizing-adverse-impact-climate-change-full.

Soomar, S. M., A. Arefin, and S. M. Soomar. 2023. “’Women Are Again Unsafe’: Preventing UNHCR (The UN Refugee Agency). 2024a. “Global Appeal 2024: Middle East and
Violence and Poor Maternal Outcomes during Current Floods in Pakistan.” Journal of Global North Africa.” https://reporting.unhcr.org /global-appeal-2024/regional-overviews/
Health (January 20). https://jogh.org/2023/jogh-13-03005. middle-east-and-north-africa.

UNHCR. 2024b. Global Trends: Forced Displacement in 2023. Copenhagen: UNHCR. https://
www.unhcr.org/global-trends-report-2023.

2024 Global Hunger Index | Bibliography55

UNICEF (United Nations Children’s Fund). 2009. “Childinfo: Nutritional Status.” Updated Vercillo, S. 2022. “A Feminist Political Ecology of Farm Resource Entitlements in Northern
November 2009. Accessed June 14, 2015. http://data.unicef.org/nutrition/malnutrition. Ghana.” Gender, Place and Culture 29 (10): 1467–1496.

UNICEF. 2013. “Childinfo: Nutritional Status.” Updated February 2013. Accessed March 26, Vercillo, S., S. Rao, R. Ragetlie, and J. Vansteenkiste. 2023. “Nourishing the Nexus: A Feminist
2014. www.childinfo.org/malnutrition_nutritional_status.php. Analysis of Gender, Nutrition and Agri-food Development Policies and Practices.” European Journal
of Development Research 35 (6): 1261–1293.
UNICEF. 2023. Undernourished and Overlooked: A Global Nutrition Crisis in Adolescent Girls
and Women. New York: UNICEF https://www.unicef.org/media/136876/file/Full%20report%20 VOICE. 2024. Take a Stand: Pledge for Humanitarian Action! Voice Policy Resolution 2024.
(English).pdf. Brussels: VOICE. https://voiceeu.org/publications/voice-policy-resolution-2024-take-a-stand-
pledge-for-humanitarian-action.pdf.
UNICEF. 2024. “Childinfo: Multiple Indicator Cluster Surveys (MICS).” Accessed May 26,
2024. https://mics.unicef.org/surveys. von Grebmer, K., H. Fritschel, B. Nestorova, T. Olofinbiyi, R. Pandya-Lorch, and Y. Yohannes.
2008. Global Hunger Index: The Challenge of Hunger 2008. Bonn: Welthungerhilfe; Washington,
UNICEF, WHO, and World Bank. 2023. Joint Child Malnutrition Estimates Database, DC: International Food Policy Research Institute; Dublin: Concern Worldwide.
November 2023. Accessed May 9, 2024. https://cdn.who.int/media/docs/default-source/child-
growth/jme-2023-edition/jme-by-country-november2023.xlsx. von Grebmer, K., B. Nestorova, A. Quisumbing, R. Fertziger, H. Fritschel, R. Pandya-Lorch, and
Y. Yohannes. 2009. 2009 Global Hunger Index: The Challenge of Hunger: Focus on Financial
UN IGME (United Nations Inter-agency Group for Child Mortality Estimation). 2023. Levels and Crisis and Gender Inequality. Bonn: Welthungerhilfe; Washington, DC: International Food Policy
Trends in Child Mortality: Report 2022. New York: UNICEF. Research Institute; Dublin: Concern Worldwide.

UN IGME. 2024a. “Child Mortality Estimates: Under-five Mortality Estimates.” Accessed von Grebmer, K., M. T. Ruel, P. Menon, B. Nestorova, T. Olofinbiyi, H. Fritschel, Y. Yohannes
April 17, 2024. http://www.childmortality.org/. et al. 2010. 2010 Global Hunger Index: The Challenge of Hunger: Focus on the Crisis of Child
Undernutrition. Bonn: Welthungerhilfe; Washington, DC: International Food Policy Research
UN IGME. 2024b. Levels and Trends in Child Mortality: Report 2023. New York: UNICEF. Institute; Dublin: Concern Worldwide.

United Nations. 2022. General Comment No. 26 (2022) on Land and Economic, Social and von Grebmer, K., M. Torero, T. Olofinbiyi, H. Fritschel, D. Wiesmann, Y. Yohannes, L. Schofield,
Cultural Rights. E/C.12/GC/26. and C. von Oppeln. 2011. 2011 Global Hunger Index: The Challenge of Hunger: Taming Price
Spikes and Excessive Food Price Volatility. Bonn: Welthungerhilfe; Washington, DC: International
United Nations–Ethiopia. 2024. “Joint Statement by Commissioner of the Ethiopian Disaster Food Policy Research Institute; Dublin: Concern Worldwide.
Risk Management Commission and UN Resident and Humanitarian Coordinator in Ethiopia
on Urgent Funding Needs for the Ongoing Response to Food Insecurity across the Northern von Grebmer, K., C. Ringler, M. W. Rosegrant, T. Olofinbiyi, D. Wiesmann, H. Fritschel,
Highlands of Ethiopia.” Press release, February 1. https://ethiopia.un.org/en/259490-joint- O. Badiane et al. 2012. 2012 Global Hunger Index: The Challenge of Hunger: Ensuring Sustainable
statement-commissioner-ethiopian-disaster-risk-management-commission-and-un-resident. Food Security under Land, Water, and Energy Stresses. Bonn: Welthungerhilfe; Washington, DC:
International Food Policy Research Institute; Dublin: Concern Worldwide.
UN OCHA (United Nations Office for Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs). 2023. Humanitarian
Needs Overview: Haiti: Executive Summary. Geneva: UN OCHA. https://reliefweb.int/attachments/ von Grebmer, K., D. Headey, C. Béné, L. Haddad, T. Olofinbiyi, D. Wiesmann, H. Fritschel et al.
b6680e0c-c417-43bd-a6e5-013cec73ea82/HNO HAITI 2023 EXECUTIVE SUMMARY ENG 2013. 2013 Global Hunger Index: The Challenge of Hunger: Building Resilience to Achieve Food
%281%29.pdf. and Nutrition Security. Bonn: Welthungerhilfe; Washington, DC: International Food Policy Research
Institute; Dublin: Concern Worldwide.
UN OCHA. 2024a. Global Humanitarian Overview 2024. New York: UN OCHA.
von Grebmer, K., A. Saltzman, E. Birol, D. Wiesmann, N. Prasai, S. Yin, Y. Yohannes et al. 2014.
UN OCHA. 2024b. Global Humanitarian Overview 2024: May Update. New York: UN OCHA. 2014 Global Hunger Index: The Challenge of Hidden Hunger. Bonn: Welthungerhilfe; Washington,
DC: International Food Policy Research Institute; Dublin: Concern Worldwide.
UN Security Council. 2018. Resolution 2417 (2018). S/RES/2417. May 24. https://digitallibrary.
un.org/record/1627380?ln=en&v=pdf#files.
von Grebmer, K., J. Bernstein, A. de Waal, N. Prasai, S. Yin, and Y. Yohannes. 2015. 2015 Global
Hunger Index: Armed Conflict and the Challenge of Hunger. Bonn: Welthungerhilfe; Washington,
UN Women. 2023. Progress on the Sustainable Development Goals: The Gender Snapshot 2023.
DC: International Food Policy Research Institute; Dublin: Concern Worldwide.
New York: UN Women. https://www.unwomen.org/sites/default/files/2023-09/progress-on-the-
sustainable-development-goals-the-gender-snapshot-2023-en.pdf.
von Grebmer, K., J. Bernstein, D. Nabarro, N. Prasai, S. Amin, Y. Yohannes, A. Sonntag et al.
2016. 2016 Global Hunger Index: Getting to Zero Hunger. Bonn: Welthungerhilfe; Washington,
UN Women. 2024. “Facts and Figures: Women’s Leadership and Political Participation.” https://
DC: International Food Policy Research Institute; Dublin: Concern Worldwide.
www.unwomen.org/en/what-we-do/leadership-and-political-participation/facts-and-figures.

von Grebmer, K., J. Bernstein, N. Hossain, T. Brown, N. Prasai, Y. Yohannes, F. Patterson et al.

V 2017. 2017 Global Hunger Index: The Inequalities of Hunger. Bonn: Welthungerhilfe; Washington,
DC: International Food Policy Research Institute; Dublin: Concern Worldwide.
van Daalen, K. R., S. S. Kallesøe, F. Davey, S. Dada, L. Jung, L. Singh, R. Issa, C. A. Emilian,
I. Kuhn, I. Keygnaert, and M. Nilsson. 2022. “Extreme Events and Gender-Based Violence: A
von Grebmer, K., J. Bernstein, L. Hammond, F. Patterson, A. Sonntag, L. Klaus, J. Fahlbusch
Mixed-Methods Systematic Review.” Lancet Planetary Health 6 (6): e504–e523. https://doi.
et al. 2018. 2018 Global Hunger Index: Forced Migration and Hunger. Bonn: Welthungerhilfe;
org/10.1016/S2542-5196(22)00088-2.
Dublin: Concern Worldwide.

Vercillo, S. 2020. “The Complicated Gendering of Farming and Household Food Responsibilities
von Grebmer, K. J. Bernstein, R. Mukerji, F. Patterson, M. Wiemers, R. Ní Chéilleachair, C. Foley
in Northern Ghana. Journal of Rural Studies 79: 235–245.
et al. 2019. 2019 Global Hunger Index: The Challenge of Hunger and Climate Change. Bonn:
Welthungerhilfe; Dublin: Concern Worldwide.

56 Bibliography | 2024 Global Hunger Index

von Grebmer, K., J. Bernstein, R. Alders, O. Dar, R. Kock, F. Rampa, M. Wiemers et al. 2020. Wiesmann, D., L. Weingärtner, and I. Schöninger. 2006. The Challenge of Hunger: Global
2020 Global Hunger Index: One Decade to Zero Hunger: Linking Health and Sustainable Food Hunger Index: Facts, Determinants, and Trends. Bonn and Washington, DC: Welthungerhilfe
Systems. Bonn: Welthungerhilfe; Dublin: Concern Worldwide. and International Food Policy Research Institute.

von Grebmer, K., J. Bernstein, C. Delgado, D. Smith, M. Wiemers, T. Schiffer, A. Hanano, Wiesmann, D., H. K. Biesalski, K. von Grebmer, and J. Bernstein. 2015. Methodological Review
O. Towey, R. Ní Chéilleachair, C. Foley, S. Gitter, K. Ekstrom, and H. Fritschel. 2021. 2021 and Revision of the Global Hunger Index. ZEF Working Paper Series No. 139. Bonn: University
Global Hunger Index: Hunger and Food Systems in Conflict Settings. Bonn: Welthungerhilfe; of Bonn, Center for Development Research (ZEF).
Dublin: Concern Worldwide.
WMO (World Meteorological Organization). 2024. “Climate Change Indicators Reached
von Grebmer, K., J. Bernstein, D. Resnick, M. Wiemers, L. Reiner, M. Bachmeier, A. Hanano, Record Levels in 2023: WMO.” Press release, March 19. Geneva: WMO. https://wmo.int/news/
O. Towey, R. Ní Chéilleachair, C. Foley, S. Gitter, G. Larocque, and H. Fritschel. 2022. 2022 media-centre/climate-change-indicators-reached-record-levels-2023-wmo.
Global Hunger Index: Food Systems Transformation and Local Governance. Bonn: Welthungerhilfe;
Dublin: Concern Worldwide. World Bank. 2023a. International Debt Report 2023. Washington, DC: World Bank. http://hdl.
handle.net/10986/40670.
von Grebmer, K., J. Bernstein, W. Geza, M. Ndlovu, M. Wiemers, L. Reiner, M. Bachmeier,
A. Hanano, R. Ní Chéilleachair, T. Sheehan, C. Foley, S. Gitter, G. Larocque, and H. Fritschel. 2023. World Bank. 2023b. Unlocking the Potential of Women and Adolescent Girls: Challenges
2023 Global Hunger Index: The Power of Youth in Shaping Food Systems. Bonn: Welthungerhilfe and Opportunities for Greater Empowerment of Women and Adolescent Girls in Madagascar.
(WHH); Dublin: Concern Worldwide. Washington, DC: World Bank. http://hdl.handle.net/10986/40427.

Vos, R., and S. Kim. 2024. “Long-Lasting Devastation to Livelihoods from Damage World Bank. 2024a. Global Economic Prospects, June 2024. Washington, DC: World Bank.
to Agricultural Lands in Gaza.” IFPRI Blog, February 20. https://www.ifpri.org/blog/
long-lasting-devastation-to-livelihoods-from-damage-to-agricultural-lands-in-gaza/. World Bank. 2024b. Poverty and Inequality Platform. https://pip.worldbank.org/home.

World Bank. 2024c. “The World Bank in Pakistan: Overview.” https://www.worldbank.org/en/

W country/pakistan/overview.
Waiswa, D., and J. Akullo. 2021. “Implications of Gender Discrimination for Household Food
Security among Smallholder Dairy Farmers in Nakaloke, Mbale District, Uganda.” Research World Bank. 2024d. Poverty Headcount Ratio at National Poverty Lines (% of Population):
Journal of Agriculture and Forestry Services 9 (2): 1–11. Mongolia. Accessed August 2, 2024. https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SI.POV.
NAHC?locations=MN.
Watts, J. 2023. “’Everything Is Parched’: Amazon Struggles with Drought amid
Deforestation.” Guardian, November 6. https://www.theguardian.com/world/2023/nov/06/ World Bank, FAO, and IFAD (International Fund for Agricultural Development). 2015. Gender in
aggressive-deforestation-has-led-to-one-of-the-amazons-worst-droughts. Climate-Smart Agriculture: Module 18 for Gender in Agriculture Sourcebook. Washington, DC, and
Rome: World Bank, FAO, and IFAD. https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/handle/10986/22983.
WEF (World Economic Forum). 2024a. Global Gender Gap Report 2024. Geneva: WEF. https://
www3.weforum.org/docs/WEF_GGGR_2024.pdf.
Z
WEF. 2024b. The Global Risks Report 2024. Geneva: WEF. Zerfu, T. 2024. “Study: Human Milk Banks Offer a Promising Option to Address Sub-Saharan
Africa’s Staggeringly High Neonatal Mortality Rates.” IFPRI Blog, April 23. International Food
Weldon, L. S., and M. Htun. 2013. “Feminist Mobilisation and Progressive Policy Change: Policy Research Institute. https://www.ifpri.org/blog/study-human-milk-banks-offer-promising-
Why Governments Take Action to Combat Violence against Women.” Gender and Development option-address-sub-saharan-africas-staggeringly-high/.
21 (2): 231–247.
Zucker-Marques, M., K. P. Gallagher, and U. Volz, with S. Akhtar, M. F. Espinosa, J. Haas, P.
WFP (World Food Programme). 2024. “Worsening Hunger Grips West and Central Africa amid Njoroge and B. Kenewendo. 2024. Defaulting on Development and Climate: Debt Sustainability
Persistent Conflict and Economic Turmoil.” New release, April 12. https://www.wfp.org/news/ and the Race for the 2030 Agenda and Paris Agreement. Boston, London, Berlin: Boston
worsening-hunger-grips-west-and-central-africa-amid-persistent-conflict-and-economic-turmoil. University Global Development Policy Center; Centre for Sustainable Finance, SOAS, University
of London; Heinrich Böll Foundation.
WFP and FAO. 2024. Hunger Hotspots: FAO–WFP Early Warnings on Acute Food Insecurity: June
to October 2024 Outlook. Rome: WFP and FAO. https://doi.org/10.4060/cd0979en.

WHO (World Health Organization). 2023. Anaemia. https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/

detail/ANAEMIA.

WHO. 2024. Global Database on Child Growth and Malnutrition. Accessed June 12, 2024.
https://platform.who.int/nutrition/malnutrition-database.

Wiesmann, D. 2006. A Global Hunger Index: Measurement Concept, Ranking of Countries,

and Trends. Food Consumption and Nutrition Division Discussion Paper 212. Washington, DC:
International Food Policy Research Institute.

Wiesmann, D., J. von Braun, and T. Feldbrügge. 2000. An International Nutrition Index: Successes
and Failures in Addressing Hunger and Malnutrition. ZEF Discussion Papers on Development
Policy No. 26. Bonn: Center for Development Research (ZEF), University of Bonn.

2024 Global Hunger Index | Bibliography57

RESOURCES FOR UNDERSTANDING
HUNGER AND MALNUTRITION

The Global Hunger Index (GHI) is a tool for assessing Resources on Food Crises
hunger at global, regional, and national levels. Among its and Early Warning Systems
strengths are the following:
> Famine Early Warning Systems Network (FEWS NET)
> Measuring and tracking long-term trends. Because of the nature FEWS NET, the Famine Early Warning Systems Network, provides
and availability of its underlying data, the GHI is best suited for real-time assessments and short-term projections of acute food
measuring hunger and tracking progress over recent years and insecurity around the world. It issues monthly reports and maps
decades. The 2024 GHI scores are based on the most up-to-date detailing current and projected food insecurity as well as alerts
data available for the underlying indicators for each country. This on emerging or likely crises. FEWS NET is funded and managed
GHI report also includes GHI scores for 2000, 2008, and 2016 by the Bureau for Humanitarian Assistance of the U.S. Agency
to show trends in hunger over time. for International Development (USAID).
https://fews.net/
> Reflecting both the quantity and quality of food and diets. The
four indicators underlying GHI scores—undernourishment, child > Global Information and Early Warning System (GIEWS)
stunting, child wasting, and child mortality—reflect deficien- The Global Information and Early Warning System on Food and
cies in calories (quantity) as well as in important micronutrients Agriculture (GIEWS) continuously monitors food supply and
(quality). demand and other key indicators for assessing the overall food
security situation in all countries of the world. An initiative of the
> Complementing other reports and resources. The countries where Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), it
GHI scores are high—indicating that calories are chronically issues regular reports on prevailing conditions and provides early
insufficient and/or children’s growth and well-being have been warnings of impending food crises at the country or regional level.
hampered by undernutrition—are particularly vulnerable to food https://www.fao.org/giews/en/
crises and stresses, which are reported by other sources.
> Integrated Food Security Phase Classification (IPC)
Other resources offer additional important perspectives on hunger The Integrated Food Security Phase Classification (IPC) is an ini-
and malnutrition. The following is a selection and brief description tiative led by 15 international development agencies to improve
of those resources. analysis and decision-making on food security and nutrition. It
provides a common scale for classifying the severity and magni-
tude of food insecurity and acute malnutrition. The IPC acute food
insecurity scale has five classifications: minimal/none, stressed,
crisis, emergency, and catastrophe/famine. There are also IPC
scales for acute malnutrition and chronic food insecurity.
https://www.ipcinfo.org/

> Global Report on Food Crises (GRFC)

This annual report produced by the Global Network against Food
Crises—an international alliance working to address the root
causes of extreme hunger—gives an overview and country-­by-
country update on acute, crisis-level food insecurity. Based on
the Integrated Food Security Phase Classification (IPC) assess-
ments, it triangulates recent available food security assessments,
even if they are partial and from different sources.
https://www.fsinplatform.org/report/global-report-food-crises-2024

58 Resources for Understanding Hunger and Malnutrition | 2024 Global Hunger Index
 Resources on Food Resources on
and Nutrition Security the Right to Food

> The State of Food Security and Nutrition in the World (SOFI) > State of the Right to Food and Nutrition Report
This flagship annual report is jointly prepared by FAO, the This annual report—produced by the Global Network for the Right
International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD), the United to Food and Nutrition—provides a yearly snapshot of develop-
Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF), the World Food Programme ments concerning the right to food and nutrition at the country
(WFP), and the World Health Organization (WHO). It is designed and international levels. It is designed to complement FAO’s
to chart progress toward ending hunger, achieving food security, State of Food Security and Nutrition in the World (SOFI) report
and improving nutrition and to provide an in-depth analysis of by taking a human rights perspective and shedding light on the
key challenges for achieving this goal in the context of the 2030 structural causes of hunger and malnutrition.
Agenda for Sustainable Development. https://www.righttofoodandnutrition.org
https://www.fao.org/publications/sofi

> Global Nutrition Report (GNR) Resources on

The Global Nutrition Report—published by a multistakeholder Food Policy
initiative—reports on countries’ progress toward meeting global
nutrition targets, evaluates the impact of poor diets on human > Global Food Policy Report
health and the planet, assesses the nutrition financing land- This flagship report from the International Food Policy Research
scape, and provides a comprehensive overview of reporting on Institute (IFPRI) reviews major food policy issues and develop-
past Nutrition for Growth (N4G) commitments. ments and examines emerging challenges and opportunities for
https://globalnutritionreport.org reducing hunger and poverty. It is published annually.
https://gfpr.ifpri.info
> Voices of the Hungry Project
This project of FAO uses the Food Insecurity Experience Scale
(FIES), an experience-based measure of household or individual
food security. The FIES relies on eight survey questions included
in the Gallup World Poll, which covers 90% of the world’s popu-
lation. The project provides up-to-date, internationally compara-
ble information about food insecurity that is policy-relevant and
actionable. A suite of resources and research based on the FIES
is available.
https://www.fao.org/in-action/voices-of-the-hungry/resources/
research/en/

> Global Food Security Index (GFSI)

The annual Global Food Security Index (GFSI) is based on a model
constructed from 58 indicators that measure drivers of food secu-
rity across 113 low-, middle-, and high-income countries. The
indicators fall into four categories: food affordability, food avail-
ability, food quality and safety, and natural resources and resil-
ience. The index was designed and constructed by Economist
Impact, part of the Economist Group.
https://impact.economist.com/sustainability/project/
food-security-index/

2024 Global Hunger Index | Resources for Understanding Hunger and Malnutrition59
PARTNERS

Who we are Who we are Who we are

Welthungerhilfe (WHH) is one of the largest Concern Worldwide is a nongovernmental, The Institute for International Law of
nongovernmental development and human- international, humanitarian organization that Peace and Armed Conflict (IFHV) is one of
itarian aid organizations in Germany and is strives for a world free from poverty, fear Europe’s leading academic institutions to
politically and denominationally independent. and oppression. We deliver life-saving and conduct research on humanitarian crises.
It was founded in 1962 as the German sec- life-changing interventions to the world’s Coming from a strong tradition of interna-
tion of the Freedom from Hunger Campaign, poorest and most vulnerable people. From tional humanitarian law and human rights
one of the first global initiatives to fight hun- rapid emergency response to innovative law, the institute today combines high-level
ger, initiated by the Food and Agriculture development programming, we go to the interdisciplinary research from the disciplines
Organization of the United Nations (FAO). hardest-to-reach places to make sure that of public law, social science, geosciences and
no one is left behind. public health.
What we do
We implement measures ranging from rapid What we do What we do
emergency relief to rehabilitation to long- Our mission is to help people living in extreme We examine the origins of humanitarian cri-
term development cooperation projects with poverty achieve major improvements in their ses; the legal parameters before, during and
national and international partner organiza- lives which last and spread without ongoing in the aftermath of crises; the effects crises
tions. As part of an active civil society, we support from Concern. have on people, societies and institutions;
advocate for the political change needed to and the responses states, international orga-
achieve Zero Hunger. We address inequalities How we work nizations and non-governmental organiza-
and foster sustainable development. To achieve our mission, we engage in long- tions give to crises. We see it as part of our
term development work, build resilience, mandate to promote international humanitar-
How we work respond to emergency situations, and seek ian law and humanitarian principles.
Because our goal is to sustainably improve to address the root causes of poverty through
livelihoods in the long run, our work focuses our development education and advo- How we work
on capacity building. We aim to strengthen cacy work. At the IFHV, we are committed to sharing our
structures from the bottom up and work research findings regularly through a variety
together with local partner organizations to Our vision of channels. Our dedicated team of research-
ensure the long-term success of our work. In We believe in a world where no one lives in ers, including both doctoral and postdoc-
addition, we raise public awareness and advo- poverty, fear, or oppression; where all have toral scholars, engages in extensive (inter-)
cate with national and international policy- access to a decent standard of living and the national research projects. Additionally, they
makers. We thereby strive to address the root opportunities and choices essential to a long, frequently provide expert commentary on
causes of hunger and poverty. In a shared healthy, and creative life; and where everyone current crises in the public media.
mission with many other organizations, our is treated with dignity and respect.
goal is to make ourselves redundant. Our vision
The IFHV contributes to the professional-
Our vision ization of the education of humanitarian aid
A world in which all people can exercise their workers. We need a new generation of com-
right to lead a self-determined life in dignity mitted and professionally trained ‘humani-
and justice, free from hunger and poverty. tarians’, if we want to master the challenges
that humanitarian crises pose to us today.
Over 30 years ago, we launched the NOHA
Master in Humanitarian Action. This lead-
ing two-year program prepares students for
careers in humanitarian aid. Additionally, our
newly established academy for humanitarian
action (aha) supports lifelong learning.

60 Partners | 2024 Global Hunger Index

19 YEARS OF TRACKING WORLD HUNGER
Since 2006, the Global Hunger Index has been reporting on the state of
hunger globally, by region, and by country.

Case Studies in Measures The Vicious Circle of Financial Crisis and The Crisis of Child Taming Price Ensuring
the Post-Conflict Being Taken to Hunger and Poverty Gender Inequality Undernutrition Spikes and Sustainable Food
Countries of Reduce Acute Excessive Food Security Under
Afghanistan and Undernourishment Price Volatility Land, Water, and
Sierra Leone and Chronic Hunger Energy Stresses

2017 2018 2019

To learn more, visit www.globalhungerindex.org.

GLOBAL HUNGER INDEX GLOBAL HUNGER INDEX GLOBAL HUNGER INDEX

2017 GLOBAL HUNGER INDEX

2018 GLOBAL HUNGER INDEX

2019 GLOBAL HUNGER INDEX

Deutsche Welthungerhilfe e. V. Concern Worldwide

Friedrich-Ebert-Straße 1 52-55 Lower Camden Street

53173 Bonn, Germany Dublin 2, Ireland
THE INEQUALITIES OF HUNGER FORCED MIGRATION AND HUNGER
Tel. +49 228-2288-0
Fax +49 228-2288-333
Tel. +353 1-417-7700
Fax +353 1-475-7362
THE CHALLENGE OF HUNGER AND CLIMATE CHANGE
www.welthungerhilfe.de www.concern.net
Member of Alliance2015 Member of Alliance2015

GHI_2019_Umschlag_RZ.indd 3 03.09.19 17:03

Building Resilience The Challenge of Armed Conflict Getting to Zero The Inequalities Forced Migration The Challenge
to Achieve Food and Hidden Hunger and the Challenge Hunger of Hunger and Hunger of Hunger and
Nutrition Security of Hunger Climate Change

2020 2022 2023 2024

GLOBAL HUNGER INDEX GLOBAL HUNGER INDEX GLOBAL HUNGER INDEX GLOBAL HUNGER INDEX
2020 GLOBAL HUNGER INDEX

2024 GLOBAL HUNGER INDEX

2022 GLOBAL HUNGER INDEX

2023 GLOBAL HUNGER INDEX

ONE DECADE TO ZERO HUNGER FOOD SYSTEMS TRANSFORMATION AND LOCAL GOVERNANCE THE POWER OF YOUTH IN SHAPING FOOD SYSTEMS HOW GENDER JUSTICE CAN ADVANCE CLIMATE RESILIENCE
LINKING HEALTH AND SUSTAINABLE FOOD SYSTEMS AND ZERO HUNGER

GHI_2020_Umschlag_RZ.indd 3 22.09.20 10:07

One Decade to Hunger and Food Food Systems The Power of How Gender
Zero Hunger: Systems in Conflict Transformation Youth in Shaping Justice Can
Linking Health and Settings and Local Food Systems Advance Climate
Sustainable Food Governance Resilience and
Systems Zero Hunger

Visit www.globalhungerindex.org to find:

> more information about the 2024 Global Hunger Index > country profiles
> interactive map > translations of the full report
> synopsis > past editions of the GHI
IMPRINT

Deutsche Welthungerhilfe e. V. Concern Worldwide Cover photography:

Friedrich-Ebert-Straße 1 52-55 Lower Camden Street Fane Dayitoni and other female lead farmers use climate-resilient permaculture
53173 Bonn, Germany Dublin 2, Ireland techniques to cultivate their land in the Mangochi District, Malawi. Their efforts
Tel. +49 228-2288-0 Tel. +353 1-417-7700 hold promise for improving food and nutrition security and advancing gender justice
Fax +49 228-2288-333 Fax +353 1-475-7362 in a context of increasing droughts and floods. Thoko Chikondi/Welthungerhilfe,
www.welthungerhilfe.de www.concern.net Malawi, 2024

Secretary General / CEO: Chief Executive Officer: Other photo credits:

Mathias Mogge David Regan Page 2: Jessica Kuehnle/Welthungerhilfe, South Sudan, 2022; page 6: Roger Lo
Guarro/CESVI, Ethiopia, 2024; page 24: Stefanie Glinski/Welthungerhilfe, Uganda,
Institute for International Law of 2023; page 29: Welthungerhilfe, Nepal, 2024; page 31: Abdulahi Abdi Isack/
Peace and Armed Conflict (IFHV) NORAD/SYPD/Welthungerhilfe, Somalia, 2024; page 33: Concern Worldwide,
Ruhr University Bochum (RUB) Malawi, 2021; page 34: Eugene Ikua/Concern Worldwide, Chad, 2023; page 36:
Massenbergstraße 11 Mumit M/Concern Worldwide, Bangladesh, 2023; page 38: Concern Worldwide,
44787 Bochum, Germany Yemen, 2024.
Tel. +49 234-32 273 66
www.ifhv.de Acknowledgments:
We gratefully acknowledge the Statistics Division (ESS) of the Food and Agriculture
Executive Director: Organization of the United Nations (FAO) as well as the World Health Organization
Pierre Thielbörger (WHO) for their invaluable support throughout the data compilation process. We
thank the staff of Concern Worldwide and Welthungerhilfe (WHH) for their contri-
Recommended citation: Welthungerhilfe (WHH), Concern Worldwide, and Institute butions, and especially Dennis Isaak Lux (WHH) and Patrick Beer (IFHV) for their
for International Law of Peace and Armed Conflict (IFHV). 2024. 2024 Global assistance on the GHI team. We thank Gershon Feder for conducting a peer review
Hunger Index: How Gender Justice Can Advance Climate Resilience and Zero Hunger. of this report. We appreciate Grant Price’s careful review of the report. Finally, we
Bonn/Berlin: WHH; Dublin: Concern Worldwide; Bochum: IFHV. gratefully acknowledge Doris Wiesmann and Jill Bernstein for their ongoing sup-
port and guidance for the GHI.
Editorial team: Welthungerhilfe (WHH): Miriam Wiemers, Marilena Bachmeier, Asja
Hanano; Concern Worldwide: Réiseal Ní Chéilleachair, Aimée Vaughan, Connell Disclaimer:
Foley, IFHV: Holger Mann, Daniel Weller, Katrin Radtke The boundaries and names shown and the designations used on the map(s) do
not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of Welthungerhilfe
Guest authors: Nitya Rao, University of East Anglia; Siera Vercillo, Wageningen (WHH), Concern Worldwide, or the Institute for International Law of Peace and
University; Gertrude Dzifa Torvikey, University of Ghana Armed Conflict (IFHV) concerning the legal status of any country, territory,
city or area or of its authorities, or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers
Editor: Heidi Fritschel and boundaries.

Design: muehlhausmoers corporate communications gmbh,

Cologne, Germany

Printing: Köllen Druck+Verlag GmbH,

Bonn, Germany Creative Commons:
This publication is available under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International
License (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0), https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/.

Website:
Ordering number: 460-9655 www.globalhungerindex.org

ISBN: 978-1-7396018-7-4
To learn more, visit www.globalhungerindex.org, #GHI2024

Deutsche Welthungerhilfe e. V. Concern Worldwide Institute for International Law of

Peace and Armed Conflict (IFHV)
Friedrich-Ebert-Straße 1 52-55 Lower Camden Street
53173 Bonn, Germany Dublin 2, Ireland Ruhr University Bochum (RUB)
Tel. +49 228-2288-0 Tel. +353 1-417-7700 Massenbergstraße 11
Fax +49 228-2288-333 Fax +353 1-475-7362 44787 Bochum, Germany
www.welthungerhilfe.de www.concern.net Tel. +49 234-32 273 66
Member of Alliance2015 Member of Alliance2015 www.ifhv.de