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Media, Communication
and the Struggle for
Democratic Change
Case Studies on Contested Transitions

Edited by
Katrin Voltmer · Christian Christensen
Irene Neverla · Nicole Stremlau
Barbara Thomass · Nebojša Vladisavljević
Herman Wasserman
Media, Communication and the Struggle for
Democratic Change
 Katrin Voltmer • Christian Christensen
Irene Neverla • Nicole Stremlau
Barbara Thomass
Nebojša Vladisavljević • Herman Wasserman
Editors

Media,
Communication and
the Struggle for
Democratic Change
Case Studies on Contested Transitions
Editors
Katrin Voltmer Christian Christensen
University of Leeds Stockholm University
Leeds, UK Stockholm, Sweden

Irene Neverla Nicole Stremlau

University of Hamburg University of Oxford
Hamburg, Germany Oxford, UK
University of Johannesburg
Barbara Thomass Johannesburg, South Africa
Ruhr-University Bochum
Bochum, Germany Nebojša Vladisavljević
University of Belgrade
Herman Wasserman Belgrade, Serbia
University of Cape Town
Cape Town, South Africa

ISBN 978-3-030-16747-9    ISBN 978-3-030-16748-6 (eBook)

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-16748-6

© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Springer
Nature Switzerland AG 2019
This work is subject to copyright. All rights are solely and exclusively licensed by the
Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of
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The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this
publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are
exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use.
The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information
in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the pub-
lisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, express or implied, with respect to the
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Cover illustration: © Alex Linch /shutterstock.com

Cover design: eStudioCalamar

This Palgrave Macmillan imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature
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The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland
 Acknowledgements

The findings presented in this book are based on an international research

project—Media, Conflict and Democratisation (MeCoDEM)—that was
funded by the European Union’s Framework Seven Programme (grant
agreement no. 613370), 2014–2017. We are grateful for this generous
support that enabled us to conduct extended fieldwork with a group of
scholars from seven countries—Egypt, Germany, Kenya, Serbia, South
Africa, Sweden and the United Kingdom.
During the course of this project, we have greatly benefited from the
support and advice of our project officers at the European Commission,
Dr Simon Schunz and Dr Anne Nielsen. We are also indebted to the
members of our Advisory Board who generously shared their experience
and guidance with us: Dr Dale McKinley, Dr Helmut Osang, Mr Simon
Haselock and Professors John Downey, Robert Mattes and
Terhi Rantanen.
Many more people who are not represented as authors in this book have
been a part of the project and have left their intellectual footprint: Nino
Abzianidze, Giorgia Aiello, Filip Ejdus, Charlotte Elliott-Harvey, Antje
Glück, Hendrik Kraetzschmar, Davor Marco, Toussaint Nothias, Katy
Parry, Alisha Patel, Marco Pinfari, Laura Schneider and Ana Stojiljkovic.
Emma Tsoneva, our project manager, has been life-saving on more
than one occasion and her good humour and organizational foresight
have made a big project spanning across 10,000 kilometres enjoyable and
seemingly easy.

v
vi ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We would particularly like to thank our interview partners—journalists,

political activists and political leaders—in Egypt, Kenya, Serbia and South
Africa as well as practitioners from international media assistance organiza-
tions. Their insights have been invaluable and eye-opening and will inspire
our research in the years to come.
 Contents

1 Introduction: Democratization Conflicts as

Communicative Contestations  1
Katrin Voltmer

Part I Mediating Democratization Conflicts: Communication

Technologies, Journalism and Normative Ambiguities  33

2 Media, Power, Citizenship: The Mediatization of

Democratic Change 35
Katrin Voltmer and Lone Sorensen

3 Conflict-Sensitive Journalism? Journalistic Role

Perceptions and Practices in Democratization Conflicts 59
Judith Lohner, Irene Neverla, and Sandra Banjac

4 Peace, But at What Cost? Media Coverage of Elections

and Conflict in Kenya 83
Nic Cheeseman, Jacinta Maweu, and Seth Ouma

vii
viii CONTENTS

Part II Mobilizing Participation: Civil Society, Activism and

Political Parties 107

5 Creativity and Strategy: How Civil Society Organizations

Communicate and Mobilize in Egypt, Kenya, Serbia and
South Africa109
Tanja Bosch, Wallace Chuma, Herman Wasserman, and
Rebecca Pointer

6 Tweeting in Precarious Times: Comparing Twitter Use

During the 2013 General Election in Kenya and the 2012
Presidential Election in Egypt133
Walid Al-Saqaf and Christian Christensen

7 Minority Media, Democratization Conflicts and the

Politicization of Coptic Communal Identity in Egypt159
Yosra El Gendi and Gamal Soltan

Part III Communicating Power: Institution Building,

Strategic Communication and Accountability 183

8 Hybrid Governance, Strategic Communication and the

Quest for Institutional Legitimacy185
Gianluca Iazzolino and Nicole Stremlau

9 Communicating Power and Resistance in Democratic

Decline: The 2015 Smear Campaign against Serbia’s
Ombudsman205
Nebojša Vladisavljević, Aleksandra Krstić, and Jovica Pavlović

10 Dialogue of the Deaf: Listening on Twitter and

Democratic Responsiveness during the 2015 South
African State of the Nation Address229
Lone Sorensen, Heather Ford, Walid Al-Saqaf, and Tanja
Bosch
 CONTENTS ix

Part IV International Perspectives 255

11 The Participation Approach in Media Development

Cooperation257
Ines Drefs and Barbara Thomass

12 Conclusion: How Does the Concept of Public

Communication Challenge the Concept of a Media
System?281
Terhi Rantanen

Index297
 Notes on Contributors

Walid Al-Saqaf is Senior Lecturer of Journalism and Media Technology

at Södertörn University, Stockholm, Sweden, specializing in social media,
data journalism and blockchain technology.
Sandra Banjac is a research associate and PhD candidate at the University
of Vienna, Austria.
Tanja Bosch is Associate Professor of Media Studies and Production at
the Centre for Film & Media Studies, University of Cape Town, South
Africa. She is the author of Broadcasting Democracy: Radio and Identity in
South Africa (2017).
Nic Cheeseman is Professor of Democracy at University of Birmingham
and the author of Democracy in Africa (2015) and How to Rig an Election
(2018). He is also the founding editor of the Oxford Encyclopedia of
African Politics and the Oxford Dictionary of African Politics (both 2019)
Christian Christensen is Professor of Journalism at Stockholm
University, Sweden.
Wallace Chuma is Associate Professor of Media Studies in the Centre for
Film & Media Studies, University of Cape Town, South Africa.
Ines Drefs is an International Advisor for Open Science at the Leibniz
Information Centre for Economics in Hamburg, Germany.
Yosra El Gendi is a researcher at the Department of Political Science of
the American University in Cairo.

xi
xii Notes on Contributors

Heather Ford is a senior lecturer specializing in digital cultures in the

School of Arts and Media at the University of New South Wales, Sydney.
Gianluca Iazzolino is a research fellow at the Department of International
Development and the Firoz Lalji Centre for Africa, London School of
Economics and Political Science, UK.
Aleksandra Krstić is Assistant Professor of Media Studies and Journalism
at the Department of Political Science, University of Belgrade.
Judith Lohner is a project manager at the German Rectors’ Conference.
She holds a PhD in Journalism and Communication Studies.
Jacinta Maweu is Senior Lecturer in Philosophy and Media Studies at
University of Nairobi, Kenya.
Irene Neverla is a professor emerita at the Institute of Journalism and
Mass Communication at University of Hamburg, Germany.
Seth Ouma is a research associate with the Africa Centre for People,
Institutions and Society (Acepis) and holds an MSc from the University of
Oxford.
Jovica Pavlović is a research assistant at the Institute of European
Studies, Serbia.
Rebecca Pointer is a PhD candidate at Wits School of Governance,
University of Witwatersrand. She is exploring the communication strate-
gies of community-based organizations in South Africa.
Terhi Rantanen is Professor of Global Media and Communications at
the Department of Media and Communications at the London School of
Economics and Political Science, UK. Her books include When News Was
New (2009) and The Media and Globalization (2005).
Gamal Soltan is an associate professor at the American University in
Cairo and specializes in Middle Eastern politics and foreign policy.
Lone Sorensen is a senior lecturer in the Department of Media,
Journalism and Film at University of Huddersfield, UK. Her research cen-
tres on the intersection between populist politics, political performance
and social media.
Nicole Stremlau is Research Professor of Humanities at University of
Johannesburg, South Africa, and Head of the Programme in Comparative
 Notes on Contributors  xiii

Media, Law and Policy, Centre for Socio-Legal Studies, at University of

Oxford, UK. She is the author of Media, Conflict and the State in Africa
(2018).
Barbara Thomass is Professor for International Comparison of Media
Systems at the Ruhr-University Bochum, Germany.
Nebojša Vladisavljević is an associate professor in the Department of
Political Science, University of Belgrade, Serbia. He is the author of
Serbia’s Antibureaucratic Revolution (2008).
Katrin Voltmer is Professor of Communication and Democracy at
University of Leeds, UK. She is the author of The Media in Transitional
Democracies (2013), which won the 2017 International Journal of Press/
Politics Book Award.
Herman Wasserman is Professor of Media Studies and Director of the
Centre for Film & Media Studies, University of Cape Town, South Africa.
He edits the journal African Journalism Studies. His books include Media,
Geopolitics, and Power (2018).
 List of Figures

Fig. 6.1 Comparing the Twitter activity during the Egypt and Kenya
elections145
Fig. 6.2 Comparing the share of each of the main candidates in the
Egypt and Kenya elections 146
Fig. 6.3 Density of interaction using mentions 147
Fig. 6.4 Comparing the average of the various centrality metrics for the
Egypt and Kenya elections (The values for betweenness
centrality were multiplied by 106 and closeness centrality by
104 for visualization purposes) 149
Fig. 6.5 Interaction among tweeters about the candidates. (Color figure
online)150
Fig. 9.1 Tweets and retweets over the course of conflict 218
Fig. 9.2 Top 15 anti-ombudsman trolls’ activity 219
Fig. 10.1 Selected tweets by @PresidencyZA and @SAPresident and
volume of retweets in the period 1–12 February 237
Fig. 10.2 The top five Twitter accounts in terms of mentions by others,
using #SONA2015 in the period 1–12 February 2015 238
Fig. 10.3 The flow between @PresidencyZA and other Twitter accounts
(red means incoming, blue outgoing), using #SONA2015 in
the period 1–12 February. (Color figure online) 239
Fig. 10.4 Volumes of total replies and dismissive replies to Presidency
tweets. Percentages indicate the rate of dismissive replies of the
total replies 241
Fig. 10.5 Volume of tweets (including retweets) in the period 1–12
February 2015 using the hashtag #SONA2015 (timeline in
GMT in day units) 241

xv
 List of Tables

Table 1.1 Selected case studies of democratization conflicts 21

Table 2.1 Internet users (% of population) 52
Table 6.1 Number of tweets and users and the sampling period for the
two cases 144
Table 6.2 Comparing the centrality metrics of the Egypt and Kenya
election cases 148
Table 6.3 Comparing mentions of the candidates in the two cases 150
Table 9.1 Selected media outlets 212
Table 9.2 Actors and their opponents 214
Table 9.3 Tone of reporting by government influence on media [Means
(N)]215
Table 10.1 Function of replies to Presidency tweets 250

xvii
 CHAPTER 1

Introduction: Democratization Conflicts

as Communicative Contestations

Katrin Voltmer

Since the fall of the Soviet bloc in the early 1990s of the last century,
democracy has spread across the globe to an unprecedented degree and
even reached countries whose cultural and political traditions are only
loosely connected to the West, where democracy—as it is practised today—
has its historical roots. All these transitions were bitterly fought for, often
over decades of struggle and with incredible human costs. However, for
many who celebrated the end of dictatorship some years ago, democracy
has not lived up to their expectations, and disillusionment with the new
political order is growing among citizens in new democracies. Many of
them have experienced extreme economic hardship in the aftermath of the
transition, as post-transitional countries and regimes spiralled into eco-
nomic recession or introduced harsh austerity measures. There is also wide-
spread disappointment with the quality of the new democratic order, which
often seems to remain at a rather superficial, procedural level without trans-
lating into effective representation and meaningful citizenship. In many
countries, democratic development seems to have come to a standstill

K. Voltmer (*)
School of Media and Communication, University of Leeds, Leeds, UK
e-mail: [email protected]

© The Author(s) 2019 1

K. Voltmer et al. (eds.), Media, Communication and the Struggle for
Democratic Change,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-16748-6_1
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