Q1.

Underwater hull survey of large ships is now permitted on

occasions as an alternative to Dry-docking
(a) State with reasons what parts should be inspected during such a
survey.
(b) Describe briefly how such a survey is conducted from a position
on board the vessel concerned.

Q1. Underwater Hull Survey of Large Ships

(a) Parts to be inspected during an Underwater Hull Survey
1. Hull Surface
 Reason: The hull surface must be inspected for signs of corrosion,
fouling, paint degradation, and structural damage. Ensuring the
integrity of the hull surface is crucial for maintaining the vessel’s
hydrodynamic efficiency and preventing leaks or structural failures.
2. Propellers
 Reason: The propellers need to be inspected for signs of cavitation,
erosion, and damage to the blades. Properly functioning propellers
are essential for efficient propulsion and maneuverability.
3. Rudder and Rudder Stock
 Reason: Inspection of the rudder and rudder stock ensures they are
free from damage, corrosion, and excessive wear. Any issues here
can affect the vessel’s steering and overall handling.
4. Sea Chests and Gratings
 Reason: These areas should be checked for blockages, marine
growth, and the condition of the gratings. Clear and well-maintained
sea chests are vital for cooling water flow to the engine and other
systems ensuring adequate.
5. Cathodic Protection System

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  Reason: The condition of sacrificial anodes and impressed current
cathodic protection (ICCP) systems must be inspected to ensure they
are functioning correctly, preventing corrosion of the hull.
6. Bow and Stern Thrusters
 Reason: Thrusters should be inspected for any signs of damage or
fouling to ensure they are operational, as they play a critical role in
maneuvering the vessel in port and during docking operations.

(b) Conducting the Survey from On Board the Vessel

1. Preparation
 Planning: Determine the scope of the survey and identify specific
areas to be inspected based on the vessel’s maintenance history and
any known issues.
 Permits and Approvals: Ensure all necessary permits and approvals
from maritime authorities and classification societies are in place.
 Diver/ROV Team: Engage a certified diving team or remotely
operated vehicle (ROV) operators, ensuring they have the necessary
equipment and expertise.
2. Equipment Setup
 On-Board Monitoring: Set up video monitors and communication
equipment in the ship’s control room or a designated monitoring area
to observe the survey in real-time.
 Safety Briefing: Conduct a safety briefing with the diving or ROV
team, ensuring clear communication protocols and emergency
procedures are in place.
3. Survey Execution
 Deployment of Divers/ROVs: Deploy the divers or ROVs to the
water, ensuring they have clear instructions on the areas to inspect.
 Real-Time Monitoring: Monitor the inspection in real-time via video
feeds. Crew members on board can communicate with the divers or

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 ROV operators to guide the inspection and focus on areas of
concern.
 Detailed Inspection: Conduct a detailed visual inspection of the hull,
propellers, rudder, sea chests, anodes, and thrusters. Use
underwater cameras to capture high-resolution images and videos for
documentation.
4. Documentation
 Recording Findings: Record all findings from the video feeds and
any measurements taken by the divers or ROVs. Note any areas
requiring further attention or potential repairs.
 Analysis and Reporting: Analyze the collected data and prepare a
comprehensive report detailing the condition of the inspected areas.
Include images, videos, and any other relevant documentation.
5. Post-Survey Actions
 Recommendations: Based on the findings, provide
recommendations for any necessary repairs, maintenance, or further
inspections.
 Follow-Up: Plan follow-up actions based on the survey results, which
may include scheduling repairs or additional inspections in specific
areas of concern.
Summary
An underwater hull survey is a comprehensive inspection conducted to
assess the condition of various underwater components of a vessel while it
remains afloat. This method is beneficial as it reduces downtime and costs
associated with dry-docking. However, it requires careful planning, skilled
personnel, and proper equipment to ensure accurate and thorough
inspections.

Additional facts regarding underwater survey

Checking Pintle Clearance and Other Clearances during an
Underwater Hull Survey

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Pintle Clearance
 Definition: Pintle clearance refers to the gap between the rudder
pintle (the pin or bolt on which the rudder pivots) and the gudgeon or
bearing it sits in.
 Importance: Excessive pintle clearance can indicate wear and
potential issues with the rudder's performance and structural integrity.
Propeller Shaft Clearance: The clearance between the propeller shaft and
the stern tube bearing is crucial for ensuring smooth operation and
preventing vibrations.
Stern Tube Clearance: The clearance between the stern tube and the
shaft must be within specified limits to prevent water ingress and ensure
proper lubrication.
Pictures and navigational information are relayed back and video recorded
along with the plate thickness giving the surveyor an integrated visual
record of all relevant information. In addition a plate thickness print-out can
be produced and/or an audio recording.

Q2. (i) Define the term "freeboard" (2)

(ii) Sketch and describe a freeboard marking. (3)
(i) State the factor that govern the position of these marking. (2)
(iv) State where the freeboard mark is located and the method
employed to ensure that they cannot be altered. (3)

(i) Definition of "Freeboard"

Freeboard is the vertical distance measured from the waterline to the upper
edge of the deck plating at the side of the deck amidships. It represents the
safety margin above the waterline to prevent water from entering the ship
and ensures the vessel has sufficient reserve buoyancy.

(ii) Sketch and Description of a Freeboard Marking

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Sketch of a Freeboard Marking:

Description:
 Deck Line: A horizontal line marked on each side of the ship at
amidships, indicating the position of the uppermost continuous deck.
 Plimsoll Mark (Load Line Disc): A circle intersected by a horizontal
line, with the center of the circle placed amidships. This line
represents the maximum allowable draft in saltwater during summer
conditions.

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  Load Lines: Horizontal lines extending from the Plimsoll mark, each
representing different loading conditions and water densities. They
are labeled as follows:
o WNA: Winter North Atlantic
o W: Winter
o S: Summer
o T: Tropical
o F: Fresh Water
(iii) Factors Governing the Position of Freeboard Markings
1. Vessel Type and Design: The size, type, and design of the ship,
including its stability, watertight integrity, and structural strength.
2. Regulatory Requirements: International regulations and
conventions, such as the International Convention on Load Lines
(ICLL), which stipulate safety standards based on vessel size, type,
and intended service area.
(iv) Location of Freeboard Mark and Method to Ensure They Cannot
Be Altered
Location:
 The freeboard mark is located amidships on both sides of the vessel.
It is positioned in a prominent location to be easily visible to
inspectors and operators.
Method to Ensure They Cannot Be Altered:
 Permanent Markings: The freeboard marks are permanently
engraved or welded onto the hull, making them difficult to alter or
remove without detection.
 Verification and Certification: Regular inspections by classification
societies and maritime authorities ensure that the freeboard markings
remain intact and comply with regulatory standards. Any alterations
would be detected during these inspections, leading to penalties and
corrective actions.

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By adhering to these methods and regulations, the integrity of the
freeboard markings is maintained, ensuring the vessel’s compliance with
safety standards and operational limits.
(Additional information for clarity:
The term "Lumber" on a Plimsoll marking refers to a special set of load
lines for ships carrying timber deck cargoes. These marks indicate the
maximum permissible draft and the corresponding freeboard when the ship
is loaded with timber on deck. Timber or lumber deck cargoes have
different loading conditions compared to other types of cargo, and thus
require separate load line markings.
Lumber Load Line Marks
When a ship is carrying timber or lumber, it can be loaded deeper into the
water than when it is carrying other types of cargo. This is because timber
deck cargoes provide additional buoyancy and stability, reducing the risk of
capsizing.)

Q3 i) List the name of the drawing being used on board which has
been endorsed by the Class regarding the Vessel's construction. (4)
ii) Draw a shell expansion plan and describe its function concerning
vessel construction and repair. (6)

i) Names of Drawings Endorsed by the Class Regarding Vessel's

Construction
1. General Arrangement Plan: This drawing shows the layout of the
entire vessel, including decks, compartments, and major
equipment. It provides an overview of the vessel's design and
spatial organization.
2. Midship Section: This drawing provides a detailed cross-section of
the vessel at its widest point (midship), showing structural
components like frames, decks, bulkheads, and hull plating.

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 3. Lines Plan: A detailed drawing showing the shape of the hull in
three views (profile, plan, and body plan) to provide the geometric
shape of the vessel.
4. Profile and Deck Plans: These drawings show the side view
(profile) and horizontal sections (deck plans) of the vessel, detailing
the arrangement and structure of each deck.
5. Shell Expansion Plan: This drawing illustrates the layout of the hull
plating, including the arrangement of plates, their sizes, and the
location of welds and butts.
These drawings are essential for the construction, operation, and
maintenance of the vessel, and they must be approved by the classification
society to ensure compliance with safety and structural standards.
ii) Shell Expansion Plan
Sketch of a Shell Expansion Plan:

Description and Function: A shell expansion plan is a detailed technical

drawing used in shipbuilding and repair to depict the entire hull surface of a
vessel in a flattened or expanded view. It shows the arrangement,
dimensions, and identification of the plates that make up the hull structure.
Key Components and Functions:

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 1. Plate Layout: The plan shows how each plate is arranged on the
hull, including their shapes, sizes, and positions. This helps in
understanding the construction sequence and identifying specific
plates for maintenance or replacement.
2. Seams and Butts: It details the seams (longitudinal joints between
plates) and butts (transverse joints between plates), showing where
each plate is welded to its neighbors.
3. Plate Identification: Each plate is usually labeled with an
identification number or code, facilitating easy reference during
construction or repairs.
4. Thickness and Material: The plan indicates the thickness and
material of each plate, ensuring the correct specifications are used for
strength and durability.
5. Weld Details: Information on the type and location of welds is
provided, which is crucial for maintaining the structural integrity of the
hull.
Functions Concerning Vessel Construction and Repair:
 Construction: The shell expansion plan is essential for fabricating
the hull plates accurately. It guides the shipyard in cutting, shaping,
and assembling the plates to form the vessel's hull.
 Repair: During repairs, the plan helps identify damaged plates and
their exact specifications, enabling precise replacements or repairs. It
ensures that the repaired sections match the original design and
maintain the vessel’s structural integrity.
 Inspection and Maintenance: It is used by surveyors and
maintenance personnel to locate specific areas of the hull for
inspection, ensuring that all parts of the hull are checked and
maintained according to the standards.
 Modifications: When modifications or upgrades are required, the
shell expansion plan provides a reference for understanding the
existing structure and planning the changes without compromising
the hull's integrity.

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By providing a comprehensive view of the hull plating, the shell expansion
plan is an indispensable tool in the construction, maintenance, and repair of
ships, ensuring they remain safe, seaworthy, and compliant with
classification society standards.
(Words to be clarified: The selected text "spatial organization" refers to the
arrangement and organization of space within the vessel. It emphasizes
how different components, compartments, decks, and equipment are
structured and laid out in a logical and efficient manner to optimize the
functionality and usability of the vessel. Spatial organization plays a crucial
role in ensuring smooth operations, effective navigation, and safety
onboard the vessel. By carefully planning and designing the spatial
organization, maritime architects can create a well-organized and functional
layout that maximizes the use of available space and enhances the overall
performance of the vessel.)

Q4. (1) Sketch how the watertight bulkheads are usually constructed
and stiffened.
(ii) Describe the test carried out to prove its water tightness.
(iii) Describe function of transverse bulkheads frame structural and
safety points of view.
Sketch of a Watertight Bulkhead:

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Description:
 Bulkhead Plating: The main surface of the bulkhead, usually made
of steel or other strong material, forming a barrier to water.
 Vertical Stiffeners (Angle Bars): Vertical stiffeners are welded to
the bulkhead plating to provide rigidity and strength, preventing
buckling under pressure.
 Horizontal Stringers: Horizontal members that further reinforce the
bulkhead, dividing it into smaller sections to improve its ability to
withstand pressure.
 Deck and Bottom Connections: The bulkhead is welded to the deck
above and the bottom of the hull below, ensuring a watertight seal
and structural continuity.
(ii) Test to Prove Watertightness
Hydrostatic Test:
1. Procedure:
o Sealing: All openings, such as doors and hatches, are securely
closed and sealed.

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 o Filling with Water: The compartment adjacent to the bulkhead
is filled with water up to a specified level, usually to the load line
or the maximum expected water level.
o Inspection: The bulkhead is inspected for leaks. Any signs of
water ingress through welds, seams, or fittings indicate a failure
of watertight integrity.
2. Purpose:
o To ensure the bulkhead can withstand water pressure without
leaking, verifying its capability to act as a barrier in case of
flooding.
Hose Test:
1. Procedure:
o Hosing Down: A high-pressure hose is used to spray water
directly onto the bulkhead seams, welds, and fittings.
o Inspection: The bulkhead is inspected from the opposite side
to check for any water penetration.
2. Purpose:
o To detect minor leaks that might not be evident in a hydrostatic
test, ensuring all potential entry points are sealed.
(iii) Function of Transverse Bulkheads
Structural Points of View:
1. Hull Stiffening:
o Transverse bulkheads contribute to the overall stiffness and
strength of the hull structure. They act as rigid supports that
prevent longitudinal bending and twisting of the hull.
2. Compartmentalization:
o Transverse bulkheads divide the ship into separate watertight
compartments, enhancing the structural integrity and making
the hull more resistant to stress and damage.
Safety Points of View:

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 1. Flood Control:
o Transverse bulkheads limit the spread of water in case of hull
breach, preventing the entire ship from flooding and thus
increasing its survivability in an emergency.
2. Fire Containment:
o These bulkheads also act as fire barriers, preventing the spread
of fire from one compartment to another, which is crucial for the
safety of the vessel and its crew.
3. Structural Redundancy:
o In the event of damage to one part of the ship, transverse
bulkheads help maintain overall structural integrity, allowing the
ship to remain operational and afloat, providing time for
damage control and repairs.
By fulfilling these structural and safety roles, transverse bulkheads are
critical components in the design and operation of safe, seaworthy vessels.

Q5. (1) Draw cross section of Bulbous Bow used in modern vessels. 7
ii) Explain the function of Bulbous and effectiveness on vessel's
performance. 3
(i) Cross Section of a Bulbous Bow
Sketch of a Bulbous Bow Cross Section:

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Description:
 The bulbous bow is a protruding bulb at the front of a ship, below the
waterline.
 Its shape varies but generally consists of a rounded front section that
tapers towards the rear where it joins the hull.
(ii) Function and Effectiveness of the Bulbous Bow
Function of the Bulbous Bow:
1. Wave Cancellation:
o The primary function of a bulbous bow is to reduce wave
resistance. As the ship moves through water, the bulb creates
its own wave system that partially cancels out the bow wave
created by the ship's hull.
2. Improved Hydrodynamics:

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 o By modifying the flow of water around the hull, the bulbous bow
helps streamline the vessel, reducing drag and improving fuel
efficiency.
3. Enhanced Stability:
o The bulbous bow can also contribute to the vessel's stability by
lowering the ship's center of buoyancy, which can reduce
pitching in rough seas.
Effectiveness on Vessel's Performance:
1. Reduced Fuel Consumption:
o The wave cancellation effect leads to a significant reduction in
wave-making resistance, which translates to lower fuel
consumption and operating costs. This is particularly effective
at higher speeds and in large vessels.
2. Increased Speed:
o With reduced resistance, vessels equipped with bulbous bows
can achieve higher speeds using the same power or maintain
the same speed with less power.
3. Improved Seaworthiness:
o The enhanced stability provided by the bulbous bow results in a
smoother ride, reducing pitch and heave motions. This
contributes to better comfort and safety for the crew and cargo,
as well as less strain on the ship's structure.
By integrating a bulbous bow into the design, modern vessels benefit from
improved hydrodynamic performance, resulting in operational efficiency
and cost savings.

Q.6 With reference to a wire single pull folding hatch cover

arrangement
a) Sketch the arrangement. (4)
b) Describe the operation of arrangement in (a) (3)

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c) State how these hatches are made secure and watertight. (3)
(a) Sketch of the Arrangement
Sketch of Wire Single Pull Folding Hatch Cover Arrangement:

(b) Description of the Operation

1. Preparation:
o Before operation, ensure that the hatch cover area is clear of
obstructions. Check that all securing devices are released and
the wire and pulleys are in good condition.
2. Lifting the Hatch Cover:
o The hatch cover is connected to a wire, which runs through a
series of pulleys and is operated by a winch.
o When the winch is activated, it pulls the wire, which in turn lifts
the hatch cover from its closed position.
3. Folding Mechanism:
o As the wire continues to pull, the hatch cover folds along a
hinge line. The cover sections are designed to fold back onto
themselves, creating a compact stack at one end of the hatch
opening.
o The folding action is guided by rollers and hinges, ensuring
smooth and controlled movement.
4. Opening the Hatch:

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 o Once the hatch cover is fully folded and stacked, the hatch
opening is clear for loading or unloading cargo.
o The winch is stopped, and the wire tension is maintained to
keep the cover in its open position.
(c) Securing and Making the Hatches Watertight
1. Securing the Hatch Covers:
o Once the hatch cover is in the closed position, it is secured
using cleats or wedges that lock the cover tightly against the
coaming.
o Dogs or manual locking devices may also be used to ensure
the cover cannot move during transit.
2. Rubber Seals:
o A continuous rubber gasket is fitted around the edge of the
hatch cover. When the cover is closed, the gasket is
compressed against the coaming, forming a watertight seal.
3. Compression Bars:
o Compression bars, often integrated into the hatch cover or the
coaming, press down on the rubber gasket to enhance the
sealing effect. This ensures a uniform pressure distribution
along the gasket.
4. Drainage Channels:
o Drainage channels or scuppers are built into the coaming to
direct any water away from the hatch opening. This prevents
water accumulation and reduces the risk of leaks.
5. Inspection and Maintenance:
o Regular inspection and maintenance of the rubber gaskets,
compression bars, and securing devices are crucial. Any wear
or damage should be addressed promptly to maintain the
watertight integrity of the hatch covers.

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By following these procedures and using these features, wire single pull
folding hatch covers can be effectively secured and made watertight,
ensuring the safety and integrity of the vessel's cargo holds.

Q7. (a) State the purpose of fitting anodes to hull structure. (2)
(b) Describe, with the aid of a sketch, how anodes may be attached to
the hull. (3)
(c) Upon inspection in dry-dock it is found that the anodes have not
wasted and areas of the hull structure have experienced severe
corrosion. Explain possible reason for this situation. (5)

(a) Purpose of Fitting Anodes to Hull Structure

1. Cathodic Protection: Anodes are fitted to the hull structure to
provide cathodic protection. They act as sacrificial anodes, corroding
in place of the hull, thereby protecting the steel structure from
electrochemical corrosion. (the presence of the sacrificial anode
causes the previously anodic hull to become a cathode thus being
protected)
2. Corrosion Prevention: By corroding preferentially, anodes help
prevent the deterioration of the hull, preserving its integrity, strength,
and longevity.
(b) Attachment of Anodes to the Hull
Sketch of Anode Attachment:

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Description:
1. Anode Block: The anode is typically a block of metal, such as zinc,
aluminum, or magnesium.
2. Attachment Points: Anodes are attached to the hull using welding,
bolting, or a combination of both.
o Welding: Metal straps or pads on the anode are welded directly
to the hull, ensuring good electrical conductivity.
o Bolting: Anodes may also be bolted onto the hull using
conductive bolts, providing a secure and replaceable
attachment.
(c) Anodes Not Wasted and Severe Hull Corrosion
Possible Reasons:

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1. Electrical Isolation:
o Poor Connection: If the anodes are not properly connected to
the hull (poor welding or loose bolts), they may not provide the
necessary electrical continuity for cathodic protection. This
prevents the anodes from corroding and protecting the hull.
2. Incorrect Material or Type:
o Non-Sacrificial Material: If the anodes are made of the wrong
material that is not more reactive than the hull material, they will
not corrode preferentially. This results in the hull corroding
instead.
3. Insufficient Anodes:
o Under-protection: If there are not enough anodes fitted or the
anodes are too small, they may not provide adequate protection
over the entire hull surface, leading to unprotected areas
experiencing corrosion.
4. Coating Issues:
o Insulated Hull: If the hull has a thick or non-conductive coating,
the electrical continuity between the hull and anodes might be
compromised. This prevents the anodes from functioning
effectively.
5. Inactive Anodes:
o Passivation: Anodes can become passivated, meaning they
develop a non-conductive oxide layer, rendering them inactive.
This can occur if the anodes are not cleaned or inspected
regularly.
6. Environmental Factors:
o Water Conditions: Different water chemistries (e.g., freshwater
vs. saltwater) can affect the performance of certain types of
anodes. Anodes suited for saltwater may not work effectively in
freshwater and vice versa.

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Conclusion: Regular inspection, proper installation, and maintenance of
anodes are crucial to ensure they provide effective cathodic protection. Any
issues with anode performance should be promptly addressed to prevent
hull corrosion and ensure the vessel's structural integrity.

Q.8 (a) Explain the purpose of transverse watertight bulkheads. (2)

(b) Describe, using sketches as necessary, how each of the following
are passed through a watertight bulkhead.
(i) Electric cable (3)
(ii) Main transmission shaft (3)
(c) Describe the strength compensation required for a watertight door.
(2)
(a) Purpose of Transverse Watertight Bulkheads
1. Flood Control: Transverse watertight bulkheads divide the vessel
into separate, watertight compartments. In the event of hull breach or
flooding, they limit the spread of water to the compartment where the
breach occurred, preventing the entire ship from flooding.
2. Structural Integrity: These bulkheads provide additional strength to
the vessel's hull, helping to resist longitudinal bending and torsional
stresses, enhancing the overall structural integrity and stability of the
ship.
(b) Passing Through a Watertight Bulkhead
(i) Electric Cable

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Sketch and Description: (screw type)

Figure: screw type gland packing

1. Gland Body:
 A cylindrical housing made from a durable, corrosion-resistant
material.
 The body is typically flanged and bolted or welded to the bulkhead,
ensuring a secure and watertight attachment.
2. Compression Nut:
 A threaded nut that screws onto the gland body.
 As the nut is tightened, it compresses the packing material within the
gland body.

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3. Packing Material:
 Usually made from a flexible, compressible material like rubber or
neoprene.
 The packing material is placed inside the gland body around the
cable.
 When compressed by the nut, it forms a tight seal around the cable,
preventing water ingress.
4. Cable Entry and Exit:
 The cable passes through the center of the gland.
 The packing material is compressed around the cable, ensuring a
watertight seal.
(ii) Main Transmission Shaft
Sketch and Description: (mechanical seal type)

Description:
1. Rotating Seal Face:

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 o This is a ring attached to the main transmission shaft, rotating
with it. It forms one half of the sealing surface.
2. Stationary Seal Face:
o This ring is mounted on the bulkhead and remains stationary. It
forms the other half of the sealing surface.
3. Spring Mechanism:
o Springs apply constant pressure to keep the rotating and
stationary seal faces in close contact, ensuring a tight seal.
4. Secondary Seals (O-rings):
o O-rings or gaskets provide additional sealing between the
primary components and the shaft or bulkhead, preventing
leakage along the shaft or between the housing and bulkhead.
Operation:
 The mechanical seal maintains a close contact between the rotating
and stationary seal faces, creating a thin film of fluid for lubrication.
 The spring mechanism ensures the faces remain in contact despite
any shaft movement or vibration.
 Secondary seals ensure there is no leakage along the shaft or
between the seal housing and the bulkhead.
Purpose:
 To provide a reliable and low-maintenance solution to prevent
leakage around the main transmission shaft as it passes through a
watertight bulkhead.
 Ensures the watertight integrity of the bulkhead while allowing the
shaft to rotate freely.
(c) Strength Compensation for a Watertight Door
Description:
1. Structural Reinforcement:

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 o Stiffeners and Reinforcing Bars: Watertight doors are
surrounded by stiffeners and reinforcing bars welded to the
bulkhead. These provide additional strength to the area around
the door opening, compensating for the structural loss caused
by cutting the bulkhead.
o Increased Plate Thickness: The bulkhead plating around the
door may be increased in thickness to ensure the overall
strength of the bulkhead is maintained.
2. Door Frame and Gasket:
o Robust Door Frame: The door frame is made from strong
materials and securely welded to the bulkhead. This frame
helps distribute the stress and load around the door opening.
o Watertight Gasket: A watertight gasket around the door
ensures a secure seal when the door is closed, maintaining the
watertight integrity of the bulkhead.

Q.9 (a) Sketch the strengthening necessary for bulbous bow. 7

(b)State the advantages that justifies the extra cost of bulbous bow. 3
Sketch: Referring to Q.5
Description:
 Longitudinal Stiffeners: These are horizontal reinforcements
running along the length of the bulbous bow to provide additional
strength against longitudinal stresses.
 Web Frames: Vertical frames within the bow structure provide
additional support and distribute loads evenly across the bow. They
are spaced at intervals and help maintain the shape and integrity of
the bulbous bow.
 Internal Bracing: Additional internal braces and gussets may be
used to strengthen the junctions between the longitudinal stiffeners
and web frames, ensuring the structure can withstand hydrodynamic
pressures and impacts.

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  Reinforced Hull Plates: The hull plates around the bulbous bow are
often thicker or made from higher-strength materials to withstand the
increased stress and impact forces encountered at the bow.
(b) Advantages that Justify the Bulbous Bow's Extra Cost
1. Reduced Fuel Consumption:
o Wave Cancellation: The bulbous bow creates its own wave
system that partially cancels out the bow wave created by the
ship's hull, reducing wave-making resistance and thereby
lowering fuel consumption. This leads to significant cost
savings over the operational life of the vessel.
2. Increased Speed and Efficiency:
o Hydrodynamic Efficiency: By improving the hydrodynamic
shape of the bow, the bulbous bow allows the vessel to achieve
higher speeds with the same power or maintain the same
speed with less power. This enhanced efficiency can be
particularly beneficial for large cargo ships and tankers.
3. Improved Seaworthiness:
o Stability and Comfort: The bulbous bow can improve the
vessel's stability and reduce pitching in rough seas. This not
only enhances the comfort and safety of the crew and
passengers but also reduces the stress on the ship's structure
and machinery, leading to lower maintenance costs and longer
vessel life.
Overall, the initial investment in a bulbous bow is justified by the long-term
operational savings, increased efficiency, and improved performance,
making it a valuable addition to modern ship designs.

Q.10 Describe how a ship structure withstands the forces acting on it

(a) When floating
(b) When in dry-dock
(a) When Floating

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When a ship is floating, it is subjected to several forces, primarily including
buoyancy, weight, and hydrodynamic forces. The ship's structure must be
designed to handle these forces effectively:
1. Buoyancy and Weight Distribution:
o Hull Shape: The hull is designed with a shape that ensures an
even distribution of buoyancy forces along its length. The hull
form is optimized to reduce resistance and ensure stability.
o Longitudinal Strength: Ships are built with longitudinal framing
systems (such as a series of longitudinal girders and stiffeners)
to handle the bending moments caused by uneven weight
distribution along the ship's length. This helps in managing the
hogging (upward bending) and sagging (downward bending)
moments.
2. Transverse Strength:
o Frames and Bulkheads: Transverse frames and bulkheads
provide the necessary transverse strength to withstand the
pressure exerted by water and cargo loads. Bulkheads also
help in preventing the spread of flooding in case of hull breach.
o Deck and Keel: The deck and keel act as the primary girders
that provide stiffness and strength to the ship. The deck resists
compression while the keel resists tension, working together to
prevent the ship from bending excessively.
3. Hydrodynamic Forces:
o Sheerstrake and Stringers: The upper edge of the hull
(sheerstrake) and additional longitudinal members (stringers)
help in resisting the dynamic forces exerted by waves and
water movement.
o Stiffening Elements: Various stiffening elements, such as ribs,
brackets, and beams, are used throughout the hull to ensure
that local and global stresses are adequately managed.
(b) When in Dry-Dock

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When a ship is in dry-dock, it experiences different sets of forces compared
to when it is floating. The primary considerations are the weight of the ship
and the support from the dry-dock blocks:
1. Weight Support:
o Keel Blocks: The ship is supported primarily by keel blocks
along its centerline. These blocks bear the weight of the ship
and provide the necessary support to prevent sagging.
o Bilge Blocks: Additional support is provided by bilge blocks
placed along the sides of the ship’s bottom to stabilize the
vessel and prevent tipping.
2. Distribution of Loads:
o Structural Reinforcement: The ship’s structure must be robust
enough to handle the concentrated loads at the points where
the keel and bilge blocks contact the hull. Reinforcements such
as girders and frames help distribute these loads evenly to
avoid local stress concentrations.
o Structural Integrity Checks: During dry-docking, checks are
made to ensure that the structural integrity is not compromised
by the change in support conditions. This involves inspecting
the hull for any signs of stress or damage.
3. Safety Measures:
o Scaffolding and Shores: Additional scaffolding and shores
may be used to provide lateral support, preventing any
unwanted movement or shifts in the ship’s position while in dry-
dock.
o Monitoring: Continuous monitoring ensures that the ship’s
structure remains stable and any necessary adjustments are
made to the support arrangement to maintain the integrity of the
ship.
These principles ensure that the ship can withstand various forces
effectively both while floating in water and when supported in a dry-dock.

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For more detailed and specific information, please refer to the
corresponding chapters in "Reeds Ship Construction for Marine Students."
Q.11 (a) With reference to a modern rudder of the hollow balanced
type, sketch the construction including the attachment to the stock.
(b) Explain why pintles are adopted for a semi-balance rudder and
how spade/axle mounted rudder accommodate similar loading.
(Here description and construction detail depict may not be necessary, nevertheless added for different
question prospect)

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 UPPER BEARING
(b) Pintles for Semi-Balanced Rudder and Spade/Axle-Mounted
Rudder
Pintles for Semi-Balanced Rudder:
 Purpose: Pintles are used to provide additional support and
alignment for semi-balanced rudders. They help transfer some of the
load from the rudder to the hull, reducing the stress on the rudder
stock.
 Structure:
o Pintles: Vertical pins that fit into gudgeons (sockets) attached
to the stern or rudder post. These provide pivot points for the
rudder.

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 o Gudgeons: Sockets that hold the pintles in place, ensuring the
rudder remains aligned and can pivot smoothly.
 Advantages:
o Load Distribution: Pintles distribute the load along the rudder
post, reducing the bending moment on the rudder stock.
o Stability: They provide additional support, preventing
excessive lateral movement and ensuring the rudder remains
stable under heavy loads.
Spade/Axle-Mounted Rudder:
 Description: A spade rudder is a single-plate rudder that is
completely unsupported at the bottom, with all the forces acting on
the rudder being transmitted through the rudder stock to the steering
gear.
 Load Accommodation:
o Robust Stock and Bearings: The rudder stock and its
bearings are designed to handle the full load of the rudder,
including the hydrodynamic forces encountered during
operation.
o Strengthened Construction: The rudder blade and stock are
reinforced to handle these loads. This includes the use of high-
strength materials and additional internal stiffeners.
o Axle-Mounted Support: In some designs, the rudder is
mounted on an axle, providing a pivot point that helps distribute
the loads more evenly.
The spade design allows for greater deflection angles, improving the
vessel's maneuverability. Without the need for pintles and gudgeons, the
construction and maintenance of the rudder are simplified.

(More on rudder)
Sketch of a semi balanced rudder with pintle in detail

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Sketch of a spade rudder arrangement

Function of rudder carrier with sketch

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 The rudder carrier is a crucial component in the steering system
of a ship, providing support and alignment for the rudder. Here is a
concise explanation of its function:
1. Support:
o The rudder carrier supports the weight of the rudder, especially
the rudder stock, relieving the load from the steering gear and
preventing excessive wear on the bearings.
2. Alignment:
o It ensures the rudder stock is properly aligned, facilitating
smooth and efficient movement of the rudder. This alignment
helps maintain the correct positioning and operation of the
rudder, ensuring effective steering control.
3. Load Distribution:
o The rudder carrier distributes the mechanical loads and forces
encountered during steering, such as hydrodynamic forces from
water pressure on the rudder blade. This helps prevent
structural damage and prolongs the lifespan of the rudder and
steering components.
4. Stabilization:
o It stabilizes the rudder, minimizing vibrations and lateral
movements that could impair steering performance or cause
damage to the rudder system.
In summary, the rudder carrier is essential for supporting,
aligning, distributing loads, and stabilizing the rudder system,
ensuring reliable and effective steering of the vessel.

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Q.12 (a) Sketch a mid-ship section of a typical bulk-carrier, through
the cargo hold.

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(b) Suggest the critical areas of bulk-carrier more prone to crack,
damage and corrosion.
Critical Areas of Bulk Carrier Prone to Crack, Damage, and Corrosion
1. Cargo Holds and Hatch Covers:
o Reason: Cargo holds, especially around the hatch covers and
coamings, are exposed to significant wear and tear due to
loading and unloading operations. The constant impact and
abrasion from cargo can lead to cracking and corrosion.
o Consequences: Failure in these areas can lead to water
ingress, compromising the vessel's structural integrity and
stability.
2. Ballast Tanks:
o Reason: Ballast tanks are frequently filled with and emptied of
seawater, leading to a highly corrosive environment. The
coating inside ballast tanks can wear away over time, exposing
the steel to corrosion.
o Consequences: Corrosion in ballast tanks can lead to
structural weakness and potential leaks, endangering the
vessel's buoyancy and stability.
3. Hull and Deck Plating:
o Reason: The hull, particularly around the waterline, is
constantly exposed to seawater and harsh marine conditions,
leading to corrosion. Deck plating is also prone to cracking and
corrosion due to exposure to the elements and the weight of
cargo and equipment.
o Consequences: Damage to hull and deck plating can
compromise the watertight integrity of the vessel, leading to
flooding and potential sinking.
4. Transverse Bulkheads:
o Reason: Transverse bulkheads are critical structural
components that face significant stresses due to cargo

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 operations and the vessel's movement in rough seas. Cracks
and corrosion often occur at the connections and welds.
o Consequences: Failure of bulkheads can lead to the collapse
of internal compartments, severely affecting the vessel's
structural integrity and safety.
5. Side Shell Frames and Bottom Structure:
o Reason: Side shell frames and the bottom structure are under
constant stress from the vessel's weight, cargo load, and
hydrodynamic forces. Areas around the bilge, where the bottom
and sides meet, are particularly susceptible to cracking and
corrosion.
o Consequences: Damage in these areas can lead to
catastrophic structural failure, compromising the vessel's ability
to carry cargo safely and navigate through waters.
By identifying and regularly inspecting these critical areas, maintenance
efforts can be focused on preventing and mitigating damage, ensuring the
safety and longevity of the bulk carrier.

Q36 (dg). Explain, with the aid of a mid-ship half sectional sketch of a
container ship, how strength is built into this type of vessel whilst still
allowing access to the cargo holds. (10)
Building Strength into Container Ships While Allowing Cargo Hold
Access
In container ships, structural strength is essential to handle heavy cargo
loads and resist the stresses from large openings for cargo access. Here's
how strength is integrated into these vessels while still allowing access to
the cargo holds:
1. Thick Deck Plating and High-Tensile Steel:
o Purpose: Wide hatches necessitate thicker deck plating and
the use of higher tensile steel to ensure the deck can support
the weight of containers and withstand external forces.

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Sketch: Mid-Ship Half-Sectional View of a Container Ship

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 o Design: The deck is reinforced to maintain strength despite the
large openings required for container access.
2. Longitudinal Framing:
o Purpose: Provides longitudinal strength to the vessel, which
helps resist bending and twisting forces.
o Design: The deck, side shell, and longitudinal bulkheads are
framed longitudinally, along with the double bottom, to enhance
structural integrity.
3. Continuous Hatch Coamings:
o Purpose: Improves longitudinal strength around the hatch
openings.
o Design: Hatch coamings are continuous, reinforcing the areas
around the hatches to prevent structural weakness.
4. Torsion Boxes:
o Purpose: Addresses the loss of torsional strength caused by
large hatches.
o Design: Torsion boxes, made from thick material, are fitted on
each side of the ship. These boxes are formed by the upper
deck, top part of the longitudinal bulkhead, sheerstrake, and
upper platform. They are supported internally by transverses
and wash bulkheads.
o Connection: The boxes are tied to deep transverse webs at
the after end and welded to transverse webs at the fore end to
ensure effective torsional strength.
5. Deep Box Webs at Hatch Ends:
o Purpose: Increases transverse and torsional strength,
particularly at hatch ends.
o Design: Deep box webs are installed at tank top and deck
levels, with structural design carefully managed at hatch
corners to prevent excessive stress.

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 6. Reinforced Double Bottom Structure:
o Purpose: Handles the impact loading from containers and
supports the vessel’s stability.
o Design: The double bottom is deep and includes side girders
with additional transverse stiffening to distribute the load. This
reinforcement helps manage the point loading typical of
container ships.
7. Adaptation for Point Loading:
o Purpose: Manages the concentrated loads from containers,
unlike traditional cargo ships that experience more evenly
distributed loading.
o Design: The inner bottom is designed to support upthrust from
water when the ship is fully loaded, preventing distortion
between container corners.
In summary, container ships integrate strength through thick deck plating,
longitudinal and transverse framing, continuous hatch coamings, torsion
boxes, deep box webs, and a reinforced double bottom structure. These
design elements ensure the vessel remains structurally sound and resilient
while providing necessary access to cargo holds.

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Q13. How metacentric height experiment is carried out? Describe the
process.
The metacentric height experiment, also known as the inclining experiment,
is crucial for determining a ship’s stability. Here’s a step-by-step description
of how it’s typically carried out on a modern vessel:

Preparation:
1. Condition of the Ship: The ship should be as close to empty as
possible, with all tanks either empty or pressed up tight to minimize
the free surface effect. The ship must be upright and in calm,
sheltered waters.
2. Mooring and Gangway: Mooring ropes should be slackened, and the
gangway lifted to ensure the ship can move freely.
3. Personnel: Only essential personnel involved in the experiment
should be on board to avoid unnecessary weight.

Conducting the Experiment

1. Stabilographs Setup: Two stabilographs (instruments to measure
heel angles) are placed at the forward and aft ends of the ship.
2. Mass Placement: Four masses are placed on the deck, two on each
side of the midship, away from the centerline.

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 3. Mass Movement: The masses are moved one at a time to different
positions:
o All four masses on one side.
o All four masses on the opposite side.
o Two masses on each side.
4. Recording Heel Angles: The heel angles are recorded for each mass
movement using the stabilographs.

Calculations
1. Determine Angle of Heel (θ): The average heel angle (θ) is calculated
from the stabilograph readings.
2. Calculate GG1: The shift in the center of gravity (GG1) is calculated
using the formula:
m× d
¿ 1=
Δ

where:
o ( m ) = mass moved
o ( d ) = distance the mass is moved
o ( Δ ) = displacement of the ship in water
3. Calculate Metacentric Height (GM): Using the formula:
m× d
GM =
Δ × tan ⁡(θ)

where (θ) is derived from the heel angle readings.

Final Steps
Verification: The calculated GM is verified against stability criteria to ensure
the ship’s safety and stability.

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Documentation: All findings and calculations are documented for future
reference and regulatory compliance.

Q14. Ship’s stern is collide badly:

(a) What check you can do from onboard? What will be your action?
(b) Ship’s propeller is badly damaged, describe the procedure to
change the propeller with spare one.
(a) Onboard Checks and Actions:
Checks to Perform Onboard:
1. Visual Inspection:
o Hull: Inspect the hull at the stern for visible cracks, dents, or
holes.
o Rudder and Steering Gear: Check for damage, misalignment,
or unusual noise during operation.
o Propeller and Shaft: Inspect the propeller blades for damage
and check the shaft for misalignment.
2. Leak Detection:
o Compartments: Check for water ingress in compartments near
the collision area (e.g., steering gear room, engine room).
o Bilges: Monitor bilges for water accumulation.
3. Operational Tests:
o Steering Gear: Test the steering gear to ensure it operates
correctly.
o Propulsion System: Assess the functionality of the propulsion
system.
4. Structural Integrity:

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 o Frames and Bulkheads: Check for deformation or fractures in
the frames and bulkheads near the stern.
o Deck Fittings: Inspect deck fittings and other structural
components for damage.
Actions to Take:
1. Containment and Safety:
o Seal Compartments: Seal any affected compartments to
prevent further water ingress.
o Bilge Pumps: Use bilge pumps to control flooding.
o Safety Precautions: Ensure all crew members are informed
and follow safety protocols.
2. Communication:
o Report Incident: Notify the ship’s master, the company, and
relevant authorities about the incident.
o Distress Signal: Prepare to send a distress signal if the
situation worsens.
3. Stabilization:
o Adjust Ballast: Adjust ballast to maintain the vessel’s stability.
o Reduce Speed: Reduce speed or stop the engine to prevent
further damage.
4. Temporary Repairs:
o Patch Leaks: Use emergency patches to seal any holes or
cracks.
o Secure Loose Parts: Secure any loose parts or fittings to
prevent additional damage.
5. Port Coordination:
o Emergency Inspection: Arrange for an emergency inspection
at the nearest port.

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 o Repair Arrangements: Coordinate with port authorities and
classification societies for repairs.
b) https://www.marineinsight.com/guidelines/procedure-for-ship-propeller-
renewal/
https://dieselship.com/marine-technical-articles/marine-engineering-
knowledge-general/withdrawal-propeller-shaft-survey-assembly/
The procedure is as follows.:
(1) The spare shaft is normally clamped on the ship side and is removed by
cutting the ship side along with the clamped shaft and laid on the floor of
the dry dock where it is dismantled from the plate and the shaft thoroughly
cleaned of the protective paint , the taper keyway and key thoroughly
cleaned.
The cut shipside plate with the cut frames will be welded back after
completion of repairs. The opening will be closed only after the old shaft is
removed out and the spare shaft taken in after the spare shaft has
completed preparation for fitting.
(2) The propeller taper has to be bedded by progressively forcing the shaft
taper into the propeller and scrapping off the hard spots on the propeller
taper.
The propeller is placed horizontally on four wooden blocks of equal height
and the blades clamped to the floor. The shaft is lifted in the vertical mode
supported at the flange and lowered into the propeller taper till it is about 15
cms from the end of its travel, when the crane brakes are released and the
shaft drops into the propeller taper with a force. The shaft is lifted up , the
hard spots formed on the propeller taper surface are scraped off . This
process is repeated for about six or seven times till the surface bearing
contact is about 80 % and the final travel on force fit is about 7 to 8 mm left.
This indicates that the bedding of the taper surfaces between existing
propeller and spare shaft completed.
(3) The old condemned shaft is taken out of the ship through the opening
on ship side and the spare shaft taken in and placed in the position where
the old shaft was resting. The process of assembly of propeller with the
new spare shaft proceeds and is completed, in the manner explained with
new seals and chrome liner.
(4) When the intermediate shaft is to be fitted the shaft alignment is carried
out at the forward and aft coupling flanges. The best alignment condition is

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obtained and the coupling holes bored to suit new coupling bolts which
could be of a slightly larger diameter, suitably machined to fit hard tight in
their holes. The plummer block is suitably aligned with new shims and
dowel pins and holding down bolts tightened.
(5) Fresh oil is filled into the stern tank, air purged and leak test carried out.
Crank shaft web deflections are also carried out to ensure the alignment of
the shafting is in order
(6) The ship side plate is placed and welding from both sides carried out,
including the welding of the cut frames. When welding is completed a sea
water hose test is carried out to ensure that the ship side does not leak.

Q15. a) State the type of steel appropriate for hull of a modern vessel
b) Describe the tests that are carried out on steel plate for the hull
c) Explain in each case the relevance of the tests.
(a) Type of Steel Appropriate for the Hull of a Modern Vessel:
The type of steel commonly used for the hull of a modern vessel is High-
Strength Low-Alloy Steel (HSLA). Typically grade ‘A’ low carbon steel
(approx. 0.2% C) is appropriate, being relatively cheap, easily cut, formed
and welded. There are generally three grades of steel commonly used in
ship construction A, D and E being the most resistant to brittle fracture.
The high tensile steels are designated AH, DH and EH used in different
parts of the hull to cope with the requirement of heavy stiffening at reduced
weight.
(b) Tests Carried Out on Steel Plate for the Hull:
1. Tensile Test:
o Determines the tensile strength, yield strength, and elongation.
o The tensile test will be carried out on a specimen using an
independent tensometer to give meaningful result. The
specimen is clamped in the machine and progressive loads are
applied so that extensions can be measured over a fixed gauge
length.

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 2. Charpy Impact Test:
o Measures the toughness of the steel at different temperatures.
o The impact test involves a small notched bar held in either a
cantilever or beam mode and being subjected to shock loading
due to impact from a pendulum will have the effect of opening
at the notch and propagating fracture. The amount of energy
absorbed in the fracture the specimen can be determined by
the change in potential energy of the pendulum.
3. Bend Test:
o Evaluates the ductility and soundness of the steel.
o For the bend test a strip of the material is bent up to 180° over
a former of small radius former. If no cracks or laminations
appear on the surface of the material, then the test is consider
satisfactory.
4. Ultrasonic Test:
o Uses ultrasonic waves to detect internal flaws.
o Very high frequency sound waves are emitted from a piezzo
electric crystal and reflected back from any surface (internal or
external). This signal is amplified onto an oscilloscope screen
as peaks. The distance between the peaks can be used to
gauge the material thickness, or to highlight the presence of
sub-surface flaws.
(c) Relevance of Each Test:
1. Tensile Test:
o Ensures the steel can bear operational loads and stresses,
maintaining structural integrity under various conditions.
2. Charpy Impact Test:
o Verifies the steel's toughness, ensuring it can withstand sudden
impacts and low temperatures without fracturing.
3. Bend Test:

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 o Confirms the steel’s flexibility and durability, ensuring it can
deform under load without breaking.
4. Ultrasonic Test:
o Detects internal flaws, ensuring the steel is free from defects
that could lead to failure.
More on hull testing
Radiography: X rays and Y rays are waves of electro- magnetic radiation
whose wavelength is very short and thus can pass through the steel
structure. The rays are emitted from a source on one side of the structure
and pass through the structure to expose a photographic film of the other
side. Some of the rays are absorbed and different absorption rates occur
through thinner material, slag inclusions, gas pockets, cracks etc. So that
different degree of exposure are experienced by the film. The process will
thus show up sub-surface flaws.

dgQ2. (a) State the system of classification for access doors passing
through watertight bulkheads of a vessel. (3)
(b) State THREE circumstances under which all watertight doors must
be closed when situations are defined as potentially hazardous. (3)
(c) Explain the safety features built into the watertight door operating
system to enhance safety to personnel. (3)

(a) System of Classification for Access Doors Passing Through

Watertight Bulkheads
Access doors passing through watertight bulkheads of a vessel are
classified according to their ability to maintain watertight integrity. The
system of classification typically includes:
1. Type A: These doors are designed for areas that require high levels
of watertight integrity, such as main watertight bulkheads that
separate the engine room from the accommodation spaces.

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 2. Type B: These are less robust but still designed to maintain
watertight integrity in areas with lower risk, such as those that do not
directly separate critical areas.
3. Type C: These doors are generally used in less critical areas where
the risk of flooding is lower but still need to offer some degree of
watertight protection.
(b) Circumstances Requiring Closure of Watertight Doors
All watertight doors must be closed in the following potentially hazardous
situations:
1. When the vessel is operating in heavy weather: This prevents
water from entering the vessel through compromised bulkheads
during extreme conditions.
2. During a collision or grounding: To contain flooding and prevent
water from spreading through the vessel’s compartments.
3. When the vessel is at risk of capsizing or listing: Ensures that the
compartments remain isolated to maintain stability and buoyancy.
(c) Safety Features Built into the Watertight Door Operating System
To enhance safety for personnel, watertight door operating systems are
equipped with several safety features:
1. Automatic Closing Mechanism: Many systems are equipped with
automatic closing features that ensure doors close and seal if there is
a sudden increase in water pressure or if the vessel is listing.
2. Safety Alarms and Indicators: These provide visual and audible
alerts when a watertight door is open or improperly secured, warning
personnel of potential hazards.
3. Emergency Release Systems: In case of an emergency, watertight
doors often have manual or emergency release mechanisms that
allow personnel to open or close the doors quickly if they are trapped
or need to evacuate.
These features collectively help in maintaining the vessel’s safety and
ensuring the protection of its crew during critical situations.

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dgQ4. (a) State the advantages and disadvantages of aluminium alloy
in ship building. (4)
(b) Describe, with the aid of a sketch, a method of welding aluminium
panels. (6)
(a) Advantages and Disadvantages of Aluminium Alloy in
Shipbuilding
Advantages:
1. Light Weight:
o Advantage: Aluminium alloys are significantly lighter than steel,
which reduces the overall weight of the vessel. This leads to
improved fuel efficiency, higher speeds, and greater payload
capacity.
2. Corrosion Resistance:
o Advantage: Aluminium has excellent resistance to corrosion,
especially in marine environments. This results in longer service
life and reduced maintenance costs compared to steel.
3. High Strength-to-Weight Ratio:
o Advantage: Aluminium alloys offer a good balance between
strength and weight, allowing for strong yet lightweight
structures, which is particularly beneficial for high-speed
vessels and those requiring maneuverability.
4. Ease of Fabrication:
o Advantage: Aluminium is easier to machine and fabricate
compared to some other metals. It can be cut, drilled, and
shaped with less effort, which simplifies the construction and
repair processes.
Disadvantages:
1. Cost:

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 o Disadvantage: Aluminium alloys are generally more expensive
than steel. The initial cost of materials and fabrication can be
higher, which may affect the overall budget of the shipbuilding
project.
2. Lower Strength Compared to Steel:
o Disadvantage: While aluminium has a good strength-to-weight
ratio, its absolute strength is lower than that of steel. This may
necessitate the use of thicker sections or additional
reinforcements, which can offset some of the weight savings.
3. Thermal Conductivity:
o Disadvantage: Aluminium has higher thermal conductivity
compared to steel, which can be a disadvantage in some
applications where thermal insulation or temperature control is
critical.
4. Welding Challenges:
o Disadvantage: Welding aluminium requires specialized
techniques and equipment, such as the need for precise control
of welding parameters and the use of shielding gases. This can
increase the complexity and cost of the welding process.
(b) Method of Welding Aluminium Panels
Description of Welding Aluminium Panels
TIG (Tungsten Inert Gas) Welding is a common method used for welding
aluminium panels. It involves using a tungsten electrode to create an
electric arc that melts the aluminium and forms a weld joint.
Sketch and Explanation
Here's a basic sketch to illustrate the TIG welding process for aluminium
panels:

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Explanation:
1. Preparation:
o Clean the aluminium panels to remove any oxide layer or
contaminants. Aluminium forms a thin oxide layer that must be
cleaned off before welding to ensure a strong weld.
2. Setup:
o Position the panels to be welded and secure them in place.
Ensure proper fit-up and alignment.
3. TIG Welding Process:
o Tungsten Electrode: The tungsten electrode is held in the TIG
welding torch and does not melt. It provides a stable arc for
welding.
o Arc Creation: An electric arc is struck between the tungsten
electrode and the aluminium workpiece. The heat from the arc
melts the aluminium at the weld joint.
o Filler Rod: A filler rod, typically made of the same aluminium
alloy, is added to the molten weld pool. It helps to build up the
weld joint and ensures a strong bond between the panels.
o Shielding Gas: An inert gas (usually argon) is used to shield
the weld area from atmospheric contamination. This prevents
oxidation and ensures a clean, high-quality weld.
4. Cooling:
o Allow the weld to cool slowly to avoid warping and ensure the
integrity of the joint.
5. Inspection:

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 o Inspect the weld for defects such as porosity or incomplete
fusion. Additional finishing or grinding may be required to
achieve the desired surface quality.
This method is preferred for its precision and control, making it suitable for
thin aluminium panels and critical applications in shipbuilding.

dgQ15 (a) Describe, with the aid of a sketch, how a hydraulically

operated folding hatch cover opens and closes. (7)
(b) Explain how the water tightness and security of the hatch cover
sketched inpart (a) can be ascertained before proceeding to sea. (3)

(a) Description and Sketch of a Hydraulically Operated Folding Hatch

Cover
A hydraulically operated folding hatch cover is commonly used on ships to
provide access to cargo holds while ensuring a watertight seal. The
mechanism involves hydraulic cylinders to lift and fold the hatch panels.
Sketch:

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(Sketch may need be included hydraulic pump circuit)

Description:
1. Folding Panels: The hatch cover consists of several panels (usually
two or more) that fold over each other. These panels are typically
hinged to allow them to fold and stack.
2. Hydraulic Cylinders: Each panel is connected to hydraulic cylinders
positioned along the edges of the hatch cover. The hydraulic
cylinders provide the lifting force necessary to open and close the
hatch.
3. Hydraulic Pump & Control System: The hydraulic pump generates
the pressure needed for the cylinders to operate. The control system
allows the operator to manage the opening and closing sequence of
the hatch panels.
4. Opening Sequence:
o Activation: The hydraulic pump is activated by the control
system.
o Panel Lifting: The hydraulic cylinders extend, lifting the hatch
panels one by one.
o Folding: As the panels rise, they fold over each other, stacking
neatly on one side of the opening.
5. Closing Sequence:
o Panel Unfolding: The operator reverses the hydraulic pump to
retract the cylinders, causing the panels to unfold and move
back to the closed position.
o Sealing: The panels are lowered into place and locked to
ensure a secure, watertight seal.
(b) Checking Water Tightness and Security before Proceeding to Sea
To ensure the water tightness and security of the hydraulic folding hatch
cover before proceeding to sea, the following checks are typically
performed:
1. Visual Inspection:

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 o Check for Gaps and Seals: Inspect the entire perimeter of the
hatch cover for any visible gaps or worn seals. Ensure that the
seals are in good condition and are properly seated to prevent
water ingress.
o Panel Alignment: Ensure that all panels are correctly aligned
and that there are no obstructions preventing them from closing
properly.
2. Hydraulic System Check:
o Pressure Testing: Verify that the hydraulic system is
functioning correctly by checking the pressure levels in the
cylinders. Ensure that the pump and cylinders operate smoothly
and that there are no leaks in the hydraulic lines.
o Operational Test: Open and close the hatch cover several
times to ensure the hydraulic system performs as expected and
that the panels fold and unfold correctly.
3. Water Tightness Test:
o Water Spray Test: Perform a water spray test by spraying
water over the closed hatch cover to simulate sea conditions.
Check for any signs of leakage around the edges and seals.
This test helps to confirm that the hatch cover can withstand
water pressure and remain watertight.
These checks are crucial for ensuring that the hatch cover will provide the
necessary protection against water ingress while the vessel is at sea,
maintaining the safety and integrity of the ship.

dgQ18. (a) Explain why fatigue cracks occur in a ship's hull, stating
the locations where they may be found. (3)
(b) Describe the hull inspection that should be carried out in dry-dock
to ascertain the maintenance and repairs that may need to be carried
out. (7)

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(a) Fatigue Cracks in a Ship's Hull
Why Fatigue Cracks Occur
Fatigue cracks occur in a ship's hull due to repeated cyclic stresses that
cause progressive and localized damage. These stresses can arise from
various sources and lead to cracks over time. Here’s why they occur:
1. Cyclic Loading: Ships experience repeated loading and unloading
cycles due to waves, cargo handling, and changes in weight
distribution. These cyclic loads cause metal fatigue as the material is
subjected to repeated stress cycles.
2. Structural Design and Stress Concentrations: Certain structural
designs may have stress concentrations, such as sharp corners,
joints, or areas with complex geometries, which can lead to localized
high-stress regions. These regions are more susceptible to fatigue
cracking.
3. Material and Construction Deficiencies: Inadequate material
quality or poor construction practices can exacerbate the
development of fatigue cracks. For example, welds that are not
properly executed can introduce weaknesses in the hull.
Locations Where Fatigue Cracks May Be Found
1. Welded Joints and Seams: Areas where different parts of the hull
are welded together are common sites for fatigue cracks. This
includes joints between the hull plates and at the locations where
reinforcing members are welded to the hull.
2. Hull Plating: The main hull plates themselves, especially in high-
stress areas like near the bow or stern, can develop fatigue cracks
due to the repeated stress from wave action and cargo movement.
3. Structural Frames and Bulkheads: Frames and bulkheads that
support the hull can develop fatigue cracks at their connections to the
hull plates or at the junctions where they join other structural
elements.
(b) Hull Inspection in Dry-Dock

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Hull inspection in dry-dock is essential for assessing the condition of the
ship’s hull and determining the necessary maintenance and repairs. Here’s
a comprehensive description of the inspection process:
1. Visual Inspection
 External Hull: Examine the entire external surface of the hull for
visible signs of damage, corrosion, and wear. Look for areas with
significant marine growth, paint deterioration, and any signs of
deformation or distress.
 Internal Hull: Inspect the internal surfaces of the hull, including the
cargo holds and engine room, for signs of corrosion, cracking, or
water leakage.
2. Structural Integrity Checks
 Welds and Joints: Check all welded joints and connections for signs
of cracking, deformation, or fatigue. Use visual and, if necessary,
non-destructive testing methods (e.g., ultrasonic testing) to assess
weld integrity.
 Frames and Bulkheads: Inspect structural frames and bulkheads for
signs of deformation, cracking, or corrosion. Ensure that they are
properly secured and functioning as intended.
3. Corrosion Inspection
 Hull Plating: Check for areas of corrosion on the hull plating.
Measure the thickness of the plating using ultrasonic thickness
gauges to determine the extent of corrosion and whether it has
reduced the plating thickness below acceptable levels.
 Corrosion Protection Systems: Inspect the condition and
effectiveness of the ship's corrosion protection systems, such as
cathodic protection (anodes) and anti-fouling coatings.
4. Hull Coating and Painting
 Inspection of Coatings: Evaluate the condition of the hull's
protective coatings and paints. Look for peeling, blistering, or areas
where the paint is missing or damaged. This will help identify areas
where the protective coating needs repair or replacement.

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  Preparation for Recoating: Determine areas requiring surface
preparation before re-coating, such as sanding or blasting to remove
old coatings and corrosion.
5. Structural Measurements
 Alignment and Deformation: Check the alignment of structural
members and the hull’s overall shape to identify any deformation or
misalignment that may affect the ship’s structural integrity and
performance.
 Hydrostatic Testing: Perform hydrostatic tests on the hull to check
for leaks and ensure that the hull can withstand the pressures it will
encounter in service.
6. Additional Non-Destructive Testing (NDT)
 Ultrasonic Testing: Use ultrasonic testing to detect internal cracks or
voids within the hull plating and structural members.
 Magnetic Particle Testing: For ferromagnetic hull materials,
magnetic particle testing can be used to identify surface and near-
surface cracks.
7. Documentation and Reporting
 Inspection Records: Document all findings, including areas of
concern, measurements, and recommendations for repairs. Create a
detailed report outlining the condition of the hull and the necessary
maintenance and repair actions.
 Repair Plan: Develop a repair plan based on the inspection findings,
including priorities for repairs, materials required, and estimated
timelines.
This thorough inspection process ensures that any issues with the ship’s
hull are identified and addressed, maintaining the vessel's safety and
operational efficiency.
dgQ25. (a) With reference to bilge keels:
(i) Describe how the design and method of attachment reduces the
possibility of damage to the shell plate; (5)

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(ii) State what testing must be carried out. (2)
(b) Explain why the bilge keels do not extend the full length of the
vessel. (3)

(a) Bilge Keels

(i) Design and Method of Attachment
Bilge keels are slender, longitudinal fins attached to the hull of a ship,
typically near the bilge area, to reduce rolling and improve stability. Their
design and method of attachment help in minimizing damage to the shell
plate through several mechanisms:
1. Design of Bilge Keels:
o Streamlined Shape: Bilge keels are designed with a
streamlined shape to minimize resistance and reduce
hydrodynamic forces on the hull. This helps in evenly
distributing the stresses along the hull and minimizes localized
pressure that could lead to damage.
o Positioning: Positioned along the bilge, bilge keels help in
diverting water flow away from the hull's shell plate. This
prevents high-velocity water impacts directly on the hull,
reducing the risk of localized damage or wear.
2. Attachment Method:
o Welded or Bolted: Bilge keels are typically attached using
welding or bolting methods. When welded, the connection is
continuous and can be designed to distribute stress more
evenly. Bolted attachments, when properly reinforced, allow for
easier inspection and replacement if damage occurs.
o Reinforced Connection: The attachment points of bilge keels
are reinforced to handle the hydrodynamic forces experienced
during operation. This reinforcement reduces the risk of stress
concentration around the attachment points, thereby protecting
the shell plate from undue stress or cracking.

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 3. Damping Effect:
o Roll Damping: By providing resistance against rolling, bilge
keels reduce the vessel’s overall motion, thereby decreasing
the dynamic loads applied to the hull. This reduction in rolling
minimizes repetitive stress on the shell plate, which helps in
preventing fatigue damage.
4. Minimized Drag and Vibration:
o Reduced Drag: Properly designed bilge keels ensure that drag
is minimized while still providing effective roll damping.
Reduced drag decreases the overall stress on the hull and
helps maintain structural integrity.
o Vibration Absorption: Bilge keels can absorb and dissipate
some of the vibrational energy from the water, reducing the
amount of vibration transferred to the hull and decreasing the
likelihood of damage from vibrational stresses.
5. Regular Inspection and Maintenance:
o Inspection Protocols: Regular inspection of bilge keels
ensures that any signs of wear or damage are addressed
promptly. Maintenance practices include checking for corrosion,
wear, and ensuring the attachment points remain secure. This
proactive approach helps prevent damage to the shell plate by
addressing potential issues before they escalate.
(ii) Testing Required
1. Visual Inspection:
o Objective: To check for visible signs of damage, corrosion, or
improper attachment.
o Frequency: Conducted regularly during maintenance periods
and before voyages.
2. Non-Destructive Testing (NDT):
o Ultrasonic Testing: Used to detect internal defects such as
cracks or voids in the bilge keels and their attachment points.

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 o Magnetic Particle Testing: Applied to ferromagnetic materials
to identify surface and near-surface cracks.
(b) Reasons Bilge Keels Do Not Extend the Full Length of the Vessel
1. Hydrodynamic Efficiency:
o Optimal Positioning: Bilge keels are positioned where they are
most effective in reducing roll, typically near the bilge area
where the hull transitions from vertical to horizontal. Extending
them the full length of the vessel could lead to inefficiencies in
hydrodynamic performance and increased drag without
proportional benefits in roll reduction.
2. Structural Constraints:
o Hull Design: The design and construction of the hull often
impose limitations on where bilge keels can be attached.
Extending them along the full length of the vessel might
interfere with other structural components or systems, such as
piping, ballast tanks, or cargo holds.
3. Cost and Maintenance:
o Economic Factors: Extending bilge keels along the entire
length of the vessel increases material and construction costs.
Additionally, it can complicate maintenance and repair
activities. Limiting their length helps manage costs and
simplifies maintenance procedures.
By addressing these aspects, bilge keels are designed to effectively reduce
rolling and enhance stability while balancing performance, cost, and
practicality considerations.

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11. Cross-section of bulkhead of a cargo vessel.

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12. (a) What terms to be checked in particular in IWS (in water survey)
with logical reasons.
(c) What safety measures to take during in water survey

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a)
Hull Condition: To ensure there are no structural damages, corrosion, or
fouling that could affect the vessel’s integrity and performance.
Propeller and Rudder: To check for any damage, wear, or fouling that
could impact maneuverability and propulsion efficiency.
Sea Chests and Intakes: To verify they are clear of obstructions and
marine growth, ensuring proper water flow for cooling and other systems.
Anodes: To assess the condition of sacrificial anodes, which protect the
hull from corrosion.

Underwater Valves: To ensure they are functioning correctly and not

leaking, which is crucial for the vessel’s safety and operational efficiency.
Hull Markings: To confirm that draft marks, load lines, and other essential
markings are visible and accurate for safe navigation and compliance

b)
Qualified Personnel: Ensure that the survey is conducted by certified
divers and surveyors who are trained and experienced in underwater
inspections.
Weather and Water Conditions: Conduct the survey in calm and clear
water conditions to ensure visibility and safety. Avoid strong currents and
poor weather conditions
Communication: Maintain constant communication between the divers
and the surface team to ensure safety and coordination.
Equipment Check: Verify that all diving and survey equipment is in good
working condition before the survey. This includes diving suits, cameras,
lights, and communication devices.

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Emergency Procedures: Have a clear emergency plan in place, including
first aid and evacuation procedures, in case of any incidents during the
survey
Personal Protective Equipment (PPE): Ensure that all personnel wear
appropriate PPE, including diving suits, gloves, and helmets, to protect
against underwater hazards.
Environmental Precautions: Be aware of and mitigate any potential
environmental hazards, such as marine life or underwater obstacles, that
could pose a risk to divers

Describe how each of the following contribute towards improving the

propulsive efficiency of a ship and reducing fuel consumption: a)
Ducted propeller, b) Costa bulb as fitted to a rudder, c) Greem wheel
vane as fitted aft of the propeller

Ans:
a) Ducted propeller

A ducted propeller, commonly known as a Kort nozzle, is a marine

propeller fitted with a non-rotating nozzle. It increases efficiency at Low
Speeds (typically below 10 knots). They produce greater thrust in a smaller
package. It offers better course stability due to the shrouding effect and
reduces paddlewheel effect.

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b) Costa Bulb

It is also known as a propulsion bulb and attached to the rudder and has
following advantages-
1. This bulb stiffens the rudder, leading to smoother operation
2. It adds buoyancy, which can improve overall stability.
3. By optimizing the flow around the rudder, the Costa bulb
enhances steering efficiency.

c) Greem wheel vane

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It is a freely rotating device located behind the propeller and consists of a
turbine section inside the propeller slipstream and vane tips outside the
slipstream. The vane wheel utilizes otherwise-wasted propeller slipstream
energy to generate additional thrust. The advantages are-
1. Recovers rotational energy
2. It allows for a larger jet cross-section, enhancing thrust.
3. It minimizes resistance from the rudder.
4. It aids in maneuvering and stopping the vessel

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