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HL IB Physics Your notes

Forces & Momentum

Contents
Free-Body Diagrams
Newton’s First Law
Newton’s Second Law
Newton’s Third Law
Contact Forces
Non-Contact Forces
Frictional Forces
Hooke's Law
Stoke's Law
Buoyancy
Conservation of Linear Momentum
Impulse & Momentum
Force & Momentum
Collisions & Explosions in One-Dimension
Collisions & Explosions in Two-Dimensions (HL)
Angular Velocity
Centripetal Force
Centripetal Acceleration
Non-Uniform Circular Motion

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Free-Body Diagrams
Your notes
Free-Body Diagrams
Forces are pushes or pulls that occur due to the interaction between objects
In physics, during force interactions, it is common to represent situations as simply as possible without
losing information
When considering force interactions, objects are represented as point particles
These point particles should be placed at the centre of mass of the object
Forces are represented by arrows because forces are vectors
The length of the arrow gives the magnitude of the force, and its direction gives the force's
direction
The below example shows the forces acting on an object when pushed to the right over a rough surface

Point particle representation of the forces acting on a moving object

The below example shows the forces acting on an object suspended from a stationary rope

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Your notes

Forces on an object suspended from a stationary rope

Free-body Diagrams
As situations become more complex, there are often multiple forces acting in different directions on
multiple objects
To simplify these situations, free-body force diagrams can be used
Free-body force diagrams show:
Multiple forces acting on one object
The direction of the forces
The magnitude of the forces
Each force is represented as a vector arrow
The length of the arrow represents the magnitude of the force
The direction of the arrow shows the direction in which the force acts
Each force arrow is labelled with either:
a description of the type of force acting and the objects interacting with clear cause and effect
The gravitational pull of the Earth on the ball
the name of the force
Weight
an appropriate symbol
Fg
Free body diagrams can be used to:
identify which forces act in which plane
determine the resultant force
The rules for drawing a free-body diagram are:
Multiple forces acting on one object

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The object is represented as a point mass

Only the forces acting on the object are included
The forces are drawn in the correct direction Your notes
The forces are drawn with proportional magnitudes
The forces are clearly labelled

Free-body diagrams for different situations

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The most common forces to apply are:

Weight (Fg) - always towards the surface of the planet
Tension (FT) - always away from the mass Your notes
Normal Reaction Force (FN) - perpendicular to a surface
Frictional Forces (Ff) - in the opposite direction to the motion of the mass

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Worked example
Your notes
Draw free-body diagrams for the following scenarios:
(a) A picture frame hanging from a nail.
(b) A box sliding down a slope.
Answer:
(a) A picture frame hanging from a nail:

The size of the arrows should be such that the 3 forces would make a closed triangle as they are
balanced
(b) A box sliding down a slope:

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Your notes

There are three forces acting on the box:

The normal contact force, FN, acts perpendicular to the slope
Friction, Ff, acts parallel to the slope and in the opposite direction to the direction of motion
Weight, Fg, acts down towards the Earth

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Worked example
Your notes
A toy sailboat has a weight of 30 N, and is floating in water. The boat is being pulled to the right with a
force of 35 N. The boat has a total resistive force of 5 N.
Draw a free-body force diagram for the toy sailboat.
Answer:
Step 1: Identify all of the forces acting upon the object in question, including any forces that may be
implied
Weight = 30 N downward
Buoyancy from the water (as the object is floating) = 30 N upward
Applied force = 35 N to the right
Drag force = 5 N to the left
Step 2: Draw in all of the force vectors (arrows), making sure the arrows start at the object and are
directed away

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Exam Tip
Your notes
When labelling force vectors, it is important to use conventional and appropriate naming or symbols
such as:
Fg or Weight or mg
FN for normal reaction force
Using unexpected notation will lose you marks.
Make sure your arrows are roughly to scale with respect to the other forces in the image. In the second
worked example, the 5 N force arrow needs to be considerably shorter than the 35 N arrow. This shows
clearly that there is a resultant force to the right.

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Determining Resultant Forces

Free-body diagrams can be analysed to find the resultant force acting within a system Your notes
A resultant force is the vector sum of the forces operating on a body
When many forces are applied to an object they can be combined
This produces one overall force, which describes the combined action of all of the forces
This single resultant force determines the change in the object's motion:
The direction in which the object will move as a result of all of the forces
The magnitude of the total force experienced by the object
The resultant force is sometimes called the net force
Forces can combine to produce
Balanced forces
Unbalanced forces
Balanced forces mean that the forces have combined in such a way that they cancel each other out
Then, the resultant force acting on the body is zero
For example, the weight force of a book on a desk is balanced by the normal contact force of the
desk
As a result, no resultant force is experienced by the book; the forces acting on the book and the
table are equal and balanced

A book resting on a table is an example of balanced forces

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Unbalanced forces mean that the forces have combined in such a way that they do not cancel out
completely and there is a non-zero resultant force on the object
Your notes
For example, two people play a game of tug-of-war, working against each other on opposite sides of
the rope
If Person A pulls on the rope with a force 80 N to the left and Person B pulls on the rope with a force of
100 N to the right, these forces do not cancel each other out completely
Since Person B pulled with more force than Person A, the forces will be unbalanced, and the rope will
experience a resultant force of 20 N to the right

A tug-of-war is an example of when forces can become unbalanced

Resultant forces in one-dimension
The resultant force in a one-dimensional situation i.e. when the forces are directed along the same
plane, can be found by combining vectors
Combining force vectors involves adding all of the forces acting on the object taking into account the
direction of the forces
This is easiest to visualise when they are drawn as a free-body diagram
If the forces acting in opposite directions are equal in size, then there will be no resultant force
The forces are said to be balanced

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Your notes

Diagram showing the resultant forces on three different objects

Imagine the forces on the boxes as two people pushing and pulling on either side
In the first scenario, the two people are evenly matched - the box doesn't move
In the second scenario, the two people are pushing on the same side of the box, it moves to the
right with their combined strength
In the third scenario, the two people are pushing against each other and are not evenly matched,
so there is a resultant force to the left

Resultant forces in two-dimensions

The resultant force in a two-dimensional situation i.e. when the forces are not on the same plane, can
be found from resolving vectors
Resolving force vectors involves using Pythagoras or trigonometry to determine the resultant of all of
the forces acting on the object

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Your notes

The resultant force is easier to visualise using a free-body diagram

For example, the two 10 N forces acting on the cardboard box produce a resultant force of
F= 102 + 102 = 14 N
More on these calculations can be found in Combining & Resolving Vectors

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Worked example
Your notes
Calculate the magnitude and direction of the resultant force on the object shown in the diagram
below.

Answer:
Step 1: Decide on the direction you will define as positive and negative
Take the right as positive and the left as negative
Step 2: Add up all of the forces

F = (−14) + 4 + 8 = − 2 N
Step 4: Evaluate the direction of the resultant force
Since the resultant force is negative, this is in the negative direction i.e. the left
Step 5: State the magnitude and direction of the resultant force
The resultant force is 2 N to the left

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Worked example
Your notes
Calculate the magnitude and direction of the resultant force acting on the cardboard box shown in the
diagram below.

Answer:
Step 1: Sketch the free-body diagram for the situation

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Your notes

Step 2: Determine the resultant horizontal force

Taking the right as positive
F h = (−7) + 25 = 18 N (to the right)
Step 3: Determine the resultant vertical force
Take upwards as positive
F v = 30 + (−10) = 20 N (upwards)
Step 4: Calculate the resultant force

Using Pythagoras' theorem

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F= 182 + 202 = 27 N
Your notes
Exam Tip
Take a look at the 'Tools' section of the course to learn how to combine and resolve vectors. You should
be comfortable with these calculations for the whole of the forces topic.

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Newton’s First Law

Your notes
Newton’s First Law
Newton's laws of motion describe the relationship between the forces acting on objects and the
motion of the objects
Newton's first law of motion states:
A body will remain at rest or move with constant velocity unless acted on by a resultant
force
This means that:
An object at rest will remain at rest unless acted upon by a resultant force
An object moving with a constant velocity will remain moving at that constant velocity unless acted
upon by a resultant force
A resultant force is required to change the motion of an object
To speed up
To slow down
To change direction
If the resultant force acting on an object is zero, it is said to be in translational equilibrium
If the resultant force is zero (the forces on a body are balanced), the body must be either:
At rest
Moving at a constant velocity

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Your notes

For both cases of the football being at rest or moving at a constant velocity, its resultant force is 0
Since force is a vector, it is easier to split the forces into horizontal and vertical components
If the forces are balanced:
The forces acting to the left = the forces acting to the right
The forces acting upward = the forces acting downward
The resultant force is the vector sum of all the forces acting on the body

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Worked example
Your notes
If there are no external forces acting on the car other than friction, and it is moving at a constant
velocity, what is the value of the frictional force Ff?

Answer:
Since the car is moving at a constant velocity, there is no resultant force. This means that the
driving force and the frictional forces are balanced.
Therefore, Ff = 6 kN

Exam Tip
This law may sound counter-intuitive for an object that is moving at constant velocity. How can it be
moving if the forces on it are balanced?
This is because a resultant force causes an acceleration. An object moving at constant velocity has no
acceleration, so its forces must be balanced, which means the resultant force is zero. The drag forces
are invisible to us, which makes this tricky to see.

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Newton’s Second Law

Your notes
Newton's Second Law
Newton's second law describes the change in motion that arises from a resultant force acting on an
object
Newton's second law of motion states:
The resultant force on an object is directly proportional to its acceleration
This can also be written as:
F = ma
Where:
F = resultant force (N)
m = mass (kg)
a = acceleration (m s–2)

This relationship means that objects will accelerate if there is a resultant force acting upon them
The acceleration will always act in the same direction as the resultant force
When unbalanced forces act on an object, the object experiences a resultant force
If the resultant force acts along the direction of the object's motion, the object will:
Speed up (accelerate)
Slow down (decelerate)
If the resultant force acts on an object at an angle to its direction of motion, it will:
Change direction

Resultant Force
Force is a vector quantity with both magnitude and direction
The resultant force is, therefore, the vector sum of all the forces acting on the body
If the object is in motion, then the positive direction is in the direction of motion

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Your notes

Resultant forces on a body can be positive or negative depending on their direction

If the resultant force acts at an angle to the direction of motion, the magnitude and direction of the
resultant force can be found by
Combing vectors
Scale drawings
This is covered further in Scale Diagrams

Acceleration
Acceleration is a vector quantity with both magnitude and direction
If the resultant force acts in the direction of an object's motion, the acceleration is positive
If the resultant force opposes the direction of the object's motion, the acceleration is negative
But the acceleration will always act in the same direction as the resultant force

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Exam Tip
Your notes
It is important to understand that for an object in motion, a resultant force that opposes that motion
will cause the object to decelerate, not to suddenly travel backwards.
If no drag forces are present, then the acceleration of a falling object is independent of its mass. This
unintuitive fact of physics has been proven by astronauts on the Moon, who simultaneously dropped
both a hammer and a feather from equal heights and found that they hit the ground at the same time!
(Because there is no air resistance on the Moon.)

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Worked example
Your notes
A rocket produces an upward thrust of 15 MN and has a weight of 8 MN.
(a) When in flight, the force due to air resistance is 500 kN.
Determine the resultant force on the rocket.
(b) The mass of the rocket is 0.8 × 105 kg.
Calculate the magnitude and direction of the acceleration of the rocket.
Answer
Part a)
Step 1: Draw a force diagram of the situation

Step 2: Convert the forces into newtons and assign directions

The direction of motion is upwards, therefore upwards is the positive direction
Air resistance (downward acting) = −500 kN = −500 × 103 N
Weight (downward acting) = −8 MN = −8 × 106 N
Thrust (upward acting) = 15 MN = 15 × 106 N
Step 3: Calculate the resultant force

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F = ( 15 × 106) + (−8 × 106) + (−500 × 103)

F = 6 . 5 × 106 N = 6 . 5 MN Your notes

The positive value indicates that the resultant force acts in the direction of motion i.e., upwards

Part b)
Step 1: State the equation for Newton's second law and rearrange to make acceleration the subject

F
F = ma ⇒ a =
m
Step 2: Calculate the acceleration and state the direction

6 . 5 × 106
a=
0 . 8 × 105
a = 81 m s−2 (2 s . f . ) upwards
Acceleration is in the same direction as the resultant force

Exam Tip
Air resistance is a type of fluid resistance because fluids are gases or liquids. The IB specification uses
fluid resistance so you should use this term when referring to air resistance in the exam. Air resistance
and fluid resistance are drag forces since drag is the force exerted by the particles in a fluid on an
object moving it. The symbol for fluid resistance is therefore the same as symbol for drag, Fd.

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Worked example
Your notes
Three forces, 4 N, 8 N, and 24 N act on an object with a mass of 5 kg. Which acceleration is not possible
with any combination of these three forces?
A. 1 m s–2
B. 4 m s–2
C. 7 m s–2
2
D. 10 m s–
Answer:
Step 1: List the values given
Three possible forces at any angle of choice: 4 N, 8 N, and 24 N
Mass of object = 5 kg
Step 2: Consider the relevant equation
Newton's second law relates force and acceleration:
F=m×a
Step 3: Rearrange to make acceleration the focus

F
a=
m
Step 4: Investigate the minimum possible acceleration
The minimum acceleration would occur when the forces were acting against each other
This is when just the 4 N force is acting on the body
Now check the acceleration:

4
a= = 0 . 8 m s −2
5
Step 4: Investigate the maximum possible acceleration
The maximum acceleration would occur when all three forces are acting in the same direction
This is a total force of
a = 4 + 8 + 24 = 36 N

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With acceleration:
36
a= = 7 . 2 m s −2 Your notes
5
Step 5: Consider this range and the options
Since option D is higher than 7.2 m s–2; it is not possible that these three forces can produce 10 m
s–2 acceleration for this mass
Option D is the correct answer, as it is the only one that is not possible

Exam Tip
The direction you consider positive is your choice, as long as the signs of the numbers (positive or
negative) are consistent throughout the question.
It is a general rule to consider the direction the object is initially travelling in as positive. Therefore all
vectors in the direction of motion will be positive and opposing vectors, such as drag forces, will be
negative.

Newton's Second Law and Momentum

Newton's second law can also be given in terms of momentum
The resultant force on an object is equal to its rate of change of momentum
This change in momentum is in the same direction as the resultant force
These two definitions are derived from the definition of momentum, as follows:
Momentum:
p = mv
Rate of change of momentum:
∆p ∆v
=m
∆t ∆t
Force:
∆v
F=m
∆t
Acceleration:

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∆v
a=
∆t Your notes
Therefore:
F = ma

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Worked example
Your notes
A girl is riding her skateboard down the road and increases her speed from 1 m s–1 to 4 m s–1 in 2.5 s.
The force driving her forward is 72 N.
Calculate the combined mass of the girl and the skateboard.

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Newton’s Third Law

Your notes
Newton’s Third Law
Newton's first and second laws of motion deal with multiple forces acting on a single object
Newton's third law deals with the forces involved when two objects interact
Newton's Third Law states:
If Object A exerts a force on Object B, then Object B will exert a force on Object A which
is equal in magnitude but opposite in direction
When two objects interact, the forces involved arise in pairs
These are often referred to as third-law pairs
A Newton's third law force pair must be:
The same type of force
The same magnitude
Opposite in direction
Acting on different objects
Newton’s third law explains the forces that enable someone to walk
The image below shows an example of a pair of equal and opposite forces acting on two objects (the
ground and a foot):

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Newton's Third Law: The foot pushes the ground backwards, and the ground pushes the foot forwards
The foot pushes on the ground and the ground pushes back on the foot Your notes
Both of these forces are the normal contact force (sometimes called the support force or the
normal reaction force)
The forces are of equal magnitude
The forces are opposite in direction
The forces are acting on different objects (the foot and the ground)

Exam Tip
It is a common error to misidentify the forces acting in a third law situation. You may have identified the
force acting on the ground as weight. The magnitude of the normal contact force of the foot acting on
the ground is equal to the person's weight (assuming only one foot is on the ground) which is where the
confusion arises.
Remember that for a third law pair of forces, they must be the same type of force. So if you are
considering the weight of the person, you actually mean the gravitational pull of the Earth on the
person. Therefore, the third law pair would be the gravitational pull of the person on the Earth.
It can be very helpful to simplify the language when you deal with third law pairs and just describe the
force as a push or a pull to start with.
A good framework for this is a 3 part label: Object A pushes/pulls on Object B, and Object B
pushes/pulls on Object A.
From here you can see if you are dealing with a third law pair and add in the extra detail from there.

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Worked example
Your notes
A physics textbook is at rest on a lab bench. Student A draws a free-body force diagram for the book
and labels the forces acting on it.

Student A says the diagram is an example of Newton's third law of motion. Student B disagrees and
says the diagram is an example of Newton's first law of motion.
By referring to the free-body force diagram, state and explain who is correct.
Answer:
Step 1: State Newton's first law of motion
Objects will remain at rest, or move with a constant velocity unless acted on by a resultant force
Step 2: State Newton's third law of motion
If Object A exerts a force on Object B, then Object B will exert a force on Object A which is equal in
magnitude but opposite in direction
Step 3: Check if the diagram satisfies the conditions for identifying Newton's third law
A Newton's third law force pair must be:
The same type of force
The same magnitude
Opposite in direction
Acting on different objects
The forces acting on the book are not the same type
The forces acting on the book are weight and normal contact force
The forces are not acting on different objects
Both forces are acting on the book
Therefore, this is not an example of Newton's third law
This is an example of Newton's first law

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Step 4: Conclude which person is correct

Student B is correct Your notes

The clue is the free-body force diagram, these only apply to multiple forces acting on one object
The forces acting on the book are of equal magnitude and in opposite direction so there is zero
resultant force acting on the book and it remains at rest on the lab bench
To apply Newton's third law to this situation, the interaction between two objects must be
considered
The book pushes on the table and the table pushes back on the book
These are both normal contact forces of equal magnitude and opposite direction
The book pulls on the Earth, the Earth pulls on the book
These are both weight forces (the gravitational pull of the Earth on the book, and the
gravitational pull of the book on the Earth) of equal magnitude and opposite direction

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Exam Tip
Your notes
Just because you see two forces of equal magnitude acting in opposite directions doesn't mean they
are a Newton's third law force pair! The confusion often arises in the book example because the normal
contact force of the book on the table is equal in magnitude and direction to its weight.
You must remember to apply the specific criteria; a Newton's third law pair must meet all of the criteria.

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Contact Forces
Your notes
Contact Forces
A contact force is defined as:
A force which acts between objects that are physically touching
Examples of contact forces include:
Friction
Fluid resistance or viscous drag
Tension
Normal (reaction) force
Surface friction, Ff
Surface friction is a force that opposes motion
Occurs when the surfaces of objects rub against each other, e.g. car wheels on the ground
Fluid resistance or viscous drag, Fd
Fluid resistance, or viscous drag, is a type of friction
Occurs when an object moves through a fluid (a liquid or a gas)
Air resistance is a type of fluid resistance or viscous drag force
Tension, FT
Tension is a force that occurs within an object when a pulling force is applied to both ends
Occurs when two forces are applied in opposite directions to the ends of an object e.g. a mass on a
spring suspended from a clamp
Normal / reaction force, FN
Reaction forces occur when an object is supported by a surface
It is the component of the contact force acting perpendicular to the surface that counteracts the
body e.g. a book on a table

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Your notes

Examples of contact forces

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Non-Contact Forces
Your notes
Non-Contact Forces
Non-Contact Forces
A non-contact force is defined as:
A force which acts at a distance, without any physical contact between bodies, due to the
action of a field
Examples of non-contact forces include:
Gravitational force
Electrostatic force
Magnetic force
Gravitational force, Fg
The attractive force experienced by two objects with mass in a gravitational field e.g the force
between a planet and a comet
Weight, on Earth, is the gravitational force of the Earth acting on an object with mass
F = mg
g
Electrostatic force, Fe
A force experienced by charged objects in an electric field which can be attractive or repulsive
e.g. the attraction between a proton and an electron
Magnetic force, Fm
A force experienced between magnetic poles in a magnetic field that can be attractive or
repulsive e.g. the attraction between the north and south poles of magnets

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Examples of non-contact forces

Your notes
Worked example
A child drags a sledge behind them as they climb up a hill.
Describe the contact and non-contact forces acting on the child and the sledge.
Answer:
Step 1: Identify the contact forces acting on the child and the sledge
The child pulls on one end of the rope and the sledge pulls on the other end of the rope
This force is tension
The ground pushes against the child and the sledge
This is the normal contact force
The surface of the sledge moves over the the surface of the ground opposing the motion of the
sledge
This force is surface friction
The surfaces of the child's shoes move over the surface of the ground (enabling the child to walk)
This force is also surface friction
The child and the sledge move through the air
This force is fluid resistance or drag
Step 2: Identify the non-contact forces acting on the child and the sledge
The gravitational pull of the Earth acts on the child and the sledge
This force is weight

Exam Tip
You will often see weight as W rather than Fg, even on the IB exam papers. It is always best to stick with
whichever symbols you have been given in the question. However, if no symbols are given in the
question, use the correct symbols from the syllabus (Fg).

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Frictional Forces
Your notes
Frictional Forces
Frictional forces oppose the motion of an object
Frictional forces slow down the motion of an object

When friction occurs, energy is transferred by heating

This raises the temperature (thermal energy) of the objects and their surroundings
The work done against frictional forces causes this rise in temperature
Fluid resistance or drag occurs when an object moves through a fluid (a gas or a liquid)
The object collides with the particles in the liquid or gas
This slows down the motion of the object and causes heating of the object and the fluid
Surface friction occurs between two bodies that are in contact with one another
Imperfections in the surfaces of the objects in contact rub up against each other
Not only does this slow the object down but also causes an increase in thermal energy

The interface between the ground and the sled is bumpy which is the source of the frictional force

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Static & Dynamic Friction

There are two kinds of surface friction to consider for IB DP Physics Your notes
Static friction occurs when a body is stationary on a surface
Dynamic friction occurs when a body is in motion on a surface, such as in the sledge example
above
The surface frictional force always acts in a direction parallel to the plane of contact between a body
and a surface
Both of these forms of friction depend on the normal reaction force, FN of one object sitting upon the
other
Static friction will match any push or pull force that acts against it until it can no longer hold the two
objects stationary
Static friction increases in magnitude until movement begins and dynamic friction occurs
For any given situation, static friction should reach a maximum value that is larger than that of dynamic
friction
For a constant pushing force, dynamic friction will be a constant
This is because there are more forces at work keeping an object stationary than there are forces
working to resist an object once it is in motion

The relationship between frictional forces and motion

The equation for static friction is given by:

F f ≤ µ s FN

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Where:
Ff = frictional force (N)
μS = coefficient of static friction Your notes
FN = normal reaction force (N)
The coefficient of static friction is a number between 0 and 1 but does not include those numbers
It is a ratio of the force of static friction and the normal force
The larger the coefficient of static friction, the harder it is to move those two objects past one
another
The equation for dynamic friction is given by:

F f = µ d FN
Where:
Ff = frictional force (N)
μd = coefficient of dynamic friction
FN = normal reaction force (N)
The coefficient of dynamic friction has similar properties to that of static friction
However:
dynamic friction has a definite force value for a given situation
static friction has an increasing force value for a given situation

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Worked example
Your notes
An 8.0 kg block sits on an incline of 20 degrees from the horizontal. It is stationary and does have a
frictional force acting upon it.

Determine the minimum possible value of the coefficient of static friction.

Answer:
Step 1: List the known quantities
Mass of the block, m = 8.0 kg
Angle between the slope and the horizontal, θ = 20°
Step 2: Determine the weight of the block
The weight will act directly downward and comes from the interaction of mass and acceleration
due to gravity
Fg = mg
Fg = 8.0 × 9.81 = 78.48 N downwards
Step 3: Break the weight down into components based on the slope angle

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Your notes

The component of the weight force that is parallel to the slope provides the force that moves the
block down the slope
This component of the weight force is equal to the surface friction acting up the slope, F
f

F f = F g sin θ

F f = 78. 48 × sin( 20) = 26. 8 N

The component of the weight force that is perpendicular to the slope has the same magnitude as
the normal reaction force, F
N

FN = F g cos θ
FN = 78. 48 × cos( 20) = 73. 7 N
Step 4: Use the equation of static friction to find the minimum value of the coefficient of static
friction
The equation for static friction is:

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F f ≤ µ s FN
Your notes

Rearrange to make the coefficient of static friction the subject

Ff
μs ≥
FN

26. 8
µs ≥
73. 7
µ s ≥ 0 . 36

Step 5: State the final answer

The coefficient for static friction must be 0.36 or greater for this situation

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Hooke's Law
Your notes
Hooke's Law
When a force is applied to each end of a spring, it stretches
This phenomenon occurs for any material with elasticity, such as a wire or a bungee rope
A material obeys Hooke’s Law if:
The extension of the material is directly proportional to the applied force (load) up to the
limit of proportionality
This linear relationship is represented by the Hooke’s law equation:

FH = − kx

Where:
FH = elastic restoring force (N)
k = spring constant (N m–1)
x = extension (m)
The spring constant, k is a property of the material being stretched and measures the stiffness of a
material
The larger the spring constant, the stiffer the material
Hooke's Law applies to both extensions and compressions:
The extension of an object is determined by how much it has increased in length
The compression of an object is determined by how much it has decreased in length
The extension x is the difference between the unstretched and stretched length
extension = stretched length − unstretched length

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Your notes

Stretching a spring with a load produces a force that leads to an extension

Force–Extension Graphs
The way a material responds to a given force can be shown on a force-extension graph
Every material will have a unique force-extension graph depending on how brittle or ductile it is
A material may obey Hooke's Law up to a point
This is shown on its force-extension graph by a straight line through the origin
As more force is added, the graph starts to curve slightly as Hooke's law no longer applies

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Your notes

The Hooke's Law region of a force-extension graph is a straight line. The spring constant is the gradient
of that region
The gradient of the linear portion of this graph is equal to the spring constant k

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Worked example
Your notes
A spring was stretched with increasing load.
The graph of the results is shown below.

Determine the spring constant.

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Your notes

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Exam Tip
Your notes
Always double check the axes before finding the spring constant as the gradient of a force-extension
graph.
Exam questions often swap the force (or load) onto the x-axis and extension (or length) on the y-axis. In

this case, the gradient is not the spring constant, it is instead.

Make sure that you put the extension of the object into the equation for x and not just the length.

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Stoke's Law
Your notes
Stoke's Law
Viscous Drag
Viscous drag is defined as:
the frictional force between an object and a fluid which opposes the motion between the object
and the fluid
This drag force is often from air resistance
Viscous drag is calculated using Stoke’s Law:

F d = 6πηrv
Where
Fd = viscous drag force (N)
η = fluid viscosity (N s m−2 or Pa s)
r = radius of the sphere (m)
v = velocity of the sphere through the fluid (ms−1)

A sphere travelling through air will experience a drag force that depends on its radius, velocity and the
viscosity of the liquid
The viscosity of a fluid can be thought of as its thickness, or how much it resists flowing
Fluids with low viscosity are easy to pour, while those with high viscosity are difficult to pour

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Your notes

Water has a lower viscosity than ketchup as it is easier to pour and flow
The coefficient of viscosity is a property of the fluid (at a given temperature) that indicates how much it
will resist flow
The rate of flow of a fluid is inversely proportional to the coefficient of viscosity
The size of the force depends on the:
Speed of the object
Size of the object
Shape of the object

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Worked example
Your notes
A spherical stone of volume 2.7 × 10–4 m3 falls through the air and experiences a drag force of 3 mN at a
particular instant. Air has a viscosity of 1.81 × 10-5 Pa s. Calculate the speed of the stone at that instant.
Answer:
Step 1: List the known quantities
Volume of stone, V = 2.7 × 10–4 m3
Drag force, Fd = 3 mN = 3 × 10–3 N
Viscosity of air, η = 1.81 × 10-5 Pa s
Step 2: Calculate the radius of the sphere, r
The volume of a sphere is
4 3
V= πr
3
Therefore, the radius, r is:

3
3V 3
3 × (2 . 7 × 10−4)
r= = = 0 . 04 m
4π 4π
Step 3: Rearrange the Stoke's law equation for the velocity, v

F d = 6πηrv

Fd
v=
6πηr
Step 4: Substitute in the known values

3 × 10−3
v= − 5
= 220 m s −1
6π × (1 . 81 × 10 ) × 0 . 04

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Buoyancy
Your notes
Buoyancy
Buoyancy is experienced by a body which is partially or totally immersed in a fluid
The buoyancy force is exerted on a body due to the displacement of the fluid it is immersed in
Buoyancy keeps boats afloat and allows balloons to rise through the air
When a body travels through a fluid, it also experiences a buoyancy force (upthrust) due to the
displacement of the fluid
Buoyancy is calculated using:
F b = ρVg
Where:
Fb = buoyancy force (N)
ρ = density of the fluid (kg m–3)
V = volume of the fluid displaced (m3)
g = acceleration of free fall (m s–2)
If you were to take a hollow ball and submerge it into a bucket of water, you would feel some resistance
Some water will flow out of the bucket as it is displaced by the ball
The buoyancy force, Fb of the water will push upward on the ball
When you let go of the ball, the buoyancy force of the water on the ball will cause the ball to accelerate
to the surface
The ball will remain stationary floating on the surface of the water
A this point, the weight of the ball acting downward, Fg, is equal to the buoyancy force acting upwards,
Fb

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Your notes

The ball floats when the buoyancy force and its weight are balanced
Notice that
m
F g = ρVg = Vg = mg
V
Where:
m = mass of the ball (kg)
ρ = density of the ball (kg m–3)
V = volume of the ball (m3)
The buoyancy force and the weight force are equal

Drag Force at Terminal Speed

Terminal velocity, or terminal speed, is useful when working with Stoke’s Law
This is because, at terminal velocity, the forces in each direction are balanced
W = F + F (Equation 1)
s d b

Where:
Ws = weight of the sphere (N)
Fd = the drag force (N)
Fb = the buoyancy force / upthrust (N)

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Your notes

At terminal velocity, the forces on the sphere are balanced

The weight of the sphere is found using volume, density and gravitational field strength
W =ρVg
s s s

4 3
Ws = πr ρ s g (Equation 2)
3
Where
Vs = volume of the sphere (m3)
ρs = density of the sphere (kg m–3)
r = radius of the sphere (m)
g = acceleration of free fall (m s−2)
Recall Stoke’s Law
F d = 6πηrv (Equation 3)
Where
Fd = viscous drag force (N)
η = fluid viscosity (N s m−2 or Pa s)
r = radius of the sphere (m)
v = velocity of the sphere through the fluid (ms−1)
In this case, v is the terminal velocity
The buoyancy force equals the weight of the displaced fluid
The volume of displaced fluid is the same as the volume of the sphere
The weight of the fluid is found using volume, density and acceleration of free fall
4 3
Fb = πr ρ f g (Equation 4)
3

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Substitute equations 2, 3 and 4 into equation 1

4 4 3 Your notes
πr 3ρ s g = 6πηrv + πr ρ f g
3 3
Rearrange to make terminal velocity the subject of the equation
4
3
πr 3 g(ρ s − ρ f ) 4πr 3 g(ρ s − ρ f )
v= =
6πηr 18πηr
Finally, cancel out r from the top and bottom to find an expression for terminal velocity in terms of the
radius of the sphere and the coefficient of viscosity
2πr 2g(ρ s − ρ f )
v=
9πη

This final equation shows that terminal velocity is:

directly proportional to the square of the radius of the sphere
inversely proportional to the viscosity of the fluid

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Worked example
Your notes
Icebergs typically float with a large volume of ice beneath the water. Ice has a density of 917 kg m-3 and
a volume of Vi.
The density of seawater is 1020 kg m-3.
What fraction of the iceberg is above the water?
A. 0.10 Vi B. 0.90 Vi C. 0.97 Vi D. 0.20 Vi

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Your notes

Exam Tip
Remember that ρ in the buoyancy force equation is the density of the fluid and not the object itself!

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Conservation of Linear Momentum

Your notes
Conservation of Linear Momentum
Linear Momentum
When an object with mass is in motion and therefore has a velocity, the object also has momentum
Linear momentum is the momentum of an object that is moving in only one dimension
The linear momentum of an object remains constant unless the system is acted upon by an external
resultant force
Momentum is defined as the product of mass and velocity
p = mv
Where:
p = momentum, measured in kg m s−1
m - mass, measured in kg
v = velocity, measured in m s−1
Direction of Momentum
Momentum is a vector quantity with both magnitude and direction
The initial direction of motion is usually assigned the positive direction
If a ball of mass 60 g travels at 2 m s−1, it will have a momentum of 0.12 kg m s−1
If it then hits a wall and rebounds in the exact opposite direction at the same speed, it will have a
momentum of −0.12 kg m s−1

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Your notes

When the ball is travelling in the opposite direction, its velocity is negative. Since momentum = mass ×
velocity, its momentum is also negative
Conservation of Linear Momentum
The principle of conservation of linear momentum states that:
The total linear momentum before a collision is equal to the total linear momentum after a
collision unless the system is acted on by a resultant external force
Therefore:
momentum before = momentum after
Momentum is a vector quantity, therefore:
opposing vectors can cancel each other out, resulting in a net momentum of zero
an object that collides with another object and rebounds, has a positive velocity before the
collision and a negative velocity after
Momentum, just like energy, is always conserved
For example:

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Ball A moves with an initial velocity of u

A
Ball A collides with Ball B which is stationary Your notes
After the collision, both balls travel in opposite directions
Taking the direction of the initial motion of Ball A as the positive direction (to the right)
The momentum before the collision is
pbefore
=m u +0A A

The momentum after the collision is

p = −m
after
v + mB v B
A A

The minus sign shows that Ball A travels in the opposite direction to the initial travel
If an object is stationary like Ball B is before the collision, then it has a momentum of 0

The conservation of momentum for two objects A and B colliding then moving apart

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Worked example
Your notes
A tennis ball of mass 60 g travels to the right with a speed of 75 m s−1.
A brick of mass 3 kg is thrown to the right at a speed of 1.5 m s−1.
Determine which object has the greatest momentum.

Answer:

Both the tennis ball and the brick have the same momentum
Even though the brick is much heavier than the ball, the ball is travelling much faster than the brick
This means that on impact, they would both exert a similar force (depending on the time it takes
for each to come to rest)

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Worked example
Your notes
Trolley A of mass 0.80 kg collides head-on with stationary trolley B whilst travelling at 3.0 m s–1.
Trolley B has twice the mass of trolley A. On impact, the trolleys stick together.
Using the conversation of momentum, calculate the common velocity of both trolleys after the
collision.

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Your notes

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Worked example
Your notes
The diagram shows a car and a van which is initially at rest, just before and just after the car collides with
the van.

Use the idea of conservation of momentum to calculate the velocity of the van when it is pushed
forward by the collision.
Answer:
Step 1: State the principle of the conservation of momentum
In a closed system, the total momentum before an event is equal to the total momentum after the
event

Step 2: Calculate the total momentum before the collision

p = mv

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Momentum of car:
pcar = 990 × 10 = 9900 kg m/s
Your notes

Momentum of van:
The van is at rest, therefore v = 0 m/s and pvan = 0 kg m/s

Total momentum before:

pbefore = 9900 + 0 = 9900 kg m/s
Step 3: Calculate the momentum after the collision
Conservation of momentum states that total momentum after collision = 9900 kg m/s
Momentum of car:
pcar = 990 × 2 = 1980 kg m/s
Momentum of van:
pvan = 4200 × v = 4200v kg m/s

Step 4: Calculate the velocity of the van after the collision

Total momentum after collision:
pcar + pvan = 1980 + 4200v = 9900
Rearrange to make v the subject:
4200v = 9900 − 1980

7920
v= = 1 . 89 m/s
4200
The velocity of the van when it is pushed forward by the collision v = 1.89 m/s

Exam Tip
If it is not given in the question already, drawing a diagram of before and after helps keep track of all
the masses and velocities (and directions) in the conversation of momentum questions. Even if one is
given, label all the values that you have been given in the question to make sure you're substituting in
the correct masses and velocities.

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Impulse & Momentum

Your notes
Impulse & Momentum
When an external resultant force acts on an object for a very short time and changes the object's
motion, we call this impulse
For example:
Kicking a ball
Catching a ball
A collision between two objects
Impulse is the product of the force applied and the time for which it acts
J = F ∆t
Where:
J = impulse, measured in newton seconds (N s)
F = resultant external force applied, measured in newtons (N)
∆ t = change in time over which the force acts, measured in seconds (s)

Because the force is acting for only a short time, it is very difficult to directly measure the magnitude of
the force or the time for which it acts
Instead, it can be measured indirectly
Newtons' second law can be stated in terms of momentum
The resultant force on an object is equal to its rate of change of momentum
Therefore:
∆p
F= ⇒ ∆p = F ∆t
∆t
Where:
F = resultant force, measured in newtons (N)
∆ p = change in momentum, measured in kilogram metres per second (kg m s−1)
∆ t = change in time over which the force acts, measured in seconds (s)

Change in momentum is equal to impulse

Therefore, change in momentum can be used to measure impulse indirectly
J = ∆ p = mv − mu
Where:

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J = impulse, measured in newton seconds (N s)

∆ p = change in momentum, measured in kilogram metres per second (kg m s−1)
Your notes
m = mass, measured in kilograms (kg)
v = final velocity, measured in meters per second (m s−1)
u = initial velocity, measured in meters per second (m s−1)
These equations are only used when the force F is constant
Impulse, like force and momentum, is a vector quantity with both a magnitude and direction
The impulse is always in the direction of the resultant force
A small force acting over a long time has the same effect as a large force acting over a short time

Exam Tip
If you follow the units in your calculations (which is always a good idea!), the base units for the newton
are:
1 N = 1 kg m s−2
This is why FΔt = Δp
kg m s−2 × s = kg m s−1

Impulse Examples
When rain and hail (frozen water droplets) hit an umbrella they feel very different. This is an example of
impulse.
Water droplets tend to splatter and roll off the umbrella because there is only a very small change
in momentum
Hailstones have a larger mass and tend to bounce back off the umbrella, because there is a
greater change in momentum
Therefore, the impulse that the umbrella applies on the hail stones is greater than the impulse the
umbrella applies on the raindrops
This means that more force is required to hold an umbrella upright in hail compared to rain

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Your notes

The impulse applied by the umbrella to the hail stones is greater than the impulse applied to the rain
drops
The concept of impulse is used to prevent injury
Increasing the time over which the change in momentum occurs, reduces the force experienced
by the person
For example, in cricket:
A cricket ball travels at very high speeds and therefore has a high momentum
When a fielder catches the ball, the ball exerts a force on their hands
Stopping a ball with high momentum abruptly will exert a large force on their hands
This is because the change in momentum (impulse) acts over a short period of time which creates
a large force on the fielder's hands and could cause serious injury
A fielder moves their hands back when they catch the ball, which increases the time for the change
in momentum to occur
This means there will be less force exerted on the fielder's hands and therefore, less chance of
injury

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Your notes

A cricket fielder moves their hands backwards when catching a cricket ball to reduce the force it will
exert on their hands

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Worked example
Your notes
A 58 g tennis ball moving horizontally to the left at a speed of 30 m s–1 is struck by a tennis racket which
returns the ball to the right at 20 m s–1.

(a) Calculate the impulse of the racket on the ball

(b) State the direction of the impulse
Answer:
(a)
Step 1: List the known quantities
Taking the direction of the initial motion of the ball as positive (the left)
Initial velocity, u = 30 m s–1
Final velocity, v = –20 m s–1
Mass, m = 58 g = 58 × 10–3 kg
Step 2: Write down the impulse equation

J = ∆ p = mv − mu = m (v − u )
Step 3: Substitute in the known values

J = ( 58 × 10−3) × (−20 − 30) = − 2 . 9 N s

(b)
Step 1: State the direction of the impulse
Since the impulse is negative, it must be in the opposite direction to which the tennis ball was
initially travelling
Therefore, (since the left is taken as positive) the direction of the impulse is to the right

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Exam Tip
Your notes
Remember that if an object changes direction, then this must be reflected by the change in the sign of
the velocity (and impulse). This is the most common mistake made by students. Velocity, impulse,
force and momentum are all vectors!
For example, if the left is taken as positive and therefore the right as negative, an impulse of 20 N s to
the right is equal to −20 N s

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Force & Momentum

Your notes
Force & Momentum
The resultant force on a body is the rate of change of momentum
The change in momentum is defined as:
∆p = p − pf i

Where:
Δp = change in momentum (kg m s–1)
pf = final momentum (kg m s–1)
pi = initial momentum (kg m s–1)
These can be expressed as follows:

∆p
F=
∆t
Where:
F = resultant force (N)
Δt = change in time (s)
This equation can be used in situations where the mass of the body is not constant
It should be noted that the force in this situation is equivalent to Newton's second law:

F = ma
This equation can only be used when the mass is constant
The force and momentum equation can be derived from Newton's second law and the definition of
acceleration

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Your notes

Direction of Forces
Force and momentum are vector quantities with both magnitude and direction
The force that is equal to the rate of change of momentum is still the resultant force
The positive direction is taken to be the direction of the initial motion; therefore:
a force on an object will be negative if the force opposes its initial velocity
the opposing force is exerted by the object it has collided with
the forces will be of equal magnitude and opposite in direction, in accordance with Newton's Third
Law

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Your notes

The car exerts a force on the wall of 300 N, and due to Newton's third law, the wall exerts a force of
-300N on the car

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Worked example
Your notes
A car of mass 1500 kg hits a wall at an initial velocity of 15 m s−1.
It then rebounds off the wall at 5 m s−1. The car is in contact with the wall for 3.0 seconds.
Calculate the average force experienced by the car.

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Your notes

Exam Tip
The direction you consider positive is your choice, as long the signs of the numbers (positive or
negative) are consistent with this throughout the question.
In an exam question, carefully consider what forces are exerted on what objects. Look out for words
such as ‘from’, ‘acting on’ or 'exerted on' to determine this, and sketch a quick free body force
diagram if you need to.

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Collisions & Explosions in One-Dimension

Your notes
Collisions & Explosions in One-Dimension
In both collisions and explosions, momentum is always conserved
However, kinetic energy might not always be

Elastic and inelastic collisions

Collisions are when two or more moving objects come together and exert a force on one another for a
relatively short time
Explosions are when two or more objects that are initially at rest are propelled apart from one another
Collisions and explosions are either:
Elastic – if the kinetic energy is conserved
Inelastic – if the kinetic energy is not conserved
A perfectly elastic collision is an idealised situation that does not actually occur everyday life
Perfectly elastic collisions do occur commonly between particles
All collisions occurring on a macroscopic level are inelastic collisions
However, exam questions can use the theoretical idea of an elastic collision on a macroscopic
level
A totally inelastic collision is a special case of an inelastic collision where the colliding bodies stick
together and move as one body
In a totally inelastic collision, the maximum amount of kinetic energy is transferred away from the
moving bodies and is dissipated to the surroundings

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Your notes

Elastic collisions are where two objects move in opposite directions. Inelastic collisions are where two
objects stick together
An explosion is commonly to do with recoil
For example, a gun recoiling after shooting a bullet or an unstable nucleus emitting an alpha
particle and a daughter nucleus
To find out whether a collision is elastic or inelastic, compare the kinetic energy before and after the
collision
The equation for kinetic energy is:

1
Ek = mv 2
2
Where:
Ek = kinetic energy (J)
m = mass (kg)
v = velocity (m s–1)

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Exam Tip
Your notes
It can be helpful to think about collisions and explosions as if there are four types rather than two:
elastic - kinetic energy conserved
perfectly elastic - kinetic energy conserved and no energy transferred between objects
inelastic - kinetic energy not conserved
totally inelastic - kinetic energy not conserved and maximum energy transferred to surroundings

Worked example
Two similar spheres, each of mass m and velocity v are travelling towards each other. The spheres have
a head-on elastic collision.
What is the total kinetic energy after the impact?

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Worked example
Your notes
Trolley A of mass 0.80 kg collides head-on with stationary trolley B at speed 3.0 m s–1. Trolley B has
twice the mass of trolley A. The trolleys stick together and travel at a velocity of 1.0 m s–1.
Determine whether this is an elastic or inelastic collision.

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Exam Tip
Your notes
If an object is stationary or at rest, its initial velocity is 0, therefore, the momentum and kinetic energy
are also equal to 0.
When a collision occurs in which two objects are stuck together, treat the final object as a single object
with a mass equal to the sum of the masses of the two individual objects.
Despite velocity being a vector, kinetic energy is a scalar quantity and therefore will never include a
minus sign - this is because in the kinetic energy formula, mass is scalar and the v2 will always give a
positive value whether it's a negative or positive velocity.

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Collisions & Explosions in Two-Dimensions (HL)

Your notes
Collisions & Explosions in Two-Dimensions
We know that momentum is always conserved
This doesn't just apply to the motion of colliding objects in one dimension (in one line), but this is true in
every direction
Since momentum is a vector, it can be split into its horizontal and vertical component
This is done by resolving vectors
Consider again the two colliding balls A and B
Before the collision, ball A is moving at speed uA and hits stationary ball B
Ball A moves away at speed vA and angle θA
Ball B moves away at speed vB and angle θB

This time, they move off in different directions, so we now need to consider their momentum in the x
direction and separately, their momentum in the y direction
This is done by resolving the velocity vector of each ball after the collision

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Your notes

Applying the conservation of momentum along the x direction gives

mA u A + 0 = mA v A cosθ A + m B v B cosθ B

Applying the conservation of momentum along the y direction gives

0 + 0 = mA v A sinθ A − m B v B sinθ B

The minus sign now comes from B moving downwards, whilst positive y is considered upwards
The momentum before in the y direction is 0 for both balls A and B because B is stationary and A is only
travelling in the x direction, so uA has no vertical component
Since there are two equations involving sine and cosine, it is helpful to remember the trigonometric
identity:

sinθ
tanθ =
cosθ

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When the collision is elastic, the conservation of linear momentum and energy indicates that
θ + θ = 90°
A B Your notes

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Worked example
Your notes
A snooker ball of mass 0.15 kg collides with a stationary snooker ball of mass 0.35 kg. After the
collision, the second snooker ball moves away with a speed of 0.48 m s–1. The paths of the balls make
angles of 43° and 47° with the original direction of the first snooker ball.

Calculate the speed u1 and v1 of the first snooker ball before and after the collision.
Answer
Step 1: List the known quantities
Mass of the first snooker ball, m1 = 0.15 kg
Mass of the second snooker ball, m2 = 0.35 kg
Velocity of second ball after, v2 = 0.48 m s–1
Angle of the first ball, θ1 = 43°
Angle of the first ball, θ2 = 47°
Step 2: State the equation for the conservation of momentum in the y (vertical) direction

0 = m 1v 1sinθ 1 − m 2v 2sinθ 2

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Step 3: Calculate the speed of the first ball after the collision, v1
Use the conservation of momentum in the y direction to calculate the speed of the first snooker Your notes
ball after the collision

m 1v 1sinθ 1 = m 2v 2sinθ 2

m 2v 2sinθ 2
v1 =
m 1sinθ 1

0 . 35 × 0 . 48 × sin( 47)
v1 = = 1 . 2 m s −1
0 . 15 × sin( 43)

Step 3: State the equation for the conservation of momentum in the x (horizontal) direction

m 1u 1 = m 1v 1 cosθ 1 + m 2v 2 cosθ 2

Step 4: Calculate the speed of the first ball before the collision, u1

m 1v 1 cosθ 1 + m 2v 2 cosθ 2
u1 =
m1

(0 . 15 × 1 . 2 × cos( 43) ) + (0 . 35 × 0 . 48 × cos( 47) )

u1 = = 1 . 6 m s −1
0 . 15

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Exam Tip
Your notes
Make sure you clearly label your diagram or write out the known quantities before you substitute values
into the question. It's very easy to substitute in the incorrect velocity or mass. Use subscripts such as '1'
'2' or 'A' 'B' depending on the question to help keep track of these.
Although you will get full marks either way, it may be easier in these equations to rearrange first and
then substitute instead of the other way around, to keep track of the multiple masses and velocities.
Make sure your calculator is in degree mode if your angles are given in degrees!
If you use the fraction function to input your values, remember that you need to close the brackets on
the trig functions or it will give you the wrong answer.

Eg.
And if you input the values into your calculator as numerator ÷ denominator, make sure you put
brackets around the whole denominator.

Eg.

The trig equation for tanθ is also given on your data sheet under 'Mathematical equations', as well as
that for resolving forces.

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Angular Velocity
Your notes
Angular Velocity
Motion in a Straight Line
When an object moves in a straight line at a constant speed its motion can be described as follows:
The object moves at a constant velocity, v
Constant velocity means zero acceleration, a
Newton's First Law of motion says the object will continue to travel in a straight line at a constant
speed unless acted on by another force
Newton's Second Law of motion says that for zero acceleration there is no net or resultant force
For example, an ice hockey puck moving across a flat frictionless ice rink

An ice puck moving in a straight line

Motion in a Circle
If one end of a string was attached to the puck, and the other attached to a fixed point, it would no
longer travel in a straight line, it would begin to travel in a circle

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Your notes

The red arrows represent the velocity vectors of the puck. If the string were cut, the puck would move
off in the direction shown by the red vector, as predicted by Newton’s first law.
The motion of the puck can now be described as follows:
As the puck moves it stretches the string a little to a length r
The stretched string applies a force to the puck pulling it so that it moves in a circle of radius r
around the fixed point
The force acts at 90° to the velocity so there is no force component in the direction of velocity
As a result, the magnitude of the velocity is constant
However, the direction of the velocity changes
As it starts to move in a circle the tension of the string continues to pull the puck at 90° to the velocity
The speed does not change, hence, this is called uniform circular motion

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Your notes

The applied force (tension) from the string causes the puck to move with uniform circular motion
Time Period & Frequency
If the circle has a radius r, then the distance through which the puck moves as it completes one rotation
is equal to the circumference of the circle = 2πr
The speed of the puck is therefore equal to:

distance travelled 2πr

speed = =
time taken T
Where:
r = the radius of the circle (m)
T = the time period (s)
This is the same as the time period in waves and simple harmonic motion (SHM)
The frequency, f, can be determined from the equation:

1
f =
T
Where:
f = frequency (Hz)
T = the time period (s)

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Angles in Radians
A radian (rad) is defined as: Your notes
The angle subtended at the centre of a circle by an arc equal in length to the
radius of the circle

When the angle is equal to one radian, the length of the arc (S) is equal to the radius (r) of the circle
Radians are commonly written in terms of π
The angle in radians for a complete circle (360°) is equal to:

circumf erence of circle 2πr

= = 2π
radius r
Use the following equation to convert from degrees to radians:

π
θ° × = θ rad
180
Use the following equation to convert from radians to degrees:

180
θ rad × = θ°
π
Table of common degrees to radians conversions

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Your notes

Angular Displacement
In circular motion, it is more convenient to measure angular displacement in units of radians rather than
units of degrees
Angular displacement is defined as:
The change in angle, in radians, of a body as it rotates around a circle
Where:
Δθ = angular displacement, or angle of rotation (radians)
S = length of the arc, or the distance travelled around the circle (m)
r = radius of the circle (m)

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An angle in radians, subtended at the centre of a circle, is the arc length divided by the radius of the
circle
Your notes
Angular Speed
Any object rotating with a uniform circular motion has a constant speed but constantly changing
velocity
Its velocity is changing so it is accelerating
But at the same time, it is moving at a constant speed
The angular speed, ⍵, of a body in circular motion is defined as:
The change in angular displacement with respect to time
Angular speed is a scalar quantity and is measured in rad s–1

The angular speed does not depend on the length of the line AB
The line AB will sweep out an angle of 2π rad in a time T

The angular speed is ω is the rate at which the line AB rotates

Angular Velocity & Linear Speed
Angular velocity is a vector quantity and is measured in rad s–1
Angular speed is the magnitude of the angular velocity
Although the angular speed doesn’t depend on the radius of the circle, the linear speed does

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Your notes

The angle Δθ is swept out in a time Δt, but the arc lengths s and S are different and so are the linear
speeds
The linear speed, v, is related to the angular speed, ⍵, by the equation:

v = rω
Where:
v = linear speed (m s–1)
r = radius of circle (m)
⍵ = angular speed (rad s–1)

Taking the angular displacement of a complete cycle as 2π, the angular speed ⍵ can be calculated
using the equation:
2π
ω = 2πf =
T
Therefore, the linear velocity can also be written as:
2πr
v=
T

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Worked example Your notes

Convert the following angular displacement into degrees:

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Worked example
Your notes
A bird flies in a horizontal circle with an angular speed of 5.25 rad s−1 of radius 650 m.
Calculate:
(a) The linear speed of the bird
(b) The frequency of the bird flying in a complete circle

Exam Tip
Remember the units of angular velocity as rad s–1, so any angles used in calculations must be in radians
and not degrees!

T is the time period which is the time taken for one full revolution.

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Centripetal Force
Your notes
Centripetal Force
Velocity and acceleration are both vector quantities
An object in uniform circular motion is continuously changing direction, and therefore is constantly
changing velocity
The object must therefore be accelerating
This is called the centripetal acceleration and is perpendicular to the direction of the linear speed
Centripetal means it acts towards the centre of the circular path
From Newton's second law, this must mean there is a resultant force acting upon it
This is known as the centripetal force and is what keeps the object moving in a circle
This means the object changes direction even if its magnitude of velocity remains constant
The centripetal force (F) is defined as:
The resultant force perpendicular to the velocity required to keep a body in a uniform
circular motion which acts towards the centre of the circle

The magnitude of the centripetal force F can be calculated using:

mv 2
F= = mrω 2
r
Where:
F = centripetal force (N)
v = linear speed (m s−1)
⍵ = angular speed (rad s−1)
r = radius of the orbit (m)

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Your notes

Centripetal force is always perpendicular to the linear velocity (i.e, the direction of travel)
The direction of the centripetal force is:
In the same direction as the centripetal acceleration (towards the centre of the circle)
This is due to Newton's Second Law
Perpendicular to the linear velocity
The centripetal force is not a separate force of its own
It can be any type of force, depending on the situation, which keeps an object moving in a circular path
For example, tension, friction, gravitational, electrostatic or magnetic

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Examples of centripetal force

Your notes

When solving circular motion problems involving one of these forces, the equation for centripetal force
can be equated to the relevant force equation
For example, for a mass orbiting a planet in a circular path, the centripetal force is provided by
the gravitational force
When an object travels in circular motion, there is no work done
This is because there is no change in kinetic energy

Horizontal Circular Motion

An example of horizontal circular motion is a vehicle driving on a curved road
The forces acting on the vehicle are:
The friction between the tyres and the road
The weight of the vehicle downwards
In this case, the centripetal force required to make this turn is provided by the frictional force
This is because the force of friction acts towards the centre of the circular path
Since the centripetal force is provided by the force of friction, the following equation can be written:

mv 2
= μmg
r
Where:
m = mass of the vehicle (kg)
v = speed of the vehicle (m s–1)
r = radius of the circular path (m)

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μ = static coefficient of friction

g = acceleration due to gravity (m s–2)
Your notes
Rearranging this equation for v gives:

v 2 = μgr

v max = μgr
This expression gives the maximum speed at which the vehicle can travel around the curved road
without skidding
If the speed exceeds this, then the vehicle is likely to skid
This is because the centripetal force required to keep the car in a circular path could not be
provided by friction, as it would be too large

The frictional force provides the centripetal force

Therefore, in order for a vehicle to avoid skidding on a curved road of radius r, its speed must satisfy the
equation

v < μgr
A mass attached to a string rotating around is another example of horizontal circular motion
In this case, the tension is the centripetal force as it acts towards the centre of the circle

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This time, the weight of the mass will be acting as well as the tension of the string

Your notes

A mass attached to a string will have its weight acting meaning the string is at an angle
The weight mg of the mass needs to be balanced by the vertical component of the tension

F t cosθ = mg

This means the string will always be at an angle and never perfectly horizontal
The ball's linear velocity, v is still perpendicular to the tension and its weight, mg points downward
All three forces are perpendicular to each other, so no other component contributes to the centripetal
force, just the tension
The centripetal force is still towards the centre of the circle, but now is just the horizontal component
of the tension

mv 2
F t sinθ =
r
This is an important example of resolving vectors properly. The vertical component does not always
have 'sinθ', it depends on what θ is defined as

Banking
A banked road, or track, is a curved surface where the outer edge is raised higher than the inner edge
The purpose of this is to make it safer for vehicles to travel on the curved road, or track, at a
reasonable speed without skidding
When a road is banked, the centripetal force no longer depends on the friction between the tyres and
the road

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Instead, the centripetal force depends solely on the horizontal component of the normal force

Your notes

During banking, the horizontal component of the normal reaction force provides the centripetal force

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Worked example
Your notes
A 300 g ball is made to travel in a circle of radius 0.8 m on the end of a string. If the maximum force the
ball can withstand before breaking is 60 N, what is the maximum speed of the ball?
Answer:
Step 1: List the known quantities
Mass, m = 300 g = 300 × 10-3 kg
Radius, r = 0.8 m
Resultant force, F = 60 N
Step 2: Rearrange the centripetal force equation for v

mv 2 max
F max =
r

rF max
v max =
m
Step 3: Substitute in the values

0 . 8 × 60
v max = = 12.6 m s–1
300 × 10−3

Exam Tip
The linear speed, v is sometimes referred to as the ‘tangential’ speed.
The centripetal force equation is not given in your data book, but you are given in the equations for
centripetal acceleration. You just need to multiply them by mass m since the centripetal force F = ma.
It is important you understand the foundations of circular motion, especially how to use the equations.
This will heavily link with kepler's laws and magnetic fields.

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Centripetal Acceleration
Your notes
Calculating Centripetal Acceleration
Centripetal acceleration is defined as:
The acceleration of an object towards the centre of a circle when an object is in motion
(rotating) around a circle at a constant speed

Centripetal acceleration is always directed toward the centre of the circle, and is perpendicular to the
object’s velocity
It is directed towards the centre of the circle as it is in the same direction as the centripetal force
It can be defined using the radius r and linear speed v:

v2
a=
r
Where:
a = centripetal acceleration (m s–2)
v = linear speed (m s–1)
r = radius of the circular orbit (m)
Using the equation relating angular speed ω and linear speed v:

v = rω
Where:

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ω = angular speed (rad s–1)

These equations can be combined to give another form of the centripetal acceleration equation: Your notes
a = ω2r
Alternatively, since we know angular velocity is:
2π
ω = 2πf =
T
Where:
f = frequency (Hz)
T = time period (s)
This means the centripetal acceleration can also be written as:

⎛⎜ 2π ⎞⎟2 4π2 r
a=⎜ ⎟ r=
⎝ T ⎠ T2
This equation shows how the centripetal acceleration relates to the linear speed and the angular speed

Worked example
A ball tied to a string is rotating in a horizontal circle with a radius of 1.5 m and an angular speed of 3.5
rad s−1.
Calculate its centripetal acceleration if the radius was twice as large and angular speed was twice as
fast.

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Exam Tip
Your notes
The equations for centripetal acceleration are given on your data sheet in multiple forms. Which form
you use depends on what you're given in the question i.e. v or ω

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Non-Uniform Circular Motion

Your notes
Non-Uniform Circular Motion
Some bodies are in non-uniform circular motion
This happens when there is a changing resultant force such as in a vertical circle
An example of vertical circular motion is swinging a ball on a string in a vertical circle
The forces acting on the ball are:
The tension in the string
The weight of the ball downwards
As the ball moves around the circle, the direction of the tension will change continuously
The magnitude of the tension will also vary continuously, reaching a maximum value at the bottom and
a minimum value at the top
This is because the direction of the weight of the ball never changes, so the resultant force will vary
depending on the position of the ball in the circle

At the bottom of the circle, the tension must overcome the weight, this can be written as:

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mv 2
T max = + mg
r Your notes
As a result, the acceleration, and hence, the speed of the ball will be slower at the top
At the top of the circle, the tension and weight act in the same direction, this can be written as:

mv 2
T min = − mg
r
As a result, the acceleration, and hence, the speed of the ball will be faster at the bottom

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Worked example
Your notes
A bucket of mass 8.0 kg is filled with water and is attached to a string of length 0.5 m.
What is the minimum speed the bucket must have at the top of the circle so no water spills out?

Answer:
Step 1: Draw the forces on the bucket at the top

Although tension is in the rope, at the very top, the tension is 0

Step 2: Calculate the centripetal force
The weight of the bucket = mg
This is equal to the centripetal force since it is directed towards the centre of the circle
mv 2
mg =
r

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Step 3: Rearrange for velocity v

m cancels from both sides Your notes
v= gr
Step 4: Substitute in values

v= 9 . 81 × 0 . 5 = 2 . 21 m s−1

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