PRESSURE & ITS

MEASUREMENT
Teacher Incharge:
Engr. Zaib un Nisa
Teaching Fellow CED
 PRESSURE
Fluid will exert a force normal to a solid boundary or any plane drawn through the fluid.
Since problems may involve bodies of fluids of indefinite extent and, in many cases, the
magnitude of the force exerted on a small area of the boundary or plane may vary from place
to place, it is convenient to work in terms of the pressure p of the fluid, defined as the force
exerted per unit area. If the force exerted on each unit area of a boundary is the same, the
pressure is said to be uniform.

If, as is more commonly the case, the pressure changes from point to point, we consider the
element of force δF normal to a small area δA surrounding the point under consideration:
PRESSURE
Mean pressure, In the limit, as δA→0 (but remains large enough to preserve the concept of
the fluid as a continuum), Pressure at a point,

Units: newtons per square metre (N m−2 )

(Note that an alternative metric unit is the bar; 1 bar = 105 N m−2)
Dimensions: ML−1T−2
 PASCAL’S LAW

Consider the equilibrium of a small fluid

element in the form of a triangular prism as
shown in figure, surrounding a point in the
fluid.
A relationship can be established between
the pressures px in the x-direction, py in the
y-direction and ps normal to any plane
inclined at any angle 𝜗 to the horizontal at
this point.
PASCAL’S LAW
PASCAL’S LAW
 PASCAL’S LAW

Therefore, indicates that the pressure at a point is the same in all directions. This is known as
Pascal’s law and applies to a fluid at rest.
If the fluid is flowing, shear stresses will be set up as a result of relative motion between the particles of
the fluid. The pressure at a point is then considered to be the mean of the normal forces per unit area
(stresses) on three mutually perpendicular planes. Since these normal stresses are usually large compared
with shear stresses it is generally assumed that Pascal’s law still applies.
 PRESSURE VARIATION IN A FLUID AT REST
Consider a fluid element of dimension 𝛿𝑥 𝛿𝑦 𝛿𝑧 and surrounded by the same fluid of mass
density ρ. Suppose that the pressure is p at the center of element. The forces acting on element
are body forces (self weight) and surfaces forces transmitted from surrounding fluid. Since the
fluid is at rest the element must be in equilibrium and the sum of all the vertical forces must be
zero. And the pressure on opposite vertical faces must be equal.
Taking σ 𝐹𝑧 = 0

Thus, in any fluid under gravitational attraction, pressure

decreases with increase of height z.
 PRESSURE VARIATION IN A FLUID AT REST
In a fluid of constant density, dp/dz = −ρg , can be integrated
immediately to give
p = −ρgz + constant.
In a liquid, the pressure p at any depth z, measured downwards
from the free surface so that z = −h , will be
p = ρgh + constant
and, since the pressure at the free surface will normally be
atmospheric pressure patm.

Hydrostatic Law : It states

that rate of increase of
It is often convenient to take atmospheric pressure as a datum.
pressure in a vertical direction
Pressures measured above atmospheric pressure are known as
gauge pressures. is equal to weight density of
the fluid at that point.
PRESSURE HEAD
• Pressure head:
h = p/ρg

A pressure of 100 kN m−2 can be expressed in terms of water (ρH2O = 103 kg m−3) as a
head of (100 × 103)/(103 × 9.81) = 10.19 m of water.
Alternatively, in terms of mercury (relative density 13.6) a pressure of 100 kN m−2 will
correspond to a head of (100 × 103)/(13.6 × 103 × 9.81) = 0.75 m of mercury
EQUALITY OF PRESSURE AT THE SAME
LEVEL IN A STATIC FLUID
 THE HYDROSTATIC PARADOX
The pressure exerted by a fluid is dependent only on the vertical head of fluid and its mass
density ρ; it is not affected by the weight of the fluid present. Thus, the four vessels all have
the same base area A and are filled to the same height h with the same liquid of density ρ.

Thus, although the weight of fluid is obviously different in the four cases, the force on
the bases of the vessels is the same, depending on the depth h and the base area A.
 ABSOLUTE & GAUGE PRESSURE
If pressure is measured relative to absolute zero, it is called absolute pressure; when measured
relative to atmospheric pressure as a base, it is called gauge pressure. If the pressure is below
that of atmosphere, it is designated as a vacuum pressure and its gauge value is the amount by
which it is below that of atmosphere. A perfect vacuum correspond to absolute zero pressure.

𝑃𝑎𝑏𝑠=𝑃𝑎𝑡𝑚+ 𝑃𝑔𝑎𝑔𝑒
𝑃𝑣𝑎𝑐𝑢𝑢𝑚=𝑃𝑎𝑡𝑚 − 𝑃abs

The atmospheric pressure is also called

barometric pressure and varies with the
altitudes. Also at a given place it varies
slightly from time to time because of
changes in meteorological conditions.
Patm at sea level at 15℃ is 101.3KN/m2 &
atm pressure head is 760 mm of Hg or
10.33 m of water.
MEASUREMENT OF PRESSURE
The pressure of a fluid can be measured in two ways:
1. Manometers 2. Mechanical gauges
➢Manometers are defined as the devices used for measuring the pressure at a point in a
fluid by balancing the column of fluid by the same or another column of the fluid. They
are classified as
a) Simple manometers
• Piezometer, U-tube manometer, single column manometer
b) Differential manometers
• U-tube differential manometer & Inverted U-tube differential
manometer
➢Mechanical gauges are defined as the devices used for measuring the pressure by
balancing the fluid column by spring or dead weight. The commonly used mechanical
gauges are
a) Diaphragm pressure gauge c) Dead weight pressure gauge
b) Bourdon tube pressure gauge d) Bellows pressure gauge
 PIEZOMETER
The relationship between pressure and head is utilized for pressure measurement in the
manometer or liquid gauge. The simplest form is the pressure tube or piezometer, consisting
of a single vertical tube, open at the top, inserted into a pipe or vessel containing liquid
under pressure which rises in the tube to a height depending on the pressure. If the top of
the tube is open to the atmosphere, the pressure measured is gauge pressure.

Problems with the Piezometer:

1. Can only be used for liquids
2. Pressure must be above atmospheric
3. Liquid height must be convenient i.e. not be too small or too large.
U-TUBE MANOMETER
The U-tube gauge can be used to measure the pressure of either liquids or gases. The bottom
of the U-tube is filled with a manometric liquid Q which is of greater density 𝜌man and is
immiscible with the fluid P, liquid or gas, of density ρ, whose pressure is to be measured.

What if the fluid is a gas?

𝜌man >> 𝜌
𝜌gh1 can be neglected
PA = 𝜌man gh2
U-TUBE MANOMETER Air relief valve to measure
absolute pressure

𝛾𝑀
𝛾𝑊 𝛾𝑀
S= 𝛾𝐹 =
𝛾𝐹
𝛾𝑊
U-TUBE DIFFERENTIAL MANOMETER
The “U”-tube manometer can be connected at both ends to measure pressure
difference between these two points i.e. two different pipes

For the left-hand limb,

PXX = PA + ρ1 ga
For the right-hand limb,
PXX = PB + ρ1 g(b - h) + ρ2 gh

Thus PB − PA = ρ1 ga - ρ1 g(b - h) - ρ2 gh

or, if A and B are at the same level, then a = b X X

Thus
PB − PA = ρ1 ga - ρ1 g(a - h) - ρ2 gh
PB − PA = (ρ1 - ρ2) gh
U-TUBE DIFFERENTIAL MANOMETER
At 2 different levels within a pipe
INVERTED U-TUBE DIFFERENTIAL
MANOMETER
 BAROMETER
If a tube lower end is immersed in a liquid which is exposed to the atmospheric pressure,
and if air is exhausted from the tube, the liquid will rise in it. If air is completely
exhausted, the only pressure on the surface of the liquid in the tube would then be that of
its own vapor pressure and the liquid would have reached its maximum height.

The pressure at O within the tube and at a at the surface of

liquid outside the tube must be the same; that is Po = Pa
Patm A – Pvapor A – 𝜸Ay = 0
Patm = 𝜸y +Pvapor

If vapor pressure on the surface of liquid in the tube were

negligible then
Patm = 𝜸y
The liquid employed for barometers is
usually mercury because its density is
sufficiently great to enable a reasonably
short tube and its vapor pressure is
negligible at ordinary temperature.
Corrections of capillarity and vapor
pressure should be applied.
 BOURDON GAUGE
Pressure or vacuums are commonly measured by bourdon gauge. In this gauge a curved
tube of elliptical cross section will change its curvature with changes in pressure within the
tube. The moving end of the tube rotates a hand on a dial through a linkage system. A
pressure and vacuum gauge combined into one is known as compound gauge.
 BOURDON GAUGE
The pressure indicated by the gauge is assumed to be that at its center. If the connecting
piping is filled completely with fluid of the same density as that in A. and if pressure gage is
graduated to read in psi then
PA (psi) = gage reading (psi) + 𝜸z/144
A vacuum gage or the negative pressure portion of a compound gage is traditionally
graduated to read in inches or mm of mercury, for vacuums
in of Hg vacuum at A = gage reading (in of Hg vacuum) - 𝜸z (29.9)/144 *14.7

Here, once again, it is assumed that this fluid completely fills the connecting tube. The
elevation correction terms i.e. those containing z, may be positive or negative, depending on
whether the gage is above or below the point at which the pressure determination is desired.
The expressions given are for the situation depicted. When measuring gas pressures, the
elevation correction terms are generally negligible.
The above equations, when written is SI units, require no correction factors; however care
must be taken in dealing with decimal points when adding terms.
PRESSURE TRANSDUCER
A transducer is a device which transfer energy (in any form) from one system to
another.
A bourdon gage, for example, is a mechanical transducer in that it has an elastic
element that converts energy from the pressure system to a displacement in the
mechanical measuring system.
An electrical pressure transducer converts the displacement of a mechanical system
(usually a metal diaphragm) to an electric signal either actively if it generates it own
electrical output or passively if it requires an electrical input which it modifies as a
function of the mechanical displacement.
In one type of pressure transducer, an electrical strain gage is attached to a
diaphragm. As the pressure changes, the deflection of the diaphragm changes. This, in
turn, changes the electrical output which through proper calibration can be related to
pressure. Such a device when connected to a strip chart recorder can be used to give a
continuous record of pressure. In lieu of a strip chart recorder the data may be recorded
at fixed time intervals on a tape or disk using a computer data acquisition system and/or
it may be displayed on a panel in digital form.
PROBLEM # 1
Diver descends from the surface of the sea to a depth of 30 m. What would be
the pressure under which the diver would be working above that at the surface
assuming that the density of sea water is 1025 kg m−3 and remains constant?

• Solution
• In equation (2.4), taking sea level as datum, z1 = 0. Since z2 is lower then z1
the value
• of z2 is −30 m. Substituting these values and putting ρ = 1025 kg m−3:
• Increase of pressure = p2 − p1
• = −1025 × 9.81(−30 − 0) = 301.7 × 103 N m−2.
PROBLEM # 2
The pressure intensity at a point in a fluid is given 3.924 N/cm2. find the
corresponding height of fluid when the fluid is
a) water
b) oil of sp.gr. 0.9
PROBLEM # 3
An open tank contains water upto a depth of 2m and above it an oil of sp. gr. 0.9
for a depth of 1m. Find the pressure intensity
a) At the interface of the two liquids
b) At the bottom of the tank
PROBLEM # 4
The diameters of a small piston and a large piston of a hydraulic jack are 3 cm
and 10 cm respectively. A force of 80 N is applied on the small piston. Find the
load lifted by the large piston when:
a) The pistons are at the same level
b) Small piston is 40 cm above the large piston
the density of the liquid in the jack is given as 1000 kg/m3
PROBLEM # 5
A cylinder contains a fluid at a gauge pressure of 350 kN m−2. Express this
pressure in terms of a head of (a) water (ρH2O = 1000 kg m−3), (b) mercury
(relative density 13.6). What would be the absolute pressure in the cylinder if
the atmospheric pressure is 101.3kNm−2?

• Answers
35.67 m of water
2.62 m of mercury
Pabs = 451.3KN/m2
PROBLEM # 6
What is the maximum gauge pressure of water that can be measured by means
of a piezometer tube 2 m high? (Mass density of water ρH2O = 103 kg m−3.)

• Solution
• Since p = ρgh for maximum pressure, put ρ = ρH2O = 103 and h = 2 m, giving
• Maximum pressure, p = 103 × 9.81 × 2 = 19.62 × 103 N m−2.
 PROBLEM # 7
A U-tube manometer similar to that shown is used to measure the gauge pressure of a
fluid P of density ρ = 800 kg m−3. If the density of the liquid Q is 13.6 × 103 kg m−3,
what will be the gauge pressure at A if
(a) h1 = 0.5 m and D is 0.9 m above BC,
(b) h1 = 0.1 m and D is 0.2 m below BC?

Solution
(a) ρman = 13.6 × 103 kg m−3, ρ = 0.8 × 103 kg m−3, h1 = 0.5 m, h2 = 0.9 m; therefore:
PA = 13.6 × 103 × 9.81 × 0.9 − 0.8 × 103 × 9.81 × 0.5 = 116.15 × 103 N m−2.
(b) Putting h1 = 0.1 m and h2 = −0.2 m, since D is below BC:
PA = 13.6 × 103 × 9.81 × (−0.2) − 0.8 × 103 × 9.81 × 0.1 = −27.45 × 103 N m−2,
the negative sign indicating that PA is below atmospheric pressure.
PROBLEM # 8
A U-tube manometer is arranged, as shown, to measure the pressure difference between
two points A and B in a pipeline conveying water of density ρ = ρH2O = 103 kg m−3. The
density of the manometric liquid Q is 13.6 × 103 kg m−3, and point B is 0.3 m higher than
point A. Calculate the pressure difference when h = 0.7 m.

Solution
ρ = 103 kg m−3, ρman = 13.6 × 103 kg m−3, (b − a) = 0.3 m
and h = 0.7 m.
Pressure difference = PA − PB
= 103 × 9.81 × 0.3 + 0.7 × 9.81(13.6 − 1) × 103 N m−2
= 89.467 × 103 N m−2
 PROBLEM # 9
An inverted U-tube of the form shown is used to measure the pressure difference between
two points A and B in an inclined pipeline through which water is flowing (ρH2O = 103 kg m−3).
The difference of level h = 0.3 m, a = 0.25 m and b = 0.15 m. Calculate the pressure difference
PB − PA if the top of the manometer is filled with (a) air, ( b) oil of relative density 0.8.
Solution
In either case, the pressure at XX will be the same in both limbs, so that
PXX = PA − ρga − ρmangh = PB − ρg(b + h),
PB − PA = ρg(b − a) + gh(ρ − ρman).
(a) If the top is filled with air ρman is negligible compared with ρ. Therefore,
PB − PA = ρg(b − a) + ρgh = ρg(b − a + h).
Putting ρ = ρH2O = 103 kg m−3, b = 0.15 m, a = 0.25 m, h = 0.3 m:
PB − PA = 103 × 9.81(0.15 − 0.25 + 0.3) = 1.962 × 103 N m−2.
(b) If the top is filled with oil of relative density 0.8, ρman = 800 kgm−3.
PB − PA = ρg(b − a) + gh(ρ − ρman)
= 103 × 9.81(0.15 − 0.25) + 9.81 × 0.3 × 103(1 − 0.8) N m−2
= 103 × 9.81(−0.1 + 0.06) = −392.4 N m−2
PROBLEM # 10
A simple U-tube manometer containing mercury is connected to a pipe in which a fluid
of sp. gr. 0.8 and having vacuum pressure is flowing. The other end of the manometer
is open to atmosphere. Find the vacuum pressure in pipe, if the difference of mercury
level in the two limbs is 40cm and the height of fluid in the left from the centre of pipe
is 15cm below.
 PROBLEM # 11
A U-tube manometer is used to measure the pressure of water in a pipe line, which is in
excess of atmospheric pressure. The right limb of manometer contains mercury and is
open to atmosphere. The contact between water and mercury is in the left limb. Determine
the pressure of water in the main line, if the difference in level of mercury in the limbs of
U-tube is 10cm and free surface of mercury is in level with the centre of the pipe.
If the pressure of water in pipe line is reduced to 9810 N/m2 , calculate the new difference
in the level of mercury. Sketch the arrangements in both cases.

Solution:
12360.6 Pa
8.016 cm
PROBLEM # 12
A conical vessel having its outlet at A to which a U-tube manometer is connected. The
reading of the manometer given in the figure shows when vessel is empty. Find the
reading of the manometer when the vessel is completely filled with water.
 PROBLEM # 13
In the figure below two pipes containing
the same fluid of density 990 kg/m3 are
connected using a U-tube manometer.
What is the pressure between the two
pipes if the manometer contains fluid of
relative density 13.6?

*1000