GRAMMAR

PRESENT SIMPLE AND PRESENT CONTINUOUS

The present simple is used to describe
- a permanent state or situation: I live in the town where I was born.
- a fact or something which is always true: The earth revolves around the sun.
- an activity which happens regularly or occasionally: He gets up at six o’clock every day.

The present continuous is used to describe

- a temporary situation: I’m living with my uncle while the builders finish decorating my house.
- an activity happening at the present moment: I’m sorry you can’t talk to her at the moment. She’s
having a shower.
- an activity in progress but not exactly at the present moment: I’m studying three foreign languages,
so I’m quite busy nowadays.
- a situation which is changing or developing: Lots of people are coming to live here, so the town is
growing quickly.
- things the speaker finds strange or irritating, with always. This is a way of complaining: You’re
always using the telephone. Our phone bill will be enormous!

State verbs
Verbs which describe states, not actions, are not usually used in the continuous. These verbs describe:
- thoughts: believe, know, remember, think (meaning believe), feel (meaning believe), suppose, etc.
- feelings: love, like, hate, want, prefer, etc.
- senses: smell, hear, taste, see
- possession: have, belong, own, etc.
- the verb to be.

PRESENT PERFECT SIMPLE AND PRESENT PERFECT CONTINUOUS

Both the pps and ppc talk about something which started in the past and:
- either has a result in the present: He’s lost his job (he’s unemployed now). I’ve been partying all
weekend, so I’m feeling pretty tired now.
- or is still happening now: We’ve been building an extension to our house (and we haven’t finished
yet).

Often they are interchangeable. However:

The present perfect simple The present perfect continuous

emphasises the result: I’ve phoned all my friends and emphasises the activity: I’ve been phoning my friends (
they’re coming to the party. that’s why I haven’t done my homework)
says how much you have done: I’ve cooked three says how long you’ve been doing something: I’ve been
pizzas. cooking all afternoon.
may give the idea that something is more permanent may give the idea that something is temporary (and may
(and may be accompanied by a time expression which be accompanied by a time expression which shows this):
shows this): He’s worked in this shop all his life. I’ve been working here for the last two months until I go
I’ve always lived here. to university.
We’ve been eating dinner in the garden while the
weather has been so warm.
is used when we want to say how many times when we want to emphasise the process of change
something has been repeated: I’ve invited her two or over a period of time and that these changes are not
three times but she always says she’s busey. finished: Your English has been improving tremendously
since you started doing your homework!
PAST SIMPLE, PAST CONTINUOUS AND used to
The past simple is used for:
- actions or events in the past: I visited Egypt last year.
- actions or events which happened one after another: I saw the Pyramids, then I went round the
Cairo Museum and later I went to a traditional restaurant.
- things which happened for a long time in the past: She lived in Zurich for ten years from 1992 to
2002.

The past continuous is used for:

- an activity which started before and continued until an event in the past: He was driving to work
when his car broke down (the activity of driving was interrupted by the problem with the car).
- an activity which started before and continued after an event in the past: I was watching television
when the news was announced (and I continued to watch television afterwards).

Used to is used for:

- situations or states in the past which are not true now: He used to be in the army but now he’s a
teacher.
- repeated activities or habits in the past which do not happen now: She used to run in the London
Marathon every year until she injured her leg.
Used to is a verb which is only used in the past: Did you use to run in the Marathon? No, I didn’t use to
run in the Marathon.

To talk about habits in the present, use the present simple with an adverb like usually, every day, etc. I
usually drink tea with my lunch. He catches the same train every day.

PAST PERFECT TENSES

The past perfect simple is used:
- to indicate that we are talking about something which happened before something which is
described in the past simple: When he got to the station, his train had already left.
Compare this with: When he got to the station, his train left. This indicates that the train left at the
time he arrived.
- typically with time expressions like: when, as soon as, after, before, etc.: She started driving before
he’d fastened his seatbelt.
- often with these adverbs: already, just, never: He’d never eaten steak and kidney pie until he came
to England.

The past perfect continuous is also used:

- to indicate that we are talking about something which happened before something which is
described in the past simple, but it:
- focuses on the length of time: Mandy needed a walk because she’d been sitting down all
day.
- says how long something happened up to a point in the past: It was two months before any
of the teachers noticed that Paula hadn’t been coming to school.
Base form Past tense Past participle Significado
arise arose arisen surgir
be was/were been ser/estar
beat beat beaten vencer
become became become convertirse
begin began begun empezar
bend bent bent doblar
bite bit bitten morder
bleed bled bled sangrar
blow blew blown soplar
break broke broken romper
bring brought brought traer
broadcast broadcast broadcast transmitir
build built built construir
burn burnt/burned burnt/burned quemar
burst burst burst reventar
buy bought bought comprar
catch caught caught atrapar
choose chose chosen elegir
come came come venir
cost cost cost costar
creep crept crept arrastrar
cut cut cut cortar
deal dealt dealt tratar
dig dug dug cavar
do did done hacer
draw drew drawn dibujar
dream dreamt/dreamed dreamt/dreamed soñar
drink drank drunk beber
drive drove driven conducir
eat ate eaten comer
fall fell fallen caerse
feed fed fed alimentar
feel felt felt sentir
fight fought fought luchar
find found found encontrar
fly flew flown volar
Base form Past tense Past participle Significado
forbid forbade forbidden prohibir
forget forgot forgotten olvidar
freeze froze frozen congelar
get got got conseguir/tener
give gave given dar
go went gone ir
grow grew grown crecer
hang hung hung colgar
have had had tener
hear heard heard escuchar
hide hid hidden ocultar
hit hit hit golpear
hold held held sostener/sujetar
hurt hurt hurt doler
keep kept kept mantener
kneel knelt knelt arrodillarse
know knew known saber/conocer
lay laid laid acostarse
lead led led liderar
lean leant/leaned leant/leaned inclinarse
learn learnt/learned learnt/learned aprender
leave left left dejar
lend lent lent prestar
let let let dejar/permitir
lie lay lain mentir
light lit lit encender
lose lost lost perder
make made made hacer
mean meant meant significar
meet met met conocer/encontrarse
pay paid paid pagar
put put put poner
read read read leer
ride rode ridden manejar
ring rang rung llamar
rise rose risen levantarse
Base form Past tense Past participle Significado
run ran run correr
say said said decir
see saw seen ver
sell sold sold vender
send sent sent enviar
set set set establecer
sew sewed sewn coser
shake shook shaken agitar
shine shone shone brillar
shoot shot shot disparar
show showed shown enseñar
shrink shrank shrunk encoger
shut shut shut cerrar
sing sang sung cantar
sink sank sunk hundir
sit sat sat sentarse
sleep slept slept dormir
slide slid slid deslizar
smell smelt/smelled smelt/smelled oler
sow sowed sown sembrar
speak spoke spoken hablar
spell spelt/spelled spelt/spelled deletrear
spend spent spent gastar
spill spilt/spilled spilt/spilled derramar
split split split dividir
spoil spoilt/spoiled spoilt/spoiled estropear
spread spread spread extender/propagar
spring sprang sprung saltar/atacar/surgir
stand stood stood estar de pie
steal stole stolen robar
stick stuck stuck pegar
sting stung stung hacer escocer/arder
strike struck struck golpear
swear swore sworn jurar
sweep swept swept barrer
swell swelled swollen hincarse
 Base form Past tense Past participle Significado
swim swam swum nadar
swing swung swung balancearse
take took taken tomar
teach taught taught enseñar
tear tore torn desgarrar
tell told told contar
think thought thought pensar
throw threw thrown lanzar
understand understood understood entender
wake woke woken levantarse
wear wore worn llevar puesto
weep wept wept llorar
win won won ganar
write wrote written escribir

ZERO, FIRST AND SECOND CONDITIONALS

Conditional sentences express a condition (if…) and the consequence of the condition.
The consequence can be expressed before or after the condition: If you come to Canada, we can visit
Vancouver. We can visit Vancouver if you come to Canada.
If the condition comes first, a comma is used. If the consequence comes first, no comma is used.

Zero conditional
If + present tense, - present tense: If the teacher is late, it sets a bad example to the class.
Is used to express:
- things which are always or generally true: People get annoyed if you shout at them.
- scientific facts: If water boils, it evaporates.

First conditional
If / Unless + present tense, - future tense / modal verb (may, can should, etc.) / imperative: If you
wash the car, it will look much smarter. You shouldn’t go swimming unless you think it’s safe.
Is used to express a future condition the speaker thinks is possible or likely: If I get the job, I’ll buy myself
a new car.

Second conditional
If / Unless + past tense, - would/could/might + infinitive: If she wasn’t so busy, she could come to the
party. I would go for a walk, if it wasn’t so cold.
Is used to express a present or future condition which is imaginary, contrary to the facts, impossible or
improbable.
If I was rich as Bill Gates, I wouldn’t work (this is imaginary).
I wouldn’t fly in a helicopter unless I was sure it was completely safe (this is imaginary).
Her English would be better if she came to class more often (contrary to the facts - she dosen’t come to
class often enough).
THIRD CONDITIONAL
The third conditional is used to talk about something which did not happen in the past and its results,
which are imaginary.
If I had lived in the 19th century, I would have gone to school by horse → If I had lived in the 19th century
(something which did not happen - I am alive now), I would have gone to school by horse (an imaginary
consequence because I didn’t live in the 19th century).
If I hadn’t reacted quickly, the hippo would have killed me (I reacted quickly, so the hippo didn’t kill me).

The third conditional has the following form

If + past perfect tense, -would have + (done, been, eaten, etc)
If you had phoned me this morning, I would not have been late for school.
If you had gone to the concert, you would have enjoyed it a lot.
You can contract the third conditional as follows:
If I’d lived in the 19th century, I’d have gone to school by horse.
If he hadn’t been in such a hurry, he wouldn’t have had an accident.
You can use could and might instead of would:
If our team had played harder, they could have won the match (they had the ability to win the
match, but they didn’t, because they didn’t play hard enough).
If our team had played harder, they would have won the match (they were sure to win, but they
didn’t because they didn’t play hard enough).
If the weather had been better, we might have gone swimming (swimming was a possibility).
If the weather had been better, we would have gone swimming (swimming was a certainty).

INDIRECT QUESTIONS
Indirect questions are questions which you introduce with a short phrase, e.g. Do you know…?, Could you
tell me…?, I wonder…, I’d like to know…

This type of question is used when:

- you are talking to someone you don’t know
- you are writing a letter or email.

When you ask an indirect question:

- the order of the words in the question is the same as a normal sentence. Can you tell me how long
you have been studying English? I wonder when I can phone you.
- the auxiliary verb do, does and did are not used to form questions; the question has the same form
as a normal sentence. Do you know if the train to Paris leaves from this platform?
- use a question mark (?) when the introductory phrase is a question.
- use if / whether to introduce questions where you expect the answer yes or no: Can you tell me
if/whether the university is near the city center?
WAYS OF EXPRESSING THE FUTURE

Tense Use Examples

with things which are not certain, She’ll probably phone later.
especially with I think, I hope, I I think it will be warmer next week.
expect, probably and maybe

Sea levels will rise by several centimetres.

predictions for the future
The climate will change.
Future simple
will can also be used to: Will you help me with my homework?
- make requests I won’t forget.
- make promises I’ll buy you a sandwich if you’re hungry.
- make offers That’s the phone ringing - I’ll get it!
- express a decision made at
the moment of speaking

for something happening / in Don’t phone me at 9 o’clock because I’ll be

progress at a specific time in the having dinner.
Future continuous In 2050, sea levels will still be rising.
future, or over a period of time in
the future

for things completed before a time You can phone me at 10 because I’ll have
Future perfect finished dinner by then.
mentioned in the future

Your work is so good that I reckon you’re

predictions about the future based
going to get a Grade A.
on present evidence
Look at the clouds! I think it’s going to snow.
going to future
I’m going to study biology at university.
future plans and intentions
He says he’s going to phone you tomorrow.

Present things arranged between people for I’m seeing the dentist tomorrow - I made the
continuous the future appointment last week.

Present simple events fixed on a timetable The flight to Paris takes off at six.

INFINITIVES AND VERB + ing FORMS

Infinitive
The infinitive is used:
- to say why you do something: I’ve just gone running to get some exercise.
- to say why something exists: There’s an example to help you.
- after too and enough: It’s too cold to go swimming today.
- after these verbs patterns:
- verb + to infinitive: She agreed to meet him after work.
agree, appear, begin, bother, decide, demand, fail, hope, learn, manage, offer, plan, refuse,
seem, be supposed, threaten.
- verb (+ somebody/something) + to infinitive: I expect you to play in the match.
ask, choose, expect, help, intend, promise, want.
- verb + somebody/something + to infinitive: The money enabled him to go to university.
advise, allow, enable, encourage, forbid, force, invite, order, permit, persuade, recommend,
remind, teach, tell, warn.

The following verbs can be used to report speech: advise, agree, allow, ask, decide, encourage, forbid,
invite, offer, order, permit, persuade, promise, recommend, refuse, remind, tell, threaten, warn.
Verb + -ing
The verb + -ing is used:
- after prepositions: He’s made a lot of friends by joining the tennis club. We watched a film about
climbing in the mountains.
- as subjects or objects of a sentence: Climbing is safer than it looks. He decided to take up
adventure racing.
- after these verbs: admit, appreciate, avoid, celebrate, consider, delay, deny, dislike, enjoy, finish,
imagine, involve, keep, mind, miss, postpone, practise, regret, risk, stop, suggest.
I really enjoyed winning that match. She suggested playing a game.
- after these expressions: it’s no good, it’s not worth, it’s no use, it’s a wast of time, can’t stand, can’t
bear, can’t help.

The following verbs can be used in reported speech: admit, deny, regret, suggest.

Verbs followed by either an infinitive or a verb + -ing with the same meaning
love, begin, continue, hate, prefer, like, start: I love playing tennis / I love to play tennis.

When these verbs are used with would, they are always followed by the infinitive: I wouldn’t like to do an
adventure race.

Verbs followed by either an infinitive or a verb + -ing with a difference in meaning

verb + infinitive verb + -ing

remember Did you remember to bring your running I remember feelings very tired at the end of
shoes? (an action you have to do) the race (a memory of something in the
past)

forget Don’t forget to bring your tennis racket (an I’ll never forget winning my first tennis
action you have to do) championship (a memory of something in
the past). This form is unusual. It’s more
normal to use (not) remember.

regret I regret to tell you the race has been I regret not training harder before the race
cancelled (regret + to say / to tell / to inform (I’m sorry I didn’t do this).
means: I’m sorry to give you this
information.

try I’m running every day because I’m trying to If you want to get fit, why don’t you try
get fit (my objective is to get fit) swimming? (swimming is a method to reach
your objective)

mean Nadal means to win the championship (this I wanted to be a swimming champion, but it
is his intention). meant going to the pool every day at 5.30 (it
involved).

stop Halfway through the marathon, he stopped When he realised he couldn’t win, he
to drink some water (in order to drink some stopped running (he didn’t continue).
water)
REPORTED SPEECH 1
Tense changes in reported speech
If the reporting verb (said, told, admitted, warned, etc.) is in the past, make the following tense changes:
- present simple → past simple: I live in Berlin → She said she lived in Berlin.
- present continuous → past continuous: I’m watching TV → He said he was watching TV.
- present perfect → past perfect: I’ve seen the film already → She said she had seen the film
already.
- past simple → past perfect: I missed the concert → He told me he had missed the concert.
- will → would: I’ll phone you soon → She promised she would phone me soon.

These modal verbs also change:

- can → could: I can understand German, but I can’t speak it → She said she could understand
German but she couldn’t speak it.
- may → might: I may give the book to John → The teacher suggested he might give the book to
John.
- must → had to: I must cook supper → Tanya said she had to cook supper.

The following modal verbs do not change in reported speech: could, would, should might, ought to and
used to.

Would doesn’t change: I would prefer to study in London → She said that she would prefer to study in
London.

Must usually changes to had to: You must read this text for the next lesson → My teacher told me I had
to read the text for the following lesson.

Must doesn’t change:

- when it’s negative: You mustn’t tell Katya our secret → Ana told Stefan he mustn’t tell Hatya their
secret.
- when it expresses a deduction: Arturo must still be asleep → She said that Arturo must still be
asleep.

If the reporting verb is in a present tense, no tense changes are necessary: I’ll help you with your
homework → She says she’ll help me with my homework.

Questions in reported speech

To report a question, make the following changes:
- Change the word order in the question to the same as a normal sentence (see Indirect questions).
- Make the same tense changes as above.
- Use the same question words (when, where, how, etc.).
- Use a full stop (.), not a question mark (?): How long have you been living in London? → She
asked me how long I had been living in London.
- The auxiliary verbs do, does and did are not used; the question has the same form as a normal
sentence: What time does the lesson start? → Ludmila asked what time the lesson started.
- Yes/No questions use if or whether: Can I come to your party? → Aniela wanted to know
whether she could come to our party.

Verbs and phrases used to introduce reported questions: ask, wonder, want to know, enquire.
Pronoun, adjective and adverb changes in reported speech
We usually make the following changes:
- you → he/she/they: I spoke to you earlier → He said he had spoken to her earlier.
- your → his/her/their // our → their: I’ll come to your house later → He promised that he would
come to her house later.
- this/that (pronouns) → it: You should give this to Joan → She told him he should give it to Joan.
- this/that work (etc.) → the work // these/those cars (etc.) → the cars: This work is very good →
She told him the work was very good.
- today/this week/month/year → that day/week/month/year.
- tomorrow/next month/next year → the next day/month/year // the following day/month/year.
- yesterday/last week/month/year → the day before // the previous day/week/month/year // the
week/month/year before.
- here → there.

REPORTED SPEECH 2
Reporting verbs
There are many verbs which can be used to introduce reported speech, each followed by different
grammatical patterns. You will see that most verbs can be followed by more than one grammatical pattern.

Verb + infinitive
agree: Magda agreed to look after the children.
offer: She offered to take the children to the zoo.
promise: She’s promised to phone me later.

Verb + object + infinitive

advise: The doctor advised Mrs Carter to take a long holiday.
ask: The neighbours asked us to turn our music down.
invite: Patsy has invited me to go to the party with her.
order: The police ordered everyone to leave the building.
persuade: I persuaded my mother to take a holiday.
remind: Can I remind you to phone Stephen?
tell: Carl told Jane to close all the windows.
warn: They warned us not to walk on the ice.

Verb + preposition + noun or verb / -ing

accuse of: Shopie was accused of stealing books.
admit to: Bill admited to the mistake.
apologise for: Tommy apologised for being late.
complain about: The neighbours have been complaining about the noise.

Verb + noun or verb / -ing

admit: Danny admitted the theft.
deny: Sean denied causing the accident.
recommend: I can really recommend this book.
suggest*: Jasmine suggested going climbing at the weekend.
Verb + (that) + sentence
admit: Sally admitted (that) she had taken the money.
agree: The headteacher agreed (that) the exam had been too difficult.
complain: We complained that we had been given too much homework to do.
deny: Pablo denied that he had caused the accident.
explain: She explained that she wasn’t feeling very well.
promise: Mandy promised (that) she would phone later.
recommend: The doctor recommended (that) I take more exercise.
say: Robin said (that) he was going swimming later.
suggest*: Liz suggested (that) I should try the shopping centre on the edge of town.

Verb + object + (that) + sentence

persuade: I persuaded my mother that she should take a holiday.
promise: Mandy promised Charlie (that) she would phone him later.
remind: Can I remind you (that) you’ve got yo phone Stephen?
tell: The school told the students (that) they had the rest of the day free.
warn: Nobody warned me (that) my grandmother was visiting us today.

Others
ask + if / what, etc + sentence: She asked me what I was doing.
invite + object + to + noun: Patsy has invited me to the party.

*Suggest: is never followed by the infinitive. The following patterns are possible:
- suggest + verb + -ing: Maria suggested buying a new computer.
- suggest + noun: Phil suggested the idea.
- suggest + (that) + sentence with a verb in a tense: Tony suggested that they played football
that afternoon.
- suggest + (that) + should: Chantal suggested I should write a letter.

PASSIVE
Form
The passive is formed by the verb to be + done / eaten / cleaned, etc.

Active Passive
They ate all the food very quickly All the food was eaten very quickly.
We’ve sold the car. The car has been sold.
It’s nice when people invite me to dinner. It’s nice when I’m invited to dinner.
On a clean day you can see Ibiza from the mainland. On a clear day Ibiza can be seen from the mainland.

Uses
The passive is used when:
- the speaker doesn’t know who or what does/ did something: My car has been stolen!
- the speaker doesn’t need to say who or what does/did something because it’s obvious from the
situation or context: The law was passed earlier this year.
- what happens is more important than who does it: The car has been repaired so we can go away
this weekend.
- when writing in a formal style: Your ticket has been booked and can be collected from our office.
The passive with get
- You can use get instead of be to form the passive, especially when you want to say that
something happened to someone or something:
He got hurt playing football yesterday (He was hurt).
I’m afraid we were playing football and one of your windows got broken.
- Only use get when something happens or changes: He got arrested by the police. It is not
possible with state verbs: The car got was owned by a film star.
- Get is used mainly in informal spoken English.

The passive with reporting verbs

The passive is often used to report what people say, think, etc. especially when we don’t know who said it
or thought it, or it’s not important:
The Queen is thought to be suffering from a heavy cold.
Fernando Alonso is considered to be the best Spanish Formula One driver of all time.

We use three possible forms:

- He/She is said, thought, considered, etc. + infinitive: Lions are know to hunt in this area.
Verbs that can be used with this pattern are: consider, discover, except, feel, know, say, suppose,
think, understand.
To talk about the past we can use: She is said to have played / eaten / been, etc: The Prime
Minister is understood to have spoken to the rebels on the phone.
- It is said, thought, considered, etc. + that + a sentence: It is thought that Elena is highly intelligent.
Verbs that can be used with this pattern are: agree, announce, consider, decide, discover, expect,
feel, find, know, mention, propose, recommend, say, suggest, suppose, think, understand.
- It is agreed, planned, etc. + infinitive: It has been agreed to change the dates of the meeting.
Verbs that can be used with this pattern are: agree, decide, forbid, hope, plan, propose.

RELATIVE PRONOUNS AND RELATIVE CLAUSES

relative clause
The man who phone you is my doctor

Relative clauses start with these relative pronouns: who, which, that, whose, where, when and why.

Defining relative clauses

Relative clauses which tell you which person or thing the speaker is talking about. They give essential
information, e.g. The doctor who treated me is my cousin. The relative clause (underlined) tells us which
doctor we are talking about.

Non-defining relative clauses

Relative clauses which give you extra information: My doctor, who belongs to the same tennis club as
you, vaccinated me yesterday. We already know which doctor (it’s my doctor); who belongs to the same
tennis club as you does not tell us which doctor we are talking about; it just adds extra information.

Defining relative clauses Non-defining relative clauses

● Don’t have commas. ● Use commas (or pauses in
● That can be used instead of who or which. spoken English).
● Who, which or that can be omitted when they are the object ● Don’t use that.
of the clause: The medicine (which/that) the doctor gave me ● The relative pronoun cannot be
should be taken twice a day (the doctor is the subject and omitted.
which/that the object of the clause.
LINKING WORDS AND PHRASES
When
To talk about:
- a situation: I feel very uncomfortable when the weather is so hot.
- something you know will happen at some point in time: I’m writing an essay at the moment. When I
finish, I’ll phone you back.

If
To describe something you are not sure will happen: We’ll miss the beginning of the film if the bus is late.

In case
With the present tense to talk about something which might happen in the future: I’ll take a book to read in
case I have to wait a long time for the train.
It is different to if:
- I’ll take my swimming costume in case we go to the beach → I’ll take it now because we might go
to the beach later.
- I’ll take my swimming costume if we go to the beach → I won’t take my swimming costume now,
because I don’t know if we will go to the beach.
With the past simple to explain why someone did something: Clara turned off her mobile phone in case it
rang during the exam (she thought it might ring during the exam).

Even though
Use it as a strong way of saying although when we are certain about something:
He bought a new computer even though his old one was working perfectly (the speaker is certain
the old one was working perfectly).
I’m really looking forward to my holiday even though the weather forecast is for rain (the speaker
knows the weather forecast is for rain).

Even if
Use it as a stronger way of saying if, when you are not certain about something:
I’m going to have a holiday in the USA this summer even if I fail all my exams (I’m not sure if I’m
going to fail my exams - but I’m going to have the holiday anyway).
I’ll come to your party even if I have to walk there ( I don’t know if I’ll have to walk there, but I’ll
make sure I come to your party).

LINKING WORDS OF CONTRAST

Although, even though (aunque), while and whereas (mientras)
- Are used to put two contrasting ideas in one sentence: I didn’t buy the car although I thought it was
beautiful.
- They can be placed at the beginning of the sentence, we separate the two parts with a comma. It
was late. She decided to phone him → Although it was late, she decided to phone him.
- Or they can be placed in the middle, between the two contrasting ideas, no comma is used: It was
late. She decided to phone him → She decided to phone him although it was late.
- Even though is stronger than although: I didn’t buy the car even though I had the money ready in
my pocket.
However
- Normally starts a new sentence and refers to the sentence before.
- It is usually followed by a comma: He decided to go out to the cinema. However, he didn’t tell his
family where he was going.

Despite and in spite of

- Mean without taking any notice of or being influenced by: not prevented by: He got into the army
despite being quite short. She went swimming in spite of the cold weather.
- They can be placed at the beginning of the sentence or in the middle. They are followed by a noun
or a verb + -ing.
- When used at the beginning of a sentence, a comma is also used to separate the two parts of the
sentence: Despite working all day, Teresa didn’t feel at all tired. We got to school on time in spite of
the heavy traffic.

But
- Can be used to join two sentences. In this case it is used in the middle of the sentence and it
usually follows a comma: We warned her, but she didn’t pay any attention.
- It can sometimes be used at the beginning of a new sentence: He likes romantic films. But don’t
tell anybody!

MODAL VERBS TO EXPRESS CERTAINTY AND POSSIBILITY

To express ● Use must: She’s been in over 15 films, so she must be very well known.
certainty about the ● Use can’t or couldn’t for the negative (not mustn’t): You can’t be tired.
present You’ve just got out of bed!

● Use must have + past participle: You have a very big part in the play. It
To express must have taken you ages to learn all the lines.
certainty about the ● Use can’t have and couldn’t have + past participle for the negative: She
past can’t have left her glasses at home - I saw her wearing them on the bus.
She couldn’t have stolen the money because she’s far too honest!

● Use may, might or could: I may come and visit you next summer.
We might go to the cinema this evening if we finish all our work in time.
To express We’d better go out for a walk now because it could rain later.
possibility about
the present or ● Use may not and might not (mayn’t or mightn’t) for the negative (not can’t
future or couldn’t which express certainty): Frankie is looking very pale. He may
not be very well.
Don’t cook any dinner for me because I might not be back in time.

To express ● Use may have, might have, could have, may not have, might not have
possibility about + past participle: It’s unlike Sally to be late. She may have overslept, or she
the past might not have remembered the appointment.
EXPRESSING SOMEONE'S ABILITY
Can, can’t, could, couldn’t, be able to, and manage
- In the present, use:
- can or am / is / are able to for things which are possible: Francesca can speak five
languages, but she can’t speak Russian.
- can’t or am not / isn’t / aren’t able to for things which are not possible. She’s able to play
the piano but she isn’t able to play the violin.
- We usually use can and can’t when speaking because they are shorter.

- In the past, use:

- could only when you are speaking in general: When I was a child, I could read without
glasses (I was able to read without glasses).
- was / were able to when you are speaking about one particular occasion: Dad didn’t have
any money on him, but fortunately he was able to use his credit card to pay the bill (he
could use his credit card to pay the bill).
- couldn’t and wasn’t / weren’t able to when you are speaking in general and also when
you are speaking about one particular occasion: Pascual wasn’t able to / couldn't do all the
questions in the maths exam.

- Use able to for perfect and future tenses. Remember the verb to be is not used in the continuous:
- Present perfect: I’ve been very busy so I haven’t been able to finish reading the novel.
- Future simple: When you finish the course, you’ll be able to speak English really well.

- Use be able to after an infinitive: She hopes to be able to study medicine when she goes to
university.

- Use be able to after modal verbs (might, should, may, etc.): If I’m free this weekend, I might be
able to help you paint your house.

- Use can and could with see, hear, smell, feel and taste: From the top of the mountain we could
see for more than 50 km.

- Use manage when you succeed in doing something quite difficult to do: I know you’ve been busy,
but did you manage to phone my mum?
Remember could is only possible when speaking in general. He could pass the exam although he
was feeling ill when he did it.

CAUSATIVE have
Have + something + done/made/cleaned → we use this structure when we ask someone else to do
something for us:
We’re having the house painted (the decorators are painting our house for us)
I’ve just had my watch repaired (a watchmaker has just repaired my watch)

Usually it’s not necessary to say who did it for us, but it is possible: I’ve just had my hair cut by my
brother-in-law.

This structure can be used in any tense or form:

I’m thinking of having my hair dyed green.
Maggie’s going to have her shoulder tattooed.
EXPRESSING OBLIGATION AND PERMISSION
Obligation - must
- Only use must in the present tense.
- When the obligation is something you agree with. Teacher to students: You must hand in your
homework on Monday.
- For strong advice: You must be careful if you stay out late at night.

Obligation - have to
- Use have to except for present tenses:
I’d like to go camping with you, but I’ll have to ask my parents first.
In order to escape from the guards they had to swim across a river.

- Use have to when the obligation comes from someone else: My teacher has given me a lot of
homework which I have to do for Monday.

Obligation - be supposed to
- Use be supposed to to talk about an obligation which may be different from what really happens:
We’re supposed to do five writing tasks each term (but most people only do two or three).
Aren’t you supposed to be in class (noy out here playing football)?

Obligation - should
- Use should to talk about the right thing to do, but which is different from what really happens:
I should do the housework instead of watching television in the middle of the afternoon.

- The past of should is should have:

You shouldn’t have shouted at your father like that!.

Prohibition - can’t, mustn’t, not let, am not allowed to, don’t allow (me) to
- Use these modal verbs and phrases to express prohibition:
You can’t go in there- it says ‘No entry!’
You mustn’t speak during the exam - it’s forbidden.
My sister won’t let me listen to her CDs.
I’m not allowed to use the kitchen in my host family’s house.
My parents didn’t allow me to play computer games when I was small.

- Do not use don’t have to to express prohibition, it is used to say that it’s not necessary.
You don’t have to mustn’t use your mobile phone in class.

Permission - can/could, let, am allowed to and may/was allowed to

Only use may in formal situations
You can only smoke in open spaces, not inside buildings.
Are we allowed to use the phone in the office for private calls?
She let him borrow her bicycle to get to the station.
When you have answered all the questions, you may leave the room.

No obligation - don’t have to, don’t need to and needn’t

To say that there is no obligation or it’s not necessary: You needn’t learn all the vocabulary on this page -
only the words you think are useful.
- I didn’t need to means it wasn’t necessary and I didn’t do it: I didn’t need to buy a newspaper to find
out the story because I’d already heard it on the radio.

- I needn’t have means it wasn’t necessary but I did it: What lovely roses! You needn’t have bought me
so many, but it was very generous of you.
 WISH, IF ONLY and HOPE
Use wish / if only + past simple to say we would like a present situation to be different:
I wish I had a bigger car (because my car is too small).
If only it was the summer holidays (but it isn’t, I’m still at school).

Use wish / if only + would to say:

- we want something to happen: I wish my car would start (I can’t make it start and I want it to start).
If only the lesson would end (I want it to end).
- we want someone to start doing something they do not do: If only you’d listen to me!
- we want someone to stop doing something which annoys us: I wish you wouldn’t borrow my
clothes”

Use wish / if only + past perfect to talk about things which we are unhappy about which happened in the
past:
He wishes he had studied harder when he was at school (he didn’t study hard enough - perhaps if
he had studied harder he would have gone to university).
If only they hadn’t scored that goal! (they scored a goal and as a result we probably won’t win the
match).

If only means I wish

- When talking about other people we use he wishes, they wish, etc.
- We use if only when we feel something very strongly. Otherwise we use I wish.

Hope
Use hope when we want something to happen or to be true, and usually have a good reason to think that
it might:
I hope you have a good holiday.
She hopes she’ll get a high grade in her exams.
He hopes to go into politics in the future.
We can use hope when we want something to be true about the past, but we don’t know if it is true:
I hope you had a good flight (but I don’t know if you had a good flight).
I hope you had good weather for your party (but I don’t know if the weather was good).

Optimistic about something? I hope the weather will improve so we can

wish or hope → Use hope. → go fishing this afternoon.

↓
Talking about a present
I wish I lived in London.
situation? → She wishes she was / were richer.
↗ Use wish + past simple

Pessimistic about Talking about something

something you would like to happen or I wish you wouldn’t play such loud music.
happening, or sure it → something you would like → He wishes his daughter would come
won’t happen? someone to do? home earlier.
Use wish. Use wish + would

↘ I wish I hadn’t eaten so much cake - I’m

Talking about past time?
Use wish + past perfect
→ feeling sick.
She wished she had gone to university.
ADJECTIVES WITH -ed AND -ing
There are many adjectives which can be formed with -ed or -ing:
- Adjectives with -ed express how the person feels about something: She was terrified as Dracula
approached her.
- Adjectives with -ing are used to describe the person or thing which produces the feeling: There’s a
surprising article in today’s newspaper (I felt surprised when I read it).
- Not all of these types of adjectives have both forms, e.g. elated (exaltado) but not elating.

COMPARATIVE AND SUPERLATIVE FORMS OF ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS

Comparative forms
- adjective/adverb + -er + than… : Tennis is cheaper than golf.
- more + adjective/adverb + than… : Golf is more expensive than tennis.

Superlative forms
- the + adjective/adverb + -est… : Chess is one of the cheapest hobbies.
- the most + adjective/adverb… : Playing team sports is the most sociable freetime activity.

COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES
Add -er and .est with:
- one-syllable adjectives: Fiona is fitter than last year.
- two-syllable adjectives ending in y and ly, e.g. happy, friendly: My brother’s the friendliest person in
my family.

When there is just one vowel before one final consonant, the final consonant is doubled: hot - hotter, fat -
fatter. But clean - cleaner, safe - safer.
Final y becomes i: easy - easier, healthy - healthier.

Use more an most with: adjectives of two syllables or more, except ending in y or ly: Biking is the most
dangerous activity.

To say two things are the same: use as + adjective + as: She finds doing aerobics as interesting as
playing team sports.

To say that one thing is less than another: you can use:
- not so/as + adjective + as: Window shopping is not so/as enjoyable as clubbing.
- less + adjective + than: Playing chess is less healthy than playing team sports.
- the least + adjective: Clubbing is the least healthy.

Adjectives irregular form:

- good - better - best
- much - more - most
- little - less - least
- old - elder - eldest (for brothers and sisters)
- bad - worse - worst
- many - more - most
- far - farther/further - farthest/furthest
COMPARISON OF ADVERBS
Add -er and -est with: one-syllable adverbs, e.g. hard, fast, straight: My mum works harder than my dad.
Use more and most with: two-syllable adverbs including adverbs ending in ly: Maria read the text more
quickly than Susanna. She visits me more often than in the past.
To say two things are the same: use as + adverb + as: Julia finished the exercise as quickly as Mark (Julia
and Mark finished the exercise equally quickly).
To say that we do one thing differently from another: use not so/as + adverb + as: Shopie doesn't speak
Spanish so/as well as Gordon.
Adverbs irregular forms:
- well - better - best
- badly - worse - worst

SO AND SUCH
- Mean very, extremely. That was so kind of you! You have such a beautiful house.
- Are used to talk about cause and effect: He was so late that he missed the beginning of the exam.
She gave such a good performance that she won an Oscar.

So Such
… so + adjective or adverb … + that … such + adjective + uncountable noun / plural noun
He was so nervous before the exam that he … + that
couldn’t sleep at all. She has such nice children. Switzerland has such
spectacular scenery that we always choose it for our
holidays.
… so + much/many/few/little + noun … + … such a/an + adjective + singular countable noun …
that + that
We had so little money leftist the end of our Why did you come in such an old pair of jeans?
holiday that we had to sleep at the station. It was such a beautiful day that we decided to go for a
Marta makes so many mistakes when she’s picnic.
speaking!
… such a lot of …
Elena’s got such a lot of friends that the telephone never
stops ringing.

TOO AND ENOUGH

- To: means more than is needed or wanted: She’s too old to join the police.
- Enough: means as much as is necessary or needed: Have we got enough eggs to make a cake?

Too Enough
… too + adjective (+noun) (+ for somebody) (+ adjective/adverb + enough (+ for somebody) (+
infinitive) infinitive)
He’s too young to drive. This coffee is not warm enough!
That suitcase is too heavy for me to lift. Franz didn’t answer the question convincingly
… too + adverb (+ for somebody) (+ infinitive) enough to get the job.
You’re driving too dangerously. That hotel is not smart enough for her.

… too much / too many + noun (+ for somebody) … enough + noun (+for somebody) (+infinitive)
(+ infinitive) Have you got enough money to get to London?
They brought too much food for us to eat. There isn’t enough cake in the cupboard for me to
I’ve received too many emails to answer. give some to everyone.
COUNTABLE AND UNCOUNTABLE NOUNS
- Nouns can be either countable (C) or uncountable (U).
- Some nouns can be both, but with a difference in meaning: They say it’s healthy to drink tea (U,
tea in general). Would you like a tea (C, a cup of tea)?
Countable nouns
- use a or an in the singular: a job, an animal.
- can be made plural: cars, books.
- use some and any in the plural: some friends, any answers.
- use few and many in the plural: few students, many years.
Uncountable nouns
- do not use a or an
- cannot be made plural: work, music
- use verbs in the singular: the news is good, music help me relay.
- use some and any in the singular: some food, any advice.
- use little and much: little information, much homework.
- use other words to refer to a quantity: a piece of advice, an amount of money.
- Common uncountable nouns: accommodation, experience, knowledge, pollution, transport,
advice, food, luggage, research, work, behavior, furniture, media, scenery, countryside, homework,
music, smoke, damage, housework, news or software.

ARTICLES
The indefinite article
A or an are used:
- with singular, countable nouns mentioned for the first time: A blue car came round the corner. A
strange man with a black beard walked through the door.
- to express rates: He drove at 50 kilometres an hour. She earns €50,000 a year.
- Use an before vowels: an email. But not when u or e produces a y sound: a useful tool, a
European student, a university.
- When h is silent, use an: an hour, an honest man.
A or an are not used with uncountable nouns or plural countable nouns. More women go to university in
Spain than men.

The definite article

The is used:
- with things we have mentioned before ir it’s clear who or what are referring to from the context: I’ve
got a new teacher. The teacher is from California. Could you go to the bank for me, please? (the
bank we always use).
- with things which are unique: the internet, the moon.
- with adjectives to express groups: In this country, the rich are growing richer and the poor are
growing poorer.
- with nationalities: the French, the Spanish. The Nationality adjectives ending in -sh, -ch, -ese and
-ss have a singular form but are plural in meaning. The Chinese are very hardworking. Other
nationality adjectives have a plural form and a plural meaning: the Americans are going to win.
- with superlatives: the best, the longest, etc.
- with the first, the second, the third used as adjectives: Manolo won the first prize.
- with names of countries which include these words Republic, Kingdom, States or Emirates: The
United Kingdom, The Czech Republic…
- with names of rivers, mountain ranges, seas and oceans: the Nile, the Alps, the Mediterranenan,
the Pacific.
Do not use the:
- when talking in general and in the plural: Teachers are not paid enough. I can’t imagine offices
without computers. Life is hard. Everyone needs love.
- with many common expressions: in/to bed, to church, at home, in/to hospital, in/to prision, at/to
school, at/to university, at/to work: He’s in bed. I’m at university. What time do you go to work?
She’s been taken to hospital.

AS and LIKE
Use as:
- to say someone or something is that thing, or has that function: He works as a nurse. She uses
email as a way of keeping in touch with her friends.
- before a subject + verb: Things happened exactly as I had predicted (in the way I predicted).
- to mean because: As Mum is away, I’m going to cook lunch today.
- after certain verbs including describe as, consider as, regard as: The teachers regard you as the
best group of students in the school. The police are describing him as extremely dangerous.
- with adjectives and adverbs to make comparisons: Mike is not as clever as his sister.
- to mean for example in the phrase such as: I spent the summer travelling round Europe and
visiting lots of places such as Venice, Florence and Barcelona.
- with same … as: You’re wearing the same colour shirt as me!
- in the phrases:
- as far as I know (I think it’s true but I don’t know all the facts): As far as I know, Woody
Allen has never won an Oscar.
- as far as I’m concerned (this is my personal opinion): I don’t mind how much money you
spend on clothes - you can spend all your money on clothes as far as I’m concerned.
- as far as I can see/tell (this is what I’ve noticed or understood): Arsenal aren’t going to win
the cup this year as far as I can see.

Use like:
- to mean similar to (especially with look, sound, smell, seem, taste, etc.): My boyfriend looks just
like Brad Pitt! This swimming pool is fantastic - the artificial waves mean it’s like swimming in the
sea.
- to mean for example: He enjoys all sort of adventure sports like paragliding, windsurfing and
canoeing.

LOOK, SEEM and APPEAR

You can use these verbs to express your impressions of something or someone: I haven’t talked to him
very much, but he seems very intelligent.
These verbs can be used with the following patterns:
- look / seem / appear + adjective: She looks very old. He seems hungry. Marga appeared tired.
- subject + look + as if + sentence: The car looks as if it needs washing. You look as if you’ve had
a bad day.
- it looks / seems + as if + sentence: It looks as if the car needs washing. It seems as if you’ve
had a bad day.
- seem / appear + infinitive: The weather seems to have changed. She appeared to be crying.
- look / seem + like + noun: He looks like my uncle. It may seem like an impossible task, but it isn’t
really.