ÍNDEX

4. Water, food production and systems and society...................................................................................1

4.1. Introduction to water systems..........................................................................................................1
 Discuss human impact on the hydrological cycle......................................................................1
 Construct and analyse a hydrological cycle diagram................................................................1
Earth’s water budget...........................................................................................................................2
The water (hydrological) cicle..............................................................................................................3
Human impact on the water cycle.......................................................................................................3
Urbanization and flash floods. Practice...............................................................................................4
Ocean currents and energy distribution..............................................................................................7
4.2. Access to fresh water.....................................................................................................................10
 Evaluate the strategies which can be used to meet increasing demand for freshwater.......10
 Discuss, with reference to a case study, how shared freshwater resources have given rise to
international conflict........................................................................................................................10
Sustainability of freshwater resource usage......................................................................................12

4. Water, food production and systems and

society
4.1. Introduction to water systems

The hydrological cycle – a system of water storages (organisms and various water bodies, including
oceans, aquifers, lakes, soil, rivers, atmosphere and glaciers, ice caps) and flows (evapotranspiration,
sublimation, evaporation, condensation, advection (wind-blown movement), precipitation, melting,
freezing, fooding, surface run-off, infiltration, percolation and streamflow or currents) that is driven by
solar radiation and force of gravity that may be disrupted by human activity (agriculture, deforestation
and urbanization).

Ocean circulation systems – driven by differences in temperature and salinity because the resulting
difference in water density drives the ocean conveyor belt. Conveyor belt distributes heat around the
world and thus affects climate.

 Discuss human impact on the hydrological cycle

 Construct and analyse a hydrological cycle diagram
Earth’s water budget (a quantitative estimate of the amounts of water in storages and flows
of the water cycle)
(70%) of the Earth’s surface is water.

Ocean (salt) water (97%) (37 000 y) Fresh water (2.6%)

Polar ice Aquifers Lakes, Atmosphere
caps and (30.1%) Rivers, (0.001%)
glaciers (300 y) Swamps (9 d)
(68.7%) (0.3%)
(16 000 y) (12-20 d)

Turnover times for water – the time it takes for a molecule leaving and storage to enter and leave that
part of the system. Thus, the water can be considered renewable or non-renewable depending on
where it is stores.
 The water (hydrological) cicle

Storages Volume km3 * 10 3

Oceans 1 350 000
Soil 35 000
Snow and ice 27 000
Ground water and aquifers 9 000
Lakes and rivers 250
Atmosphere 13

Flows (km3* 10 3)

Transfers Transformations
Precipitation over oceans (385) Evaporations from the sea (425)
Precipitation over land (110) Evapotranspiration from the land (70):

Liquid >>>>>>>>>>> vapour

Surface run-off (40) Condensation

Vapour >>>>>>>>>> liquid

Ice melt (2) Freezing

Liquid >>>>>>>>>>> solid

Advection (wind-blown movement)

Flooding
Infiltration and percolation (when water runs into
and through soil
or rocks)
Stream flow and current

Human impact on the water cycle

Withdrawals Domestic use, irrigation, agriculture

Discharges By adding pollutants to the water.

I.E. chemicals from the agriculture, fertilizers,

sewage
Changing the speed and direction of water flow  In cities by building roads and channelling
rivers underground or in concreted areas

 Canalizing: straightening large sections of

 rivers in concrete channels to facilitate
more rapid flow through sensitive areas

 With dams, barrages and dykes, making

reservoirs
Diverting rivers or section of rivers  Many are diverted away from important
areas to avoid food damage

 Some are diverted towards dams to

improve storage
 I.E. Aral Sea - intense irrigation has almost stopped river flow into the sea and lowered the sea’s
level (it has shrunk in area by 90% in the last 50 years).
 Ganges basin - deforestation increases flooding as precipitation is not absorbed by vegetation.
 Run-off from urbanized areas causing local flooding.

Urbanization and flash floods. Practice

 Page 202:

Pavement (asphalt, concrete): impermeable

Parks and gardens: permeable

Building materials: usually impermeable

What has been done to manage the water:

 Urban planning aka drainage systems, slopes and inclines

and green spaces, more sustainable construction projects

 Local: notably, in 2018, intense rainstorms led to

significant flooding in parts of Barcelona, particularly in
the Vallcarca neighbourhood. Recent initiatives aim to
create more green spaces and implement sustainable
urban drainage systems (SUDS) to enhance water
absorption and reduce the risk of flooding. Global: the
Aral Sea, situated between Kazakhstan in the north and
Uzbekistan in the south. By 2007, the Aral Sea had
shrunk to about 10% of its original size in the 1960s. The
primary rivers, the Amu Darya and the Syr Darya, were
diverted by Soviet irrigation projects, greatly reducing the inflow of water, significantly altering
the surface runoff patterns and the hydrological balance of the region, exacerbating
desertification and changing the local climate.
 a.

In Jordan, most of the population lives in urban areas (91.6%) compared to rural areas (8.4%) in 2021
largely because the nation's limited arable land and scarce water resources have historically pushed
economic development, employment opportunities, and infrastructure growth towards cities like
Amman, thus drawing a significant portion of the population into urban centers for better livelihood.
c.

 Groundwater: middle ground

 Treated Wastewater: renewable
 Surface Water: renewable
 Desalination: middle ground, as the ocean water is non-renewable while the process in itself is
a method to create a continuous supply of fresh water from a vast and stable source.
 Water Imports: renewable if the sources are sustainable
 Rainwater Harvesting and Storage: renewable

d.

Political Issues

 Transboundary Water Conflicts: Jordan's need to share water resources with neighboring
countries can lead to tensions, especially in drought conditions.

 Regional Instability: Refugee influxes increase demand on Jordan's limited water supplies,
challenging infrastructure and resource management.

Environmental Issues

 Aquifer Depletion: Excessive groundwater extraction surpasses natural replenishment rates,

threatening long-term water availability.

 Climate Change Effects: Changing climate patterns reduce water availability through decreased
rainfall and increased evaporation rates.

e.

Supply Augmentation

 Desalination: Implementing large-scale seawater desalination projects, including the Red Sea-
Dead Sea project.

 Treated Wastewater Reuse: Expanding the reuse of treated wastewater primarily for
agricultural irrigation.

Demand Management

 Water-Saving Technologies: Promoting the adoption of efficient water use technologies in

agriculture and urban settings.

 Public Awareness Campaigns: Conducting nationwide campaigns to encourage water

conservation among citizens.

Infrastructure and Loss Reduction

 Infrastructure Rehabilitation: Upgrading aging water supply networks to reduce leakages.

 Non-Revenue Water Reduction: Implementing advanced metering and control systems to

decrease physical and commercial water losses.

Policy and Governance

 Legal Reforms: Updating water laws to strengthen management and increase sustainability.
  Private Sector Engagement: Encouraging private investment in water infrastructure and
services.

Adaptation and Sustainability

 Climate Change Adaptation: Incorporating climate resilience into water resource management
planning.

 Integrated Water Resource Management (IWRM): Applying an IWRM approach for holistic
management of water resources.

Ocean currents and energy distribution

- movements of water, vertically and horizontally, with specific directions and name, found in surface
and in deep water.

Different types of currents:

 Surface currents (400m and up). Moved by the wind + Earth’s rotation deflecting and increasing
their circular movement.
 Deep water (thermohaline) currents. Make up 90% of ocean currents, causing conveyor belt.

Due to difference in water density (due to a. salt and b. temperature) >>>>>>>>>> warm water rises
(because it can hold less salt and is less dense therefore) >>>>>>>>>> cold water sinks (holds more
salt) >>>>>>>>> when warm water rises, cold has to come up from the depth to replace it (upwellings)
>>>>>>> when cold water rises , it has to be replaces as well (downwellings) >>>>>>>> water circulates.

Cold ocean currents run from the poles to the equator while warm do the opposite.

Water has a higher specific heat capacity (the amount of heat needed to raise the temperature of a unit of matter
by 1 Celsius) than land, meaning that water masses heat up and cool down more slowly than landmasses. As a
result, land close to seas and oceans has mild climate with moderate winters and cool summers.

Ocean currents also affect local climate:

I.E. the warm Gulf Stream/North Atlantic Drift moderates the climate of Northwestern Europe, which otherwise
would have a sub-arctic climate.
 Page 204

Sustainability refers to the use of resources in a way that

meets current human needs without compromising the ability
of future generations to meet their own needs. If freshwater
isn't used sustainably, it threatens not only ecosystems but
also human existence itself. A continued unsustainable
trajectory—where glaciers and ice caps keep melting—won’t
just affect wildlife habitats; it could also bring back long-
dormant viruses hidden in the ice, which might lead to serious
health risks for humans. This makes the sustainable
management of freshwater crucial, not only for nature but for
our very survival in a world that’s constantly evolving under
the pressures of climate change.

2. Water Resource Solutions in Jordan's Desert and

Rangeland Ecosystems

Deserts and rangelands make up around 80% of Jordan, so it

makes sense to focus on how water management is being
addressed in these fragile ecosystems. The Jordanian
government, alongside social enterprises, has developed
various strategies, and I’ll break these down into three
categories:

 Preventing Environmental Problems:

o Integrated Water Resource Management

(IWRM): This approach brings together different sectors to manage water holistically,
but prevention efforts have been limited overall.

 Limiting the Extent of Impact:

o Climate Change Adaptation: By incorporating climate resilience into water resource

management, Jordan is trying to reduce the vulnerability of its water systems to climate
shifts.

o Water-Saving Technologies: There’s a big push to promote more efficient water use
technologies, especially in agriculture and urban areas, where water demand is high.

o Public Awareness Campaigns: Nationwide campaigns encourage water conservation,

aiming to shift behaviour among Jordan’s population.

o Legal Reforms: Water laws are being updated to ensure stronger management practices
and greater sustainability.

o Private Sector Engagement: The government is encouraging private investment in

water infrastructure, hoping to improve service delivery and innovation.

 Restoring Impacted Systems:

o Treated Wastewater Reuse: Jordan has been expanding its reuse of treated
wastewater, especially for agriculture, which reduces the demand on freshwater
sources and helps restore balance where water shortages have already taken a toll.
Looking at the overall strategy, most efforts seem to focus on limiting the extent of impact, with
measures like climate adaptation and water-saving technologies receiving the most attention.
Restoration, like the reuse of wastewater, is also an important focus, but preventing problems before
they occur is clearly less of a priority in this region, given the scale of existing challenges.

3. Impact of Solutions on Future Human Societies and Ecosystems

The solutions put in place for managing freshwater in Jordan’s desert ecosystems are not just about
survival today—they’re about ensuring we can last longer on this planet. Effective water management
means the most vulnerable populations, like those living in water-scarce regions or climate refugees,
won’t have to suffer even more due to poor resource management. Beyond that, we’re also ensuring
that future generations won’t face a water crisis of catastrophic proportions. In the long term, better
freshwater management could mean fewer conflicts over resources, improved health outcomes, and a
more balanced co-existence between humans and the ecosystems we depend on, overall ensuring
longer longevity of the human population.

Page 206

As of October 2024, the latest data

indicates that the Earth is currently
experiencing a La Niña event.

Professor Stefan Rahmstorf (PIK) said: “If

we continue to drive global warming, the
Gulf Stream System will weaken further -
by 34 to 45 percent by 2100 according to
the latest generation of climate
models. This could bring us dangerously
close to the tipping point at which the flow becomes unstable.”

1st, Northern Europe would become a sub-arctic ecosystem

2nd, Conveyor belt would be affected

3rd,
4.2. Access to fresh water

The supplies of freshwater resources are inequitably available and unevenly distributed, which can lead
to conflict and concerns over water security.

They can become even more limited through contamination and unsustainable abstraction. Climate
changing may disrupt rainfall patterns and further affect this.

As population, irrigation and industrialization increase, the demand for freshwater increases.

 The Danube River basin is shared by 19 countries and 81 million people.

 The Tigris and Euphrates rivers carry water that is extracted by Iran, Iraq and Syria.

One country pollutes - the next country suffers; the question is who owns the water? Another Tragedy
of the Commons. And so, wars have been and will continue to be fought over water as it becomes
increasingly needed and increasingly scarce.

Freshwater resources can be sustainably managed using a variety of different approaches.

Water supplies can be enhanced through reservoirs, redistribution, desalination, artificial recharge of
aquifers and rainwater harvesting. Water conservation (including grey-water recycling) can help to
reduce demand but often requires a change in attitude by the water consumers.

 Evaluate the strategies which can be used to meet increasing demand for freshwater.
 Discuss, with reference to a case study, how shared freshwater resources have given
rise to international conflict.
Desalination isn’t a viable proposition for battling water crisis as

 The energy and its cost are large (especially burning fossil fuels), and currently only wealthy
countries which are water stressed and near the sea, for example Israel, Australia, Saudi Arabia
 salt is a by-product and is often returned to the ocean, >>> increasing the density of the water
which then sinks >>> damages ocean-bottom ecosystems.

Humans use fresh water for domestic purposes, agriculture, industry, hydroelectric power generation,
transportation and marking the boundaries between nation states.

WHO: “access to 20 lit of fresh water per day individually.”

Agenda 21: “40 lit.”

As human population expands, we need water to grow more food but, like food, it is not that there is
not enough worldwide, it is that the distribution of it is uneven.

I.E., Egypt imports more than half its food as it does not have enough water to grow it, and in the
Murray-Darling basin in Australia there is water scarcity for humans as so much is used for agriculture.

+ droughts and climate change, soil erosion and salinization to the story = water is and will become a
major issue for nations and international organizations.
Sustainability of freshwater resource usage

Sustainable use of resources allows full natural replacement of the resources exploited and full
recovery of the ecosystems affected by their extraction and use.

Sources of freshwater: