UNIT1: INTRODUCTION TO RESEARCH

LECTURER: MR. KIKAMBI JOHN BOSCO

LEARNING OBJECTIVES:
After reading this lesson, you should be able to understand:
a) Meaning, Objectives and Types of Research
b) Qualities of Researcher
c) Significance of Research
d) Research Process
e) Research Problem
f) Features, Importance, Characteristics, Concepts and Types of Research Design
g) Case Study Research
h) Hypothesis and Its Testing
i) Sample Survey and Sampling Methods
j) Data presentation analysis and interpretation

UNIT1: INTRODUCTION TO RESEARCH

Meaning of Research

Research in simple terms refers to search for knowledge. It is a scientific and systematic
search for information on a particular topic or issue. It is also known as the art of scientific
investigation. Several social scientists have defined research in different ways.

In the Encyclopedia of Social Sciences, D. Slesinger and M. Stephension (1930) defined

research as “the manipulation of things, concepts or symbols for the purpose of
generalizing to extend, correct or verify knowledge, whether that knowledge aids in the
construction of theory or in the practice of an art”.
According to Redman and Mory (1923), research is a “systematized effort to gain new
knowledge”. It is an academic activity and therefore the term should be used in a
technical sense.

According to Clifford Woody (Kothari, 1988), research comprises “defining and redefining
problems, formulating hypotheses or suggested solutions; collecting, organizing and
evaluating data; making deductions and reaching conclusions; and finally, carefully
testing the conclusions to determine whether they fit the formulated hypotheses”.

Thus, research is an original addition to the available knowledge, which contributes to

its further advancement. It is an attempt to pursue truth through the methods of study,
observation, comparison and experiment. In sum, research is the search for knowledge,
using objective and systematic methods to find solution to a problem.

Objectives of Research:
The objective of research is to find answers to the questions by applying scientific
procedures. In other words, the main aim of research is to find out the truth which is
hidden and has not yet been discovered. Although every research study has its own
specific objectives, the research objectives may be broadly grouped as follows:
1. To gain familiarity with new insights into a phenomenon (i.e., formulate research
studies);
2. To accurately portray the characteristics of a particular individual, group, or a
situation (i.e., descriptive research studies);
3. To analyze the frequency with which something occurs (i.e., diagnostic research
studies); and
4. To examine the hypothesis of a causal relationship between two variables (i.e.,
hypothesis-testing research studies).
Research Methods versus Methodology:

Research methods include all those techniques/methods that are adopted for conducting
research. Thus, research techniques or methods are the methods that the researchers
adopt for conducting the research studies.

On the other hand, research methodology is the way in which research problems are
solved systematically. It is a science of studying how research is conducted scientifically.
Under it, the researcher acquaints himself/herself with the various steps generally
adopted to study a research problem, along with the underlying logic behind them.
Hence, it is not only important for the researcher to know the research
techniques/methods, but also the scientific approach called methodology.

Research Approaches:

There are two main approaches to research, namely quantitative approach and qualitative
approach.

The quantitative approach involves the collection of quantitative data, which are put
to hard quantitative analysis in a formal and rigid manner. This approach further includes
experimental, inferential, and simulation approaches to research.

Meanwhile, the qualitative approach uses the method of subjective assessment of

opinions, behaviour and attitudes. Research in such a situation is a function of the
researcher’s impressions and insights. The results generated by this type of research are
either in non-quantitative form or in the form which cannot be put to rigorous quantitative
analysis. Usually, this approach uses techniques like in-depth interviews, focus group
interviews, and projective techniques.

TYPES OF RESEARCH:
There are different types of research. The basic ones are as follows:-
Descriptive Versus Analytical:

Descriptive research consists of surveys and fact-finding enquiries of different types. The
main objective of descriptive research is describing the state of affairs as it prevails at
the time of study. The term ‘ex post facto research’ is quite often used for descriptive
research studies in social sciences and business research. The most distinguishing feature
of this method is that the researcher has no control over the variables here. He/she has
to only report what is happening or what has happened. Majority of the ex post facto
research projects are used for descriptive studies in which the researcher attempts to
examine phenomena, such as the consumers’ preferences, frequency of purchases,
shopping, etc. Despite the inability of the researchers to control the variables, ex post
facto studies may also comprise attempts by them to discover the causes of the selected
problem. The methods of research adopted in conducting descriptive research are survey
methods of all kinds, including correlational and comparative methods.

Meanwhile in the Analytical research, the researcher has to use the already available facts
or information, and analyze them to make a critical evaluation of the subject.

Applied Versus Fundamental:

Research can also be applied or fundamental in nature. An attempt to find a solution to

an immediate problem encountered by a firm, an industry, a business organization, or
the society is known as applied research. Researchers engaged in such researches aim
at drawing certain conclusions confronting a concrete social or business problem.

On the other hand, fundamental research mainly concerns generalizations and

formulation of a theory. In other words, “Gathering knowledge for knowledge’s sake is
termed ‘pure’ or ‘basic’ research” (Young in Kothari, 1988). Researches relating to pure
mathematics or concerning some natural phenomenon are instances of Fundamental
Research. Likewise, studies focusing on human behavior also fall under the category of
fundamental research.
Thus, while the principal objective of applied research is to find a solution to some
pressing practical problem, the objective of basic research is to find information with a
broad base of application and add to the already existing organized body of scientific
knowledge.

Quantitative Versus Qualitative:

Quantitative research relates to aspects that can be quantified or can be expressed in

terms of quantity. It involves the measurement of quantity or amount. Various available
statistical and econometric methods are adopted for analysis in such research. Which
includes correlation, regressions and time series analysis etc.

On the other hand, Qualitative research is concerned with qualitative phenomena, or

more specifically, the aspects related to or involving quality or kind. For example, an
important type of qualitative research is ‘Motivation Research’, which investigates into the
reasons for certain human behavior. The main aim of this type of research is discovering
the underlying motives and desires of human beings by using in-depth interviews. The
other techniques employed in such research are story completion tests, sentence
completion tests, word association tests, and other similar projective methods.
Qualitative research is particularly significant in the context of behavioral sciences,
which aim at discovering the underlying motives of human behavior. Such research helps
to analyze the various factors that motivate human beings to behave in a certain manner,
besides contributing to an understanding of what makes individuals like or dislike a
particular thing. However, it is worth noting that conducting qualitative research in
practice is considerably a difficult task. Hence, while undertaking such research, seeking
guidance from experienced expert researchers is important.

Conceptual Versus Empirical

The research related to some abstract idea or theory is known as Conceptual Research.
Generally, philosophers and thinkers use it for developing new concepts or for
reinterpreting the existing ones. Empirical Research, on the other hand, exclusively
relies on the observation or experience with hardly any regard for theory and system.
Such research is data based, which often comes up with conclusions that can be verified
through experiments or observation. Empirical research is also known as experimental
type of research, in which it is important to first collect the facts and their sources, and
actively take steps to stimulate the production of desired information. In this type of
research, the researcher first formulates a working hypothesis, and then gathers sufficient
facts to prove or disprove the stated hypothesis. He/she formulates the experimental
design, which according to him/her would manipulate the variables, so as to obtain the
desired information. This type of research is thus characterized by the researcher’s control
over the variables under study. In simple term, empirical research is most appropriate
when an attempt is made to prove that certain variables influence the other variables in
some way. Therefore, the results obtained by using the experimental or empirical studies
are considered to be the most powerful evidences for a given hypothesis.

Importance Of Knowing How To Conduct Research:

The importance of knowing how to conduct research are listed below:

i. The knowledge of research methodology provides training to new researchers

and enables them to do research properly. It helps them to develop disciplined
thinking or a ‘bent of mind’ to objectively observe the field;
ii. The knowledge of doing research inculcates the ability to evaluate and utilize
the research findings with confidence;
iii. The knowledge of research methodology equips the researcher with the tools
that help him/her to make the observations objectively; and
iv. The knowledge of methodology helps the research consumers to evaluate
research and make rational decisions.

Qualities of a Researcher:

It is important for a researcher to possess certain qualities to conduct research. First and
foremost, he being a scientist should be firmly committed to the ‘articles of faith’ of the
scientific methods of research. This implies that a researcher should be a social science
person in the truest sense. Sir Michael Foster cited by (Wilkinson and Bhandarkar, 1979)
identified a few distinct qualities of a scientist.

According to him, a true research scientist should possess the following

qualities:

 First of all, the nature of a researcher must be of the temperament that vibrates
in unison with the theme which he is searching. Hence, the seeker of knowledge
must be truthful with truthfulness of nature, which is much more important, much
more exacting than what is sometimes known as truthfulness. The truthfulness
relates to the desire for accuracy of observation and precision of statement.
Ensuring facts is the principle rule of science, which is not an easy matter. The
difficulty may arise due to untrained eye, which fails to see anything beyond what
it has the power of seeing and sometimes even less than that.

 A researcher must possess an alert mind. Nature is constantly changing and

revealing itself through various ways. A scientific researcher must be keen and
watchful to notice such changes, no matter how small or insignificant they may
appear.

 Research requires the moral quality of courage, which reflects the courage of a
steadfast endurance. The process of conducting research is not an easy task.
There are occasions when a research scientist might feel defeated or completely
lost. This is the stage when a researcher would need immense courage and the
sense of conviction.

 A researcher should cultivate the habit of reserving judgment when the required
data are insufficient.

Significance of Research:

 According to a famous Hudson Maxim, “All progress is born of inquiry. Doubt is

often better than overconfidence, for it leads to inquiry, and inquiry leads to
 invention”. It brings out the significance of research, increased amount of which
makes the progress possible. Research encourages scientific and inductive
thinking, besides promoting the development of logical habits of thinking and
organisations.

 The role of research in applied economics in the context of an economy or business

is greatly increasing in modern times. The increasingly complex nature of
government and business has raised the use of research in solving operational
problems.

 Research assumes significant role in the formulation of economic policy for both,
the government and business. It provides the basis for almost all government
policies of an economic system. Government budget formulation, for example,
depends particularly on the analysis of needs and desires of people, and the
availability of revenues, which requires research.

 Research helps to formulate alternative policies, in addition to examining the

consequences of these alternatives. Thus, research also facilitates the decision-
making of policy-makers, although in itself is not a part of research. In the process,
research also helps in the proper allocation of a country’s scarce resources.

 Research is also necessary for collecting information on the social and economic
structure of an economy to understand the process of change occurring in the
country. Collection of statistical information, though not a routine task, involves
various research problems. Therefore, large staff of research technicians or
experts are engaged by the government these days to undertake this work. Thus,
research as a tool of government economic policy formulation involves three
distinct stages of operation: (i) investigation of economic structure through
continual compilation of facts; (ii) diagnosis of events that are taking place and
analysis of the forces underlying them; and (iii) the prognosis i.e., the prediction
of future developments (Wilkinson and Bhandarkar, 1979).
  Research also assumes significance in solving various operational and planning
problems associated with business and industry. In several ways, operations
research, market research and motivational research are vital and their results
assist in taking business decisions. Market research refers to the investigation of
the structure and development of a market for the formulation of efficient policies
relating to purchases, production and sales.

 Operational research relates to the application of logical, mathematical, and

analytical techniques to find solution to business problems, such as cost
minimization or profit maximization, or the optimization problems. Motivational
research helps to determine why people behave in the manner they do with
respect to market characteristics.

 More specifically, it is concerned with the analysis of the motivations underlying

consumer behavior. All these researches are very useful for business and industry,
and are responsible for business decision-making.

 Research is equally important to social scientists for analyzing the social

relationships and seeking explanations to various social problems. It gives
intellectual satisfaction of knowing things for the sake of knowledge. It also
possesses the practical utility for the social scientist to gain knowledge so as to be
able to do something better or in a more efficient manner.

 The research in social sciences is concerned with both knowledge for its own sake,
and knowledge for what it can contribute to solve practical problems.

Research Process:

Research process consists of a series of steps or actions required for effectively

conducting research. The following are the steps that provide useful procedural guidelines
regarding the conduct of research:

1) Formulating the research problem;

2) Extensive literature survey;
3) Developing hypothesis;
 4) Preparing the research design;
5) Determining sample design;
6) Collecting data;
7) Execution of the project;
8) Analysis of data;
9) Hypothesis testing;
10) Generalization and interpretation, and
11) Preparation of the report or presentation of the results.

In other words, it involves the formal write-up of conclusions.

Research Problem:

The first and foremost stage in the research process is to select and properly define the research
problem. A researcher should first identify a problem and formulate it, so as to make it amenable or
susceptible to research. In general, a research problem refers to an unanswered question that a
researcher might encounter in the context of either a theoretical or practical situation, which he/she
would like to answer or find a solution to. A research problem is generally said to exist if the following
conditions emerge (Kothari, 1988):

i. There should be an individual or a group who have some difficulty or problem.

ii. There should be some objective(s) to be pursued. A person or an organization who wants
nothing cannot have a problem.
iii. There should be alternative ways of pursuing the objective the researcher wants to pursue. This
implies that there should be more than one alternative means available to the researcher. This
is because if the researcher has no choice of alternative means, he/she would not have a
problem.
iv. There should be some doubt in the mind of the researcher about the choice of alternative means.
This implies that research should answer the question relating to the relative efficiency or
suitability of the possible alternatives.
v. There should be a context to which the difficulty relates.
 JOKTECH COLLEGE OF LANGUAGES
AND COMPUTING
RESEARCH METHODS
LECTURE NOTES

UNIT 2: RESEARCH DESIGN

LECTURER: MR. KIKAMBI JOHN BOSCO

Research Design:

The most important step after defining the research problem is preparing the design of
the research project, which is popularly known as the ‘research design’. A research design
helps to decide upon issues like what, when, where, how much, by what means etc. With
regard to an enquiry or a research study.

A research design is the arrangement of conditions for collection and analysis of data in
a manner that aims to combine relevance to the research purpose with economy in
procedure. Infact, research design is the conceptual structure within which research is
conducted; it constitutes the blueprint for the collection, measurement and analysis of
data (Selltiz et al, 1962). Thus, research design provides an outline of what the researcher
is going to do in terms of framing the hypothesis, its operational implications and the final
data analysis. Specifically, the research design highlights decisions which include:
1. The nature of the study
2. The purpose of the study
3. The location where the study would be conducted
4. The nature of data required
5. From where the required data can be collected
6. What time period the study would cover
7. The type of sample design that would be used
8. The techniques of data collection that would be used

9. The methods of data analysis that would be adopted and

 10. The manner in which the report would be prepared

In view of the stated research design decisions, the overall research design may be
divided into the following (Kothari 1988):

a. The sampling design that deals with the method of selecting items to be observed
for the selected study;
b. The observational design that relates to the conditions under which the
observations are to be made;
c. The statistical design that concerns with the question of how many items are to be
observed, and how the information and data gathered are to be analysed; and
d. The operational design that deals with the techniques by which the procedures
specified in the sampling, statistical and observational designs can be carried out.

Features of Research Design:

i. The important features of Research Design may be outlined as follows:
ii. It constitutes a plan that identifies the types and sources of information required
for the research problem;
iii. It constitutes a strategy that specifies the methods of data collection and analysis
which would be adopted; and
iv. It also specifies the time period of research and monetary budget involved in
conducting the study, which comprise the two major constraints of undertaking
any research

Concepts Relating To Research Design:

Some of the important concepts relating to Research Design are discussed below:

Dependent and Independent Variables:

A magnitude that varies is known as a variable. The concept may assume different
quantitative values like height, weight, income etc. Qualitative variables are not
quantifiable in the strictest sense of the term. However, the qualitative phenomena may
also be quantified in terms of the presence or absence of the attribute(s) considered. The
phenomena that assume different values quantitatively even in decimal points are known
as ‘continuous variables’. But all variables need not be continuous. Values that can be
expressed only in integer values are called ‘non-continuous variables’. In statistical terms,
they are also known as ‘discrete variables’. For example, age is a continuous variable,
whereas the number of children is a non-continuous variable. When changes in one
variable depend upon the changes in other variable or variables, it is known as a
dependent or endogenous variable, and the variables that cause the changes in the
dependent variable are known as the independent or explanatory or exogenous variables.
For example, if demand depends upon price, then demand is a dependent variable, while
price is the independent variable. And, if more variables determine demand, like income
and price of the substitute commodity, then demand also depends upon them in addition
to the price of original commodity. In other words, demand is a dependent variable which
is determined by the independent variables like price of the original commodity, income
and price of substitutes.

Extraneous Variables:

The independent variables which are not directly related to the purpose of the study but
affect the dependent variables, are known as extraneous variables. For instance, assume
that a researcher wants to test the hypothesis that there is a relationship between
children’s school performance and their self-confidence, in which case the latter is an
independent variable and the former, a dependent variable. In this context, intelligence
may also influence the school performance. However, since it is not directly related to
the purpose of the study undertaken by the researcher, it would be known as an
extraneous variable. The influence caused by the extraneous variable(s) on the
dependent variable is technically called the ‘experimental error’. Therefore, a research
study should always be framed in such a manner that the influence of extraneous
variables on the dependent variable/s is completely controlled, and the influence of
independent variable/s is clearly evident.
Control:

One of the most important features of a good research design is to minimize the effect
of extraneous variable(s). Technically, the term ‘control’ is used when a researcher
designs the study in such a manner that it minimizes the effects of extraneous variables.
The term ‘control’ is used in experimental research to reflect the restrain in experimental
conditions.

Confounded Relationship:

The relationship between the dependent and independent variables is said to be

confounded by an extraneous variable, when the dependent variable is not free from its
effects.

Research Hypothesis:

When a prediction or a hypothesized relationship is tested by adopting scientific methods,

it is known as research hypothesis. The research hypothesis is a predictive statement
which relates to a dependent variable and an independent variable. Generally, a research
hypothesis must consist of at least one dependent variable and one independent variable.
Whereas, the relationships that are assumed but not to be tested are predictive
statements that are not to be objectively verified, thus are not classified as research
hypotheses.

Experimental and Non-experimental Hypothesis Testing Research:

When the objective of a research is to test a research hypothesis, it is known as

hypothesis-testing research. Such research may be in the nature of experimental design
or non-experimental design. The research in which the independent variable is
manipulated is known as ‘experimental hypothesis-testing research’, whereas the
research in which the independent variable is not manipulated is termed as ‘non-
experimental hypothesis-testing research’. For example, assume that a researcher wants
to examine whether family income influences the school attendance of a group of
students, by calculating the coefficient of correlation between the two variables. Such an
example is known as a non-experimental hypothesis-testing research, because the
independent variable - family income is not manipulated here. Again assume that the
researcher randomly selects 150 students from a group of students who pay their school
fees regularly and then classifies them into two sub-groups by randomly including 75 in
Group A, whose parents have regular earning, and 75 in Group B, whose parents do not
have regular earning. Assume that at the end of the study, the researcher conducts a
test on each group in order to examine the effects of regular earnings of the parents on
the school attendance of the student. Such a study is an example of experimental
hypothesis-testing research, because in this particular study the independent variable
regular earnings of the parents have been manipulated.

Experimental and Control Groups:

When a group is exposed to usual conditions in an experimental hypothesis-testing

research, it is known as ‘control group’. On the other hand, when the group is exposed
to certain new or special condition, it is known as an ‘experimental group’. In the afore-
mentioned example, Group A can be called as control group and Group B as experimental
group. If both the groups, A and B are exposed to some special feature, then both the
groups may be called as ‘experimental groups’. A research design may include only the
experimental group or both the experimental and control groups together.

Treatments:

Treatments refer to the different conditions to which the experimental and control groups
are subject to. In the example considered, the two treatments are the parents with
regular earnings and those with no regular earnings. Likewise, if a research study
attempts to examine through an experiment the comparative effect of three different
types of fertilizers on the yield of rice crop, then the three types of fertilizers would be
treated as the three treatments.
Experiment:

Experiment refers to the process of verifying the truth of a statistical hypothesis relating
to a given research problem. For instance, an experiment may be conducted to examine
the yield of a certain new variety of rice crop developed. Further, Experiments may be
categorized into two types, namely, ‘absolute experiment’ and ‘comparative experiment’.
If a researcher wishes to determine the impact of a chemical fertilizer on the yield of a
particular variety of rice crop, then it is known as absolute experiment.

Experimental Unit(s):

Experimental units refer to the pre-determined plots, characteristics or the blocks, to

which different treatments are applied. It is worth mentioning here that such
experimental units must be selected with great caution.

Types Of Research Design:

There are different types of research designs. They may be broadly categorized as:
(1) Exploratory Research Design;
(2) Descriptive and Diagnostic Research Design; and
(3) Hypothesis-Testing Research Design.

1. Exploratory Research Design:

The Exploratory Research Design is known as formulative research design. The main
objective of using such a research design is to formulate a research problem for an in-
depth or more precise investigation, or for developing a working hypothesis from an
operational aspect. The major purpose of such studies is the discovery of ideas and
insights. Therefore, such a research design suitable for such a study should be flexible
enough to provide opportunity for considering different dimensions of the problem under
study. The in-built flexibility in research design is required as the initial research problem
would be transformed into a more precise one in the exploratory study, which in turn
may necessitate changes in the research procedure for collecting relevant data. Usually,
the following three methods are considered in the context of a research design for such
studies. They are (a) a survey of related literature; (b) experience survey; and (c) analysis
of ‘insight-stimulating’ instances.

Descriptive And Diagnostic Research Design:

A Descriptive Research Design is concerned with describing the characteristics of a
particular individual or a group. Meanwhile, a diagnostic research design determines the
frequency with which a variable occurs or its relationship with another variable. In other
words, the study analyzing whether a certain variable is associated with another
comprises a diagnostic research study. On the other hand, a study that is concerned with
specific predictions or with the narration of facts and characteristics related to an
individual, group or situation, are instances of descriptive research studies. Generally,
most of the social research design falls under this category. As a research design, both
the descriptive and diagnostic studies share common requirements, hence they are
grouped together. However, the procedure to be used and the research design need to
planned carefully. The research design must also make appropriate provision for
protection against bias and thus maximize reliability, with due regard to the completion
of the research study in an economical manner. The research design in such studies
should be rigid and not flexible. Besides, it must also focus attention on the following:
a) Formulation of the objectives of the study,
b) Proper designing of the methods of data collection,
c) Sample selection,
d) Data collection,
e) Processing and analysis of the collected data, and
f) Reporting the findings.

Hypothesis-Testing Research Design:

Hypothesis-Testing Research Designs are those in which the researcher tests the
hypothesis of causal relationship between two or more variables. These studies require
procedures that would not only decrease bias and enhance reliability, but also facilitate
deriving inferences about the causality. Generally, experiments satisfy such requirements.
Hence, when research design is discussed in such studies, it often refers to the design of
experiments.

Importance of Research Design:

The need for a research design arises out of the fact that it facilitates the smooth conduct
of the various stages of research. It contributes to making research as efficient as
possible, thus yielding the maximum information with minimum effort, time and
expenditure.

A research design helps to plan in advance, the methods to be employed for collecting
the relevant data and the techniques to be adopted for their analysis. This would help in
pursuing the objectives of the research in the best possible manner, provided the
available staff, time and money are given. Hence, the research design should be prepared
with utmost care, so as to avoid any error that may disturb the entire project. Thus,
research design plays a crucial role in attaining the reliability of the results obtained,
which forms the strong foundation of the entire process of the research work.

Despite its significance, the purpose of a well-planned design is not realized at times. This
is because it is not given the importance that it deserves. As a consequence, many
researchers are not able to achieve the purpose for which the research designs are
formulated, due to which they end up arriving at misleading conclusions. Therefore, faulty
designing of the research project tends to render the research exercise meaningless. This
makes it imperative that an efficient and suitable research design must be planned before
commencing the process of research.

The research design helps the researcher to organize his/her ideas in a proper form,
which in turn facilitates him/her to identify the inadequacies and faults in them. The
research design is also discussed with other experts for their comments and critical
evaluation, without which it would be difficult for any critic to provide a comprehensive
review and comments on the proposed study.
Characteristics of A Good Research Design:

A good research design often possesses the qualities of being flexible, suitable, efficient,
and economical and so on. Generally, a research design which minimizes bias and
maximizes the reliability of the data collected and analyzed is considered a good design
(Kothari 1988).

A research design which does not allow even the smallest experimental error is said to
be the best design for investigation. Further, a research design that yields maximum
information and provides an opportunity of viewing the various dimensions of a research
problem is considered to be the most appropriate and efficient design. Thus, the question
of a good design relates to the purpose or objective and nature of the research problem
studied.

While a research design may be good, it may not be equally suitable to all studies. In
other words, it may be lacking in one aspect or the other in the case of some other
research problems. Therefore, no single research design can be applied to all types of
research problems.

A research design suitable for a specific research problem would usually involve the
following considerations:
i. The methods of gathering the information;
ii. The skills and availability of the researcher and his/her staff, if any;
iii. The objectives of the research problem being studied;
iv. The nature of the research problem being studied; and
v. The available monetary support and duration of time for the research work.
UNIT 3: CASE STUDY RESEARCH AND THE RESEARCH HYPOTHESIS
LECTURER: MR. KIKAMBI JOHN BOSCO

CASE STUDY RESEARCH:

The method of exploring and analyzing the life or functioning of a social or economic unit,
such as a person, a family, a community, an institution, a firm or an industry is called
case study method. The objective of case study method is to examine the factors that
cause the behavioral patterns of a given unit and its relationship with the environment.
The data for a study are always gathered with the purpose of tracing the natural history
of a social or economic unit, and its relationship with the social or economic factors,
besides the forces involved in its environment. Thus, a researcher conducting a study
using the case study method attempts to understand the complexity of factors that are
operative within a social or economic unit as an integrated totality. Burgess (Kothari,
1988) described the special significance of the case study in understanding the complex
behavior and situations in specific detail. In the context of social research, he called such
data as social microscope.

Criteria for Evaluating Adequacy Of Case Study:

John Dollard (Dollard, 1935) specified seven criteria for evaluating the
adequacy of a case or life history in the context of social research. They are:
i. The subject being studied must be viewed as a specimen in a cultural set up.
That is, the case selected from its total context for the purpose of study should
be considered a member of the particular cultural group or community. The
scrutiny of the life history of the individual must be carried out with a view to
identify the community values, standards and shared ways of life.
 ii. The organic motors of action should be socially relevant. This is to say that the
action of the individual cases should be viewed as a series of reactions to social
stimuli or situations. To put in simple words, the social meaning of behaviour
should be taken into consideration.
iii. The crucial role of the family-group in transmitting the culture should be
recognized. This means, as an individual is the member of a family, the role of
the family in shaping his/her behaviour should never be ignored.
iv. The specific method of conversion of organic material into social behaviour
should be clearly demonstrated. For instance, case-histories that discuss in
detail how basically a biological organism, that is man, gradually transforms
into a social person are particularly important.
v. The constant transformation of character of experience from childhood to
adulthood should be emphasized. That is, the life-history should portray the
inter-relationship between the individual’s various experiences during his/her
life span. Such a study provides a comprehensive understanding of an
individual’s life as a continuum.24
vi. The ‘social situation’ that contributed to the individual’s gradual transformation
should carefully and continuously be specified as a factor. One of the crucial
criteria for life-history is that an individual’s life should be depicted as evolving
itself in the context of a specific social situation and partially caused by it.
vii. The life-history details themselves should be organized according to some
conceptual framework, which in turn would facilitate their generalizations at
higher levels.

Gordon Allport in (Kothari 1988) has recommended the following aspects so

as to broaden the perspective of case-study data:
i. If the life-history is written in first person, it should be as comprehensive and
coherent as possible.
 ii. Life-histories must be written for knowledgeable persons. That is, if the enquiry
of study is sociological in nature, the researcher should Write it on the
assumption that it would be read largely by sociologists only.
iii. It would be advisable to supplement case study data by observational,
statistical and historical data, as they provide standards for assessing the
reliability and consistency of the case study materials. Further, such data offer
a basis for generalizations.
iv. Efforts must be made to verify the reliability of life-history data by examining
the internal consistency of the collected material, and by repeating the
interviews with the concerned person. Besides this, personal interviews with
the persons who are well-acquainted with him/her, belonging to his/her own
group should be conducted.
v. A judicious combination of different techniques for data-collection is crucial for
collecting data that are culturally meaningful and scientifically significant.
vi. Life-histories or case-histories may be considered as an adequate basis for
generalization to the extent that they are typical or representative of a certain
group.
vii. The researcher engaged in the collection of case study data should never
ignore the unique or typical cases. He/she should include them as exceptional cases.

Hypothesis:
“Hypothesis may be defined as a proposition or a set of propositions set forth as an
explanation for the occurrence of some specified group of phenomena either asserted
merely as a provisional conjecture to guide some investigation in the light of established
facts” (Kothari, 1988). A research hypothesis is quite often a predictive statement, which
is capable of being tested using scientific methods that involve an independent and some
dependent variables. For instance, the following statements may be considered:
i. “Students who take tuitions perform better than the others who do not receive
tuitions” or,
ii. “The female students perform as well as the male students”.
Characteristics of Hypothesis:
A hypothesis should have the following characteristic features:-
i. A hypothesis must be precise and clear. If it is not precise and clear, then the
inferences drawn on its basis would not be reliable.
ii. A hypothesis must be capable of being put to test. Quite often, the research
programmes fail owing to its incapability of being subject to testing for validity.
Therefore, some prior study may be conducted by the researcher in order to
make a hypothesis testable.
iii. A hypothesis must state relationship between two variables, in the case of
relational hypotheses.
iv. A hypothesis must be specific and limited in scope. This is because a simpler
hypothesis generally would be easier to test for the researcher. And therefore,
he/she must formulate such hypotheses.
v. As far as possible, a hypothesis must be stated in the simplest language, so as
to make it understood by all concerned. However, it should be noted that
simplicity of a hypothesis is not related to its significance.
vi. A hypothesis must be consistent and derived from the most known facts. In
other words, it should be consistent with a substantial body of established facts.
That is, it must be in the form of a statement which is most likely to occur.
vii. A hypothesis must be amenable to testing within a stipulated or reasonable
period of time. No matter how excellent a hypothesis, a researcher should not
use it if it cannot be tested within a given period of time, as no one can afford
to spend a life-time on collecting data to test it.28
viii. A hypothesis should state the facts that give rise to the necessity of looking for
an explanation. This is to say that by using the hypothesis, and other known
and accepted generalizations, a researcher must be able to derive the original
problem condition. Therefore, a hypothesis should explain what it actually
wants to explain, and for this it should also have an empirical reference.
Concepts Relating To Testing Of Hypotheses:
Testing of hypotheses requires a researcher to be familiar with various concepts concerned
with it such as:

Null Hypothesis and Alternative Hypothesis:

In the context of statistical analysis, hypotheses are of two types’ viz., null hypothesis and
alternative hypothesis. When two methods A and B are compared on their relative superiority,
and it is assumed that both the methods are equally good, then such a statement is called
as the null hypothesis. On the other hand, if method A is considered relatively superior to
method B, or vice-versa, then such a statement is known as an alternative hypothesis.

The Level Of Significance:

In the context of hypothesis testing, the level of significance is a very important concept. It
is a certain percentage that should be chosen with great care, reason and insight. If for
instance, the significance level is taken at 5 per cent, then it means that H0 would be rejected
when the sampling result has a less than 0.05 probability of occurrence when H0 is true. In
other words, the five per cent level of significance implies that the researcher is willing to
take a risk of five per cent of rejecting the null hypothesis, when (H0) is actually true. In
sum, the significance level reflects the maximum value of the probability of rejecting H0 when
it is actually true, and which is usually determined prior to testing the hypothesis.

Test of Hypothesis or Decision Rule:

Suppose the given hypothesis is H0 and the alternative hypothesis H1, then the researcher
has to make a rule known as the decision rule. According to the decision rule, the researcher
accepts or rejects H0. For example, if the H0 is that certain students are good against the H1
that all the students are good, then the researcher should decide the number of items to be
tested and the criteria on the basis of which to accept or reject the hypothesis.

Type I And Type II Errors:

As regards the testing of hypotheses, a researcher can make basically two types of errors.
He/she may reject H0 when it is true, or accept H0 when it is not true. The former is called
as Type I error and the latter is known as Type II error. In other words, Type I error implies
the rejection of a hypothesis when it must have been accepted, while Type II error implies
the acceptance of a hypothesis which must have been rejected. Type I error is denoted by α
(alpha) and is known as α error, while Type II error is usually denoted by β (beta) and is
known as β error.

One-Tailed and Two-Tailed Tests:

These two types of tests are very important in the context of hypothesis testing. A two-tailed
test rejects the null hypothesis, when the sample mean is significantly greater or lower than
the hypothesized value of the mean of the population. Such a test is suitable when the null
hypothesis is some specified value, the alternative hypothesis is a value that is not equal to
the specified value of the null hypothesis.

Procedure of Hypothesis Testing:

Testing a hypothesis refers to verifying whether the hypothesis is valid or not. Hypothesis
testing attempts to check whether to accept or not to accept the null hypothesis. The
procedure of hypothesis testing includes all the steps that a researcher undertakes for making
a choice between the two alternative actions of rejecting or accepting a null hypothesis. The
various steps involved in hypothesis testing are as follows:

i. Making a Formal Statement:

This step involves making a formal statement of the null hypothesis (H0) and the alternative
hypothesis (Ha). This implies that the hypotheses should be clearly stated within the purview
of the research problem.

ii. Selecting a Significance Level:

The hypotheses should be tested on a pre-determined level of significance, which should be

specified. Usually, either 5% level or 1% level is considered for the purpose. The factors that
determine the levels of significance are: (a) the magnitude of difference between the sample
means; (b) the sample size: (c) the variability of measurements within samples; and (d)
whether the hypothesis is directional or non-directional (Kothari, 1988). In sum, the level of
significance should be sufficient in the context of the nature and purpose of enquiry.

iii. Deciding the Distribution to Use:

After making decision on the level of significance for hypothesis testing, the researcher has
to next determine the appropriate sampling distribution. The choice to be made generally
relates to normal distribution and the t-distribution. The rules governing the selection of the
correct distribution are similar to the ones already discussed with respect to estimation.

iv. Selection Of A Random Sample And Computing An Appropriate Value:

Another step involved in hypothesis testing is the selection of a random sample and then
computing a suitable value from the sample data relating to test statistic by using the
appropriate distribution. In other words, it involves drawing a sample for furnishing empirical
data.

v. Calculation of the Probability:

The next step for the researcher is to calculate the probability that the sample result would
diverge as far as it can from expectations, under the situation when the null hypothesis is
actually true.

vi. Comparing the Probability:

Another step involved consists of making a comparison of the probability calculated with the
specified value of α, i.e. The significance level. If the calculated probability works out to be
equal to or smaller than the α value in case of one-tailed test, then the null hypothesis is to
be rejected. On the other hand, if the calculated probability is greater, then the null
hypothesis is to be accepted. In case the null hypothesis H0 is rejected, the researcher runs
the risk of committing the Type I error. But, if the null hypothesis H0 is accepted, then it
involves some risk (which cannot be specified in size as long as H0 is vague and not specific)
of committing the Type II error.
SAMPLE SURVEY

A sample design is a definite plan for obtaining a sample from a given population (Kothari,
1988). Sample constitutes a certain portion of the population or universe. Sampling design
refers to the technique or the procedure the researcher adopts for selecting items for the
sample from the population or universe. A sample design helps to decide the number of items
to be included in the sample, i.e., the size of the sample. The sample design should be
determined prior to data collection. There are different kinds of sample designs which a
researcher can choose. Some of them are relatively more precise and easier to adopt than
the others. A researcher should prepare or select a sample design, which must be reliable
and suitable for the research study proposed to be undertaken.

Steps in Sampling Design:

A researcher should take into consideration the following aspects while developing a sample
design:

i. Type Of Universe:

The first step involved in developing sample design is to clearly define the number of cases,
technically known as the universe. A universe may be finite or infinite. In a finite universe the
number of items is certain, whereas in the case of an infinite universe the number of items
is infinite (i.e., there is no idea about the total number of items). For example, while the
population of a city or the number of workers in a factory comprise finite universes, the
number of stars in the sky, or throwing of a dice represent infinite universe.

ii. Sampling Unit:

Prior to selecting a sample, decision has to be made about the sampling unit. A sampling unit
may be a geographical area like a state, district, village, etc., or a social unit like a family,
religious community, school, etc., or it may also be an individual. At times, the researcher
would have to choose one or more of such units for his/her study.
iii. Source List:

Source list is also known as the ‘sampling frame’, from which the sample is to be selected.
The source list consists of names of all the items of a universe. The researcher has to prepare
a source list when it is not available. The source list must be reliable, comprehensive, correct,
and appropriate. It is important that the source list should be as representative of the
population as possible.

iv. Size Of Sample:

Size of the sample refers to the number of items to be chosen from the universe to form a
sample. For a researcher, this constitutes a major problem. The size of sample must be
optimum. An optimum sample may be defined as the one that satisfies the requirements of
representativeness, flexibility, efficiency, and reliability. While deciding the size of sample, a
researcher should determine the desired precision and the acceptable confidence level for
the estimate. The size of the population variance should be considered, because in the case
of a larger variance generally a larger sample is required. The size of the population should
be considered, as it also limits the sample size.

Criteria for Selecting A Sampling Procedure:

Basically, two costs are involved in a sampling analysis, which govern the selection of a
sampling procedure. They are:

a. The cost of data collection, and

b. The cost of drawing incorrect inference from the selected data.

There are two causes of incorrect inferences, namely systematic bias and sampling error.
Systematic bias arises out of errors in the sampling procedure. They cannot be reduced or
eliminated by increasing the sample size. Utmost, the causes of these errors can be identified
and corrected.

Generally, a systematic bias arises out of one or more of the following factors:

i. Inappropriate sampling frame,

 ii. Defective measuring device,
iii. Non-respondents,
iv. Indeterminacy principle, and
v. Natural bias in the reporting of data.

Characteristics of a Good Sample Design:

The following are the characteristic features of a good sample design:
a. The sample design should yield a truly representative sample;
b. The sample design should be such that it results in small sampling error;
c. The sample design should be viable in the context of budgetary constraints of the
research study;
d. The sample design should be such that the systematic bias can be controlled; and
e. The sample must be such that the results of the sample study would be applicable,
in general, to the universe at a reasonable level of confidence.

Different Types of Sample Designs:

Sample designs may be classified into different categories based on two factors, namely, the
representation basis and the element selection technique. Under the representation basis,
the sample may be classified as:
i. Non-probability sampling
ii. Probability sampling

While probability sampling is based on random selection, the non-probability sampling is

based on ‘non-random’ selection of samples.
Non-Probability Sampling:
Non-probability sampling is the sampling procedure that does not afford any basis for
estimating the probability that each item in the population would have an equal chance of
being included in the sample. Non-probability sampling is also known as deliberate sampling,
judgment sampling and purposive sampling. Under this type of sampling, the items for the
sample are deliberately chosen by the researcher; and his/her choice concerning the choice
of items remains supreme. In other words, under non-probability sampling the researchers
select a particular unit of the universe for forming a sample on the basis that the small number
that is thus selected out of a huge one would be typical or representative of the whole
population. For example, to study the economic conditions of people living in a state, a few
towns or village may be purposively selected for an intensive study based on the principle
that they are representative of the entire state. In such a case, the judgment of the
researcher of the study assumes prime importance in this sampling design.

Quota Sampling:
Quota sampling is also an example of non-probability sampling. Under this sampling, the
researchers simply assume quotas to be filled from different strata, with certain restrictions
imposed on how they should be selected. This type of sampling is very convenient and is
relatively less expensive. However, the samples selected using this method certainly do not
satisfy the characteristics of random samples. They are essentially judgment samples and
inferences drawn based on that, would not be amenable to statistical treatment in a formal
way.

Probability Sampling:
Probability sampling is also known as ‘choice sampling’ or ‘random sampling’. Under this
sampling design, every item of the universe has an equal chance of being included in the
sample. In a way, it is a lottery method under which individual units are selected from the
whole group, not deliberately, but by using some mechanical process. Therefore, only chance
would determine whether an item or the other would be included in the sample or not. The
results obtained from probability or random sampling would be assured in terms of
probability. That is, the researcher can measure the errors of estimation or the significance
of results obtained from the random sample. This is the superiority of random sampling
design over the deliberate sampling design. Random sampling satisfies the law of statistical
regularity, according to which if on an average the sample chosen is random, then it would
have the same composition and characteristics of the universe. This is the reason why the
random sampling method is considered the best technique of choosing a representative
sample.
The following are the implications of the random sampling:
i. It provides each element in the population an equal probable chance of being
chosen in the sample, with all choices being independent of one another and
ii. It offers each possible sample combination an equal probable opportunity of being
selected.

Method of Selecting a Random Sample:

The process of selecting a random sample involves writing the name of each element of a
finite population on a slip of paper and putting them into a box or a bag. Then they have to
be thoroughly mixed and then the required number of slips for the sample can be picked one
after the other without replacement. While doing this, it has to be ensured that in successive
drawings each of the remaining elements of the population has an equal chance of being
chosen. This method results in the same probability for each possible sample.

Complex Random Sampling Designs:

Under restricted sampling technique, the probability sampling may result in complex random
sampling designs. Such designs are known as mixed sampling designs. Many of such designs
may represent a combination of non-probability and probability sampling procedures in
choosing a sample.
Some of the prominent complex random sampling designs are as follows:
(i) Systematic Sampling:
In some cases, the best way of sampling is to select every first item on a list. Sampling of
this kind is called as systematic sampling. An element of randomness is introduced in this
type of sampling by using random numbers to select the unit with which to start. For example,
if a 10 per cent sample is required out of 100 items, the first item would be selected randomly
from the first low of item and thereafter every 10 th item. In this kind of sampling, only the
first unit is selected randomly, while rest of the units of the sample is chosen at fixed intervals.

(ii) Stratified Sampling:

When a population from which a sample is to be selected does not comprise a homogeneous
group, stratified sampling technique is generally employed for obtaining a representative
sample. Under stratified sampling, the population is divided into many sub-populations in
such a manner that they are individually more homogeneous than the rest of the total
population. Then, items are selected from each stratum to form a sample. As each stratum
is more homogeneous than the remaining total population, the researcher is able to obtain a
more precise estimate for each stratum and by estimating each of the component parts more
accurately; he/she is able to obtain a better estimate of the whole. In sum, stratified sampling
method yields more reliable and detailed information.
(iii) Cluster Sampling:
When the total area of research interest is large, a convenient way in which a sample can be
selected is to divide the area into a number of smaller non-overlapping areas and then
randomly selecting a number of such smaller areas. In the process, the ultimate sample would
consist of all the units in these small areas or clusters. Thus in cluster sampling, the total
population is sub-divided into numerous relatively smaller subdivisions, which in themselves
constitute clusters of still smaller units. And then, some of such clusters are randomly chosen
for inclusion in the overall sample.
(iv) Area Sampling:
When clusters are in the form of some geographic subdivisions, then cluster sampling is
termed as area sampling. That is, when the primary sampling unit represents a cluster of
units based on geographic area, the cluster designs are distinguished as area sampling. The
merits and demerits of cluster sampling are equally applicable to area sampling.

(v) Multi-Stage Sampling:

A further development of the principle of cluster sampling is multi-stage sampling. When the
researcher desires to investigate the working efficiency of nationalized banks in India and a
sample of few banks is required for this purpose, the first stage would be to select large
primary sampling unit like the states in the country. Next, certain districts may be selected
and all banks interviewed in the chosen districts. This represents a two-stage sampling
design, with the ultimate sampling units being clusters of districts.

On the other hand, if instead of taking census of all banks within the selected districts, the
researcher chooses certain towns and interviews all banks in it, this would represent three-
stage sampling design. Again, if instead of taking a census of all banks within the selected
towns, the researcher randomly selects sample banks from each selected town, then it
represents a case of using a four-stage sampling plan. Thus, if the researcher selects
randomly at all stages, then it is called as multi-stage random sampling design.

(vi) Sampling With Probability Proportional To Size:

When the case of cluster sampling units does not have exactly or approximately the same
number of elements, it is better for the researcher to adopt a random selection process,
where the probability of inclusion of each cluster in the sample tends to be proportional to
the size of the cluster. For this, the number of elements in each cluster has to be listed,
irrespective of the method used for ordering it. Then the researcher should systematically
pick the required number of elements from the cumulative totals. The actual numbers thus
chosen would not however reflect the individual elements, but would indicate as to which
cluster and how many from them are to be chosen by using simple random sampling or
systematic sampling. The outcome of such sampling is equivalent to that of simple random
sample. The method is also less cumbersome and is also relatively less expensive.

Thus, a researcher has to pass through various stages of conducting research once the
problem of interest has been selected. Research methodology familiarizes a researcher with
the complex scientific methods of conducting research, which yield reliable results that are
useful to policy-makers, government, industries etc. in decision-making.
Revision questions
For unit 1, 2 and 3
1. Define research.
2. What are the objectives of research?
3. State the significance of research.
4. What is the importance of knowing how to do research?
5. Briefly outline research process.
6. Highlight the different research approaches.
7. Discuss the qualities of a researcher.
8. Explain the different types of research.
9. What is a research problem?
10. Outline the features of research design.
11. Discuss the features of a good research design.
12. Describe the different types of research design.
13. Explain the significance of research design.
14. What is a case study?
15. Discuss the criteria for evaluating case study.
16. Define hypothesis.
17. What are the characteristic features of a hypothesis?
18. Distinguish between null and alternative hypothesis.
19. Differentiate type i error and type ii error.
20. How is a hypothesis tested?
21. Define the concept of sampling design.42
22. Describe the steps involved in sampling design.
23. Discuss the criteria for selecting a sampling procedure.
24. Distinguish between probability and non-probability sampling.
25. How is a random sample selected?
26. Explain complex random sampling designs.
UNIT 4: Data Collection & Sources of Data
LECTURER: MR. KIKAMBI JOHN BOSCO

Data Collection & Sources of Data

Lesson Outline:
i. Primary Data, Secondary Data
ii. Investigation
iii. Indirect Oral Methods Of Collecting Primary Data
iv. Direct Personal Interviews
v. Information Received Through Local Agencies
vi. Mailed Questionnaire Method
vii. Schedules Sent Through Enumerators
Learning Objectives:
i. After reading this lesson, you should be able to understand the
ii. Meaning of primary data, Secondary data
iii. Preliminaries of data collection
iv. Method of data collection
v. Methods of collecting primary data
vi. Usefulness of primary data
vii. Merits and demerits of different methods of primary data collection
viii. Precautions while collecting primary data.
Primary Data: data collection

Methods of Collecting Primary Data:

Primary data may be obtained by applying any of the following methods:
1. Direct Personal Interviews.
2. Indirect Oral Interviews.
3. Information from Correspondents.
4. Mailed Questionnaire Methods.
5. Schedule Sent Through Enumerators.

1. Direct Personal Interviews:

A face to face contact is made with the informants (persons from whom the information
is to be obtained) under this method of collecting data. The interviewer asks them
questions pertaining to the survey and collects the desired information. Thus, if a person
wants to collect data about the working conditions of the workers of the Tata Iron and
Steel Company, Jamshedpur, he would go to the factory, contact the workers and obtain
the desired information. The information collected in this manner is first hand and also
original in character. There are many merits and demerits of this method, which are
discussed as under:

Merits:
1. Most often respondents are happy to pass on the information required from them when
contacted personally and thus response is encouraging.
2. The information collected through this method is normally more accurate because
interviewer can clear doubts of the informants about certain questions and thus obtain
correct information. In case the interviewer apprehends that the informant is not
giving accurate information, he may cross-examine him and thereby try to obtain the
information.
3. This method also provides the scope for getting supplementary information from the
informant, because while interviewing it is possible to ask some supplementary
questions which may be of greater use later.
4. There might be some questions which the interviewer would find difficult to ask
directly, but with some tactfulness, he can mingle such questions with others and get
the desired information. He can twist the questions keeping in mind the informant’s
reaction. Precisely, a delicate situation can usually he handled more effectively by a
personal interview than by other survey techniques.
5. The interviewer can adjust the language according to the status and educational level
of the person interviewed, and thereby can avoid inconvenience and misinterpretation
on the part of the informant.

Demerits:
1. This method can prove to be expensive if the number of informants is large and the
area is widely spread.
2. There is a greater chance of personal bias and prejudice under this method as
compared to other methods.
3. The interviewers have to be thoroughly trained and experienced; otherwise they may
not be able to obtain the desired information. Untrained or poorly trained interviewers
may spoil the entire work.
4. This method is more time taking as compared to others. This is because interviews can
be held only at the convenience of the informants. Thus, if information is to be
obtained from the working members of households, interviews will have to be held in
the evening or on week end. Even during evening only an hour or two can be used
for interviews and hence, the work may have to be continued for a long time, or a
large number of people may have to be employed which may involve huge expenses.

Conclusion:
Though there are some demerits in this method of data collection still we cannot say that
it is not useful. The matter of fact is that this method is suitable for intensive rather than
extensive field surveys. Hence, it should be used only in those cases where intensive
study of a limited field is desired.
In the present time of extreme advancement in the communication system, the
investigator instead of going personally and conducting a face to face interview may also
obtain information over telephone. A good number of surveys are being conducted every
day by newspapers and television channels by sending the reply either by e-mail or SMS.
This method has become very popular nowadays as it is less expensive and the response
is extremely quick. But this method suffers from some serious defects, such as (a) those
who own a phone or a television only can be approached by this method, (b) only few
questions can be asked over phone or through television, (c) the respondents may give
a vague and reckless answers because answers on phone or through SMS would have to
be very short.

2. Indirect Oral Interviews:

Under this method of data collection, the investigator contacts third parties generally
called ‘witnesses’ who are capable of supplying necessary information. This method is
generally adopted when the information to be obtained is of a complex nature and
informants are not inclined to respond if approached directly. For example, when the
researcher is trying to obtain data on drug addiction or the habit of taking liquor, there
is high probability that the addicted person will not provide the desired data and hence
will disturb the whole research process. In this situation taking the help of such persons
or agencies or the neighbours who know them well becomes necessary. Since these
people know the person well, they can provide the desired data. Enquiry Committees and
Commissions appointed by the Government generally adopt this method to get people’s
views and all possible details of the facts related to the enquiry.
Though this method is very popular, its correctness depends upon a number of factors
such as
1. The person or persons or agency whose help is solicited must be of proven integrity;
otherwise any bias or prejudice on their part will not bring out the correct information
and the whole process of research will become useless.
2. The ability of the interviewers to draw information from witnesses by means of
appropriate questions and cross-examination.
3. It might happen that because of bribery, nepotism or certain other reasons those who
are collecting the information give it such a twist that correct conclusions are not
arrived at.
Therefore, for the success of this method it is necessary that the evidence of one person
alone is not relied upon. Views from other persons and related agencies should also be
ascertained to find the real position .Utmost care must be exercised in the selection of
these persons because it is on their views that the final conclusions are reached.

3. Information from Correspondents:

The investigator appoints local agents or correspondents in different places to collect
information under this method. These correspondents collect and transmit the
information to the central office where data are processed. This method is generally
adopted by news paper agencies. Correspondents who are posted at different places
supply information relating to such events as accidents, riots, strikes, etc., to the head
office. The correspondents are generally paid staff or sometimes they may be honorary
correspondents also. This method is also adopted generally by the government
departments in such cases where regular information is to be collected from a wide area.
For example, in the construction of a wholesale price index numbers regular information
is obtained from correspondents appointed in different areas. The biggest advantage of
this method is that, it is cheap and appropriate for extensive investigation. But a word of
caution is that it may not always ensure accurate results because of the personal
prejudice and bias of the correspondents. As stated earlier, this method is suitable and
adopted in those cases where the information is to be obtained at regular intervals from
a wide area.
4. Mailed Questionnaire Method:
Under this method, a list of questions pertaining to the survey which is known as
‘Questionnaire’ is prepared and sent to the various informants by post. Sometimes the
researcher himself too contacts the respondents and gets the responses related to various
questions in the questionnaire. The questionnaire contains questions and provides space
for answers. A request is made to the informants through a covering letter to fill up the
questionnaire and send it back within a specified time. The questionnaire studies can be
classified on the basis of:
i. The degree to which the questionnaire is formalized or structured.
ii. The disguise or lack of disguise of the questionnaire and
iii. The communication method used.

When no formal questionnaire is used, interviewers adapt their questioning to each

interview as it progresses. They might even try to elicit responses by indirect methods,
such as showing pictures on which the respondent comments. When a researcher follows
a prescribed sequence of questions, it is referred to as structured study. On the other
hand, when no prescribed sequence of questions exists, the study is non-structured.
When questionnaires are constructed in such a way that the objective is clear to the
respondents then these questionnaires are known as non- disguised; on the other hand,
when the objective is not clear, the questionnaire is a disguised one. On the basis of
these two classifications, four types of studies can be distinguished:
1. Non-disguised structured,
2. Non-disguised non-structured,
3. Disguised structured and
4. Disguised non-structured.
There are certain merits and demerits of this method of data collection which are
discussed below:
Merits:
1. Questionnaire method of data collection can be easily adopted where the field of
investigation is very vast and the informants are spread over a wide geographical
area.
2. This method is relatively cheap and expeditious provided the informants respond in
time.
3. This method has proved to be superior when compared to other methods like personal
interviews or telephone method. This is because when questions pertaining to
personal nature or the ones requiring reaction by the family are put forth to the
informants, there is a chance for them to be embarrassed in answering them.

Demerits:
1. This method can be adopted only where the informants are literates so that they can
understand written questions and lend the answers in writing.
2. It involves some uncertainty about the response. Co-operation on the part of
informants may be difficult to presume.
3. The information provided by the informants may not be correct and it may be difficult
to verify the accuracy.
However, by following the guidelines given below, this method can be made more
effective:
The questionnaires should be made in such a manner that they do not become an undue
burden on the respondents; otherwise the respondents may not return them back.
i. Prepaid postage stamp should be affixed
ii. The sample should be large
iii. It should be adopted in such enquiries where it is expected that the respondents
would return the questionnaire because of their own interest in the enquiry.
iv. It should be preferred in such enquiries where there could be a legal compulsion
to provide the information.
5. Schedules Sent Through Enumerators:
Another method of data collection is sending schedules through the enumerators or
interviewers. The enumerators contact the informants, get replies to the questions
contained in a schedule and fill them in their own handwriting in the questionnaire form.
There is difference between questionnaire and schedule. Questionnaire refers to a device
for securing answers to questions by using a form which the respondent fills in him self,
whereas schedule is the name usually applied to a set of questions which are asked in a
face-to face situation with another person. This method is free from most of the
limitations of the mailed questionnaire method.

Merits:
The main merits or advantages of this method are listed below:
1. It can be adopted in those cases where informants are illiterate.
2. There is very little scope of non-response as the enumerators go personally to obtain
the information.
3. The information received is more reliable as the accuracy of statements can be checked
by supplementary questions wherever necessary.
This method too like others is not free from defects or limitations. The main limitations
are listed below:
Demerits:
1. In comparison to other methods of collecting primary data, this method is quite costly
as enumerators are generally paid persons.
2. The success of the method depends largely upon the training imparted to the
enumerators.
3. Interviewing is a very skilled work and it requires experience and training. Many
statisticians have the tendency to neglect this extremely important part of the data
collecting process and this result in bad interviews. Without good interviewing most
of the information collected may be of doubtful value.
4. Interviewing is not only a skilled work but it also requires a great degree of politeness
and thus the way the enumerators conduct the interview would affect the data
collected. When questions are asked by a number of different interviewers, it is
possible that variations in the personalities of the interviewers will cause variation in
the answers obtained. This variation will not be obvious. Hence, every effort must be
made to remove as much of variation as possible due to different interviewers.
Secondary Data:
As stated earlier, secondary data are those data which have already been collected and
analyzed by some earlier agency for its own use, and later the same data are used by a
different agency. According to W.A.Neiswanger, “A primary source is a publication in
which the data are published by the same authority which gathered and analyzed them.
A secondary source is a publication, reporting the data which was gathered by other
authorities and for which others are responsible.”

Sources Of Secondary Data:

The various sources of secondary data can be divided into two broad categories:
1. Published sources, and
2. Unpublished sources.

1. Published Sources:
The governmental, international and local agencies publish statistical data, and chief
among them are explained below:
(a) International Publications:
There are some international institutions and bodies like I.M.F, I.B.R.D, I.C.A.F.E
and U.N.O who publish regular and occasional reports on economic and statistical
matters.
(b) Official Publications of Central and State Governments:
Several departments of the Central and State Governments regularly publish
reports on a number of subjects. They gather additional information. Some of the
important publications are: The Reserve Bank of India Bulletin, Census of India,
Statistical Abstracts of States, Agricultural Statistics of India, Indian Trade Journal,
etc.
(c) Semi-Official Publications:
Semi-Government institutions like Municipal Corporations, District Boards,
Panchayats, etc. Publish reports relating to different matters of public concern.
 (d) Publications of Research Institutions:
Indian Statistical Institute (I.S.I), Indian Council of Agricultural Research (I.C.A.R),
Indian Agricultural Statistics Research Institute (I.A.S.R.I), etc. Publish the findings
of their research programmes.
Publications of various Commercial and Financial Institutions Reports of various
Committees and Commissions appointed by the Government as the Raj
Committee’s Report on Agricultural Taxation, Wanchoo Committee’s Report on
Taxation and Black Money, etc. Are also important sources of secondary data.
(e) Journals and News Papers:
Journals and News Papers are very important and powerful source of secondary
data. Current and important materials on statistics and socio-economic problems
can be obtained from journals and newspapers like Economic Times, Commerce,
Capital, Indian Finance, Monthly Statistics of trade etc.

2. Unpublished Sources:
Unpublished data can be obtained from many unpublished sources like records
maintained by various government and private offices, the theses of the numerous
research scholars in the universities or institutions etc.

Precautions in the Use of Secondary Data:

Since secondary data have already been obtained, it is highly desirable that a proper
scrutiny of such data is made before they are used by the investigator. In fact the user
has to be extra-cautious while using secondary data. In this context Prof. Bowley rightly
points out that “Secondary data should not be accepted at their face value.” The reason
being that data may be erroneous in many respects due to bias, inadequate size of the
sample, substitution, errors of definition, arithmetical errors etc. Even if there is no error
such data may not be suitable and adequate for the purpose of the enquiry. Prof.
SimonKuznet’s view in this regard is also of great importance. According to him, “the
degree of reliability of secondary source is to be assessed from the source, the compiler
and his capacity to produce correct statistics and the users also, for the most part, tend
to accept a series particularly one issued by a government agency at its face value without
enquiring its reliability”.
Therefore, before using the secondary data the investigators should consider the
following factors:

4. The Suitability of Data:

The investigator must satisfy himself that the data available are suitable for the purpose
of enquiry. It can be judged by the nature and scope of the present enquiry with the
original enquiry. For example, if the object of the present enquiry is to study the trend in
retail prices, and if the data provide only wholesale prices, such data are unsuitable.
(A) Adequacy of Data:
If the data are suitable for the purpose of investigation then we must consider whether
the data are useful or adequate for the present analysis. It can be studied by the
geographical area covered by the original enquiry. The time for which data are available
is very important element. In the above example, if our object is to study the retail price
trend of india, and if the available data cover only the retail price trend in the state of
bihar, then it would not serve the purpose.
(b) Reliability of Data:
The reliability of data is must. Without which there is no meaning in research. The
reliability of data can be tested by finding out the agency that collected such data. If the
agency has used proper methods in collection of data, statistics may be relied upon.
It is not enough to have baskets of data in hand. In fact, data in a raw form are nothing
but a handful of raw material waiting for proper processing so that they can become
useful. Once data have been obtained from primary or secondary source, the next step
in a statistical investigation is to edit the data i.e. To scrutinize the same. The chief
objective of editing is to detect possible errors and irregularities. The task of editing is a
highly specialized one and requires great care and attention. Negligence in this respect
may render useless the findings of an otherwise valuable study. Editing data collected
from internal records and published sources is relatively simple but the data collected
from a survey need excessive editing.
While editing primary data, the following considerations should be borne in mind:
1. The data should be complete in every respect
2. The data should be accurate
3. The data should be consistent, and
4. The data should be homogeneous.
Data to possess the above mentioned characteristics have to undergo the same type of
editing which is discussed below:
5. Editing for Completeness:
While editing, the editor should see that each schedule and questionnaire is complete in
all respects. He should see to it that the answers to each and every question have been
furnished. If some questions are not answered and if they are of vital importance, the
informants should be contacted again either personally or through correspondence. Even
after all the efforts it may happen that a few questions remain unanswered. In such
questions, the editor should mark ‘No answer’ in the space provided for answers and if
the questions are of vital importance then the schedule or questionnaire should be
dropped.
(a) Editing for Consistency:
At the time of editing the data for consistency, the editor should see that the answers to
questions are not contradictory in nature. If they are mutually contradictory answers, he
should try to obtain the correct answers either by referring back the questionnaire or by
contacting, wherever possible, the informant in person. For example, if amongst others,
two questions in questionnaire are (a) Are you a student? (b) Which class do you study
and the reply to the first question is ‘no’ and to the latter ‘tenth’ then there is contradiction
and it should be clarified.
(b) Editing for Accuracy:
The reliability of conclusions depends basically on the correctness of information. If the
information supplied is wrong, conclusions can never be valid. It is, therefore, necessary
for the editor to see that the information is accurate in all respects. If the inaccuracy is
due to arithmetical errors, it can be easily detected and corrected. But if the cause of
inaccuracy is faulty information supplied, it may be difficult to verify it and an example of
this kind is information relating to income, age etc.
(c) Editing For Homogeneity:
Homogeneity means the condition in which all the questions have been understood in the
same sense. The editor must check all the questions for uniform interpretation. For
example, as to the question of income, if some informants have given monthly income,
others annual income and still others weekly income or even daily income, no comparison
can be made. Therefore, it becomes an essential duty of the editor to check up that the
information supplied by the various people is homogeneous and uniform.

Choice Between Primary and Secondary Data:

As we have already seen, there are a lot of differences in the methods of collecting
Primary and Secondary data. Primary data which is to be collected originally involves an
entire scheme of plan starting with the definitions of various terms used, units to be
employed, type of enquiry to be conducted, extent of accuracy aimed at etc. For the
collection of secondary data, a mere compilation of the existing data would be sufficient.
A proper choice between the type of data needed for any particular statistical
investigation is to be made after taking into consideration the nature, objective and scope
of the enquiry; the time and the finances at the disposal of the agency; the degree of
precision aimed at and the status of the agency (whether government- state or central-
or private institution of an individual).
In using the secondary data, it is best to obtain the data from the primary source as far
as possible. By doing so, we would at least save ourselves from the errors of transcription
which might have inadvertently crept in the secondary source. Moreover, the primary
source will also provide us with detailed discussion about the terminology used, statistical
units employed, size of the sample and the technique of sampling (if sampling method
was used), methods of data collection and analysis of results and we can ascertain
ourselves if these would suit our purpose.
Now-a-days in a large number of statistical enquiries, secondary data are generally used
because fairly reliable published data on a large number of diverse fields are now available
in the publications of governments, private organizations and research institutions,
agencies, periodicals and magazines etc. In fact, primary data are collected only if there
do not exist any secondary data suited to the investigation under study. In some of the
investigations both primary as well as secondary data may be used.

Summary:
There are two types of data, primary and secondary. Data which are collected first hand
are called Primary data and data which have already been collected and used by
somebody are called Secondary data. There are two methods of collecting data: (a)
Survey method or total enumeration method and (b) Sample method. When a researcher
goes for investigating all the units of the subject, it is called as survey method. On the
other hand if he/she resorts to investigating only a few units of the subject and gives the
result on the basis of that, it is known as sample survey method. There are different
sources of collecting Primary and Secondary data. Some of the important sources of
Primary data are—Direct Personal Interviews, Indirect Oral Interviews, Information from
Correspondents, Mailed questionnaire method, Schedules sent through enumerators and
so on. Though all these sources or methods of Primary data have their relative merits
and demerits, a researcher should use a particular method with lot of care. There are
basically two sources of collecting secondary data- (a) Published sources and (b)
Unpublished sources. Published sources are like publications of different government and
semi-government departments, research institutions and agencies etc. Whereas
unpublished sources are like records maintained by different government departments
and unpublished theses of different universities etc. Editing of secondary data is
necessary for different purposes as – editing for completeness, editing for consistency,
editing for accuracy and editing for homogeneity.
It is always a tough task for the researcher to choose between primary and secondary
data. Though primary data are more authentic and accurate, time, money and labor
involved in obtaining these more often prompt the researcher to go for the secondary
data. There are certain amount of doubt about its authenticity and suitability, but after
the arrival of many government and semi government agencies and some private
institutions in the field of data collection, most of the apprehensions in the mind of the
researcher have been removed.

Self-Assessment Questions (SAQS):

a) Explain primary and secondary data and distinguish between them.
(Refer the introduction part of this lesson.)
b) Explain the different methods of collecting primary data.
(Explain direct personal, indirect oral interview, information received through
agencies etc.)
c) Explain the merits and demerits of different methods of
collecting primary data.
(Refer the methods of collecting primary data)
d) Explain the different sources of secondary data and the
precautions in using secondary data.
e) What is editing of secondary data? Why is it required?
f) What are the different types of editing of secondary data?
GLOSSARY OF TERMS:
Primary Source:
It is one that itself collects the data.
Secondary Source:
It is one that makes available data collected by some other agency.
Collection of Statistics:
Collection means the assembling for the purpose of particular investigation of entirely
new data presumably not already available in published sources.
Questionnaire:
A list of questions properly selected and arranged pertaining to the investigation.
Investigator:
Investigator is a person who collects the information.
Respondent:
A person who fills the questionnaire or provides the required information.
UNIT 5: Questionnaire & Sampling
LECTURER: MR. KIKAMBI JOHN BOSCO

Lesson 2: Questionnaire & Sampling

Lesson Outline
a) Meaning Of Questionnaire.
b) Drafting Of Questionnaire.
c) Size Of Questions
d) Clarity Of Questions
e) Logical Sequence Of Questions
f) Simple Meaning Questions
g) Other Requirements Of A Good Questionnaire
h) Meaning And Essentials Of Sampling.
Learning Objectives
After reading this lesson you should be able to
a) Understand the meaning of questionnaire
b) Different requirements and characteristics of a good questionnaire
c) Meaning of sampling
d) Essentials of sampling
Introduction:
Nowadays questionnaire is widely used for data collection in social research. It is a
reasonably fair tool for gathering data from large, diverse, varied and scattered social
groups. The questionnaire is the media of communication between the investigator and
the respondents. According to Bogardus, a questionnaire is a list of questions sent to a
number of persons for their answers and which obtains standardized results that can be
tabulated and treated statistically. The Dictionary of Statistical Terms defines it as a
“group of or sequence of questions designed to elicit information upon a subject or
sequence of subjects from information.” A questionnaire should be designed or drafted
with utmost care and caution so that all the relevant and essential information for the
enquiry may be collected without any difficulty, ambiguity and vagueness. Drafting of a
good questionnaire is a highly specialized job and requires great care skill, wisdom,
efficiency and experience. No hard and fast rule can be laid down for designing or framing
a questionnaire. However, in this connection, the following general points may be borne
in mind:
1. Size Of The Questionnaire Should Be Small:
A researcher should try his best to keep the number of questions as small as possible,
keeping in view the nature, objectives and scope of the enquiry. Respondent’s time should
not be wasted by asking irrelevant and unimportant questions. A large number of
questions would involve more work for the investigator and thus result in delay on his
part in collecting and submitting the information. A large number of unnecessary
questions may annoy the respondent and he may refuse to cooperate. A reasonable
questionnaire should contain from 15 to 25 questions at large. If a still larger number of
questions are a must in any enquiry, then the questionnaire should be divided into various
sections or parts.
2. The Questions Should Be Clear:
The questions should be easy, brief, unambiguous, non-offending, courteous in tone,
corroborative in nature and to the point, so that much scope of guessing is left on the
part of the respondents.
3. The Questions Should Be Arranged In A Logical Sequence:
Logical arrangement of questions reduces lot of unnecessary work on the part of the
researcher because it not only facilitates the tabulation work but also does not leave any
chance for omissions or commissions. For example, to find if a person owns a television,
the logical order of questions would be: Do you own a television? When did you buy it?
What is its make? How much did it cost you? Is its performance satisfactory? Have you
ever got it serviced?
4. Questions Should Be Simple To Understand:
The vague words like good, bad, efficient, sufficient, prosperity, rarely, frequently,
reasonable, poor, rich etc., should not be used since these may be interpreted differently
by different persons and as such might give unreliable and misleading information.
Similarly the use of words having double meaning like price, assets, capital income etc.,
should also be avoided.
5. Questions Should Be Comprehensive & Easily Answerable:
Questions should be designed in such a way that they are readily comprehensible and
easy to answer for the respondents. They should not be tedious nor should they tax the
respondents’ memory. At the same time questions involving mathematical calculations
like percentages, ratios etc., should not be asked.
6. Questions Of Personal & Sensitive Nature Should Not Be Asked:
There are some questions which disturb the respondents and he/she may be shy or
irritated by hearing such questions. Therefore, every effort should be made to avoid such
questions. For example, ‘do you cook yourself or your wife cooks?’ ‘Or do you drink?’
Such questions will certainly irk the respondents and thus be avoided at any cost. If
unavoidable then highest amount of politeness should be used.
7. Types Of Questions:
Under this head, the questions in the questionnaire may be classified as follows:
(a) Shut Questions:
Shut questions are those where possible answers are suggested by the framers of the
questionnaire and the respondent is required to tick one of them. Shut questions can
further be subdivided into the following forms:

(i) Simple Alternate Questions:

In this type of questions the respondent has to choose from the two clear cut alternatives
like ‘Yes’ or ‘No’, ‘Right or Wrong’ etc. Such questions are also called as dichotomous
questions. This technique can be applied with elegance to situations where two clear cut
alternatives exist.
(ii) Multiple Choice Questions:
Many a times it becomes difficult to define a clear cut alternative and accordingly in such
a situation additional answers between Yes and No, like Do not know, No opinion,
Occasionally, Casually, Seldom etc., are added. For example, in order to find if a person
smokes or drinks, the following multiple choice answers may be used:
Do you smoke?
(a) Yes regularly [ ] (b) No never [ ]
(c) Occasionally [ ] (d) Seldom [ ]
Multiple choice questions are very easy and convenient for the respondents to answer.
Such questions save time and also facilitate tabulation. This method should be used if
only a selected few alternative answers exist to a particular question.
8. Leading Questions Should Be Avoided:
Questions like ‘why do you use a particular type of car, say Maruti car’ should preferably
be framed into two questions-
(i) which car do you use? (ii) why do you prefer it?
It gives smooth ride [ ]
It gives more mileage [ ]
It is cheaper [ ]
It is maintenance free [ ]

9 Cross Checks:
The questionnaire should be so designed as to provide internal checks on the accuracy
of the information supplied by the respondents by including some connected questions
at least with respect to matters which are fundamental to the enquiry.
10 Pre Testing The Questionnaire:
It would be practical in every sense to try out the questionnaire on a small scale before
using it for the given enquiry on a large scale. This has been found extremely useful in
practice. The given questionnaire can be improved or modified in the light of the
drawbacks, shortcomings and problems faced by the investigator in the pre test.

11 A Covering Letter:
A covering letter from the organizers of the enquiry should be enclosed along with the
questionnaire for the purposes regarding definitions, units, concepts used in the
questionnaire, for taking the respondent’s confidence, self addressed envelop in case of
mailed questionnaire, mention about award or incentives for the quick response, a
promise to send a copy of the survey report etc.

SAMPLING
Though sampling is not new, the sampling theory has been developed recently. People
knew or not but they have been using the sampling technique in their day to day life. For
example a house wife tests a small quantity of rice to see whether it has been well-cooked
and gives the generalized result about the whole rice boiling in the vessel. The result
arrived at is most of the times 100% correct. In another example, when a doctor wants
to examine the blood for any deficiency, takes only a few drops of blood of the patient
and examines. The result arrived at is most of the times correct and represent the whole
amount of blood available in the body of the patient. In all these cases, by inspecting a
few, they simply believe that the samples give a correct idea about the population. Most
of our decision are based on the examination of a few items only i.e. Sample studies. In
the words of Croxton and Cowdon, “It may be too expensive or too time consuming to
attempt either a complete or a nearly complete coverage in a statistical study. Further to
arrive at valid conclusions, it may not be necessary to enumerate all or nearly all of a
population. We may study a sample drawn from the large population and if that sample
is adequately representative of the population, we should be able to arrive at valid
conclusions.”
According to Rosander, “The sample has many advantages over a census or complete
enumeration. If carefully designed, the sample is not only considerably cheaper but may
give results which are just accurate and sometimes more accurate than those of a census.
Hence a carefully designed sample may actually be better than a poorly planned and
executed census.”
Merits:
1. It saves time:
Sampling method of data collection saves time because fewer items are collected and
processed. When the results are urgently required, this method is very helpful.
2. It reduces cost:
Since only a few and selected items are studied in sampling, there is reduction in cost of
money and reduction in terms of man hours.
3. More reliable results can be obtained:
Through sampling, more reliable results can be obtained because (a) there are fewer
chances of sampling statistical errors. If there is sampling error, it is possible to estimate
and control the results.(b) Highly experienced and trained persons can be employed for
scientific processing and analyzing of relatively limited data and they can use their high
technical knowledge and get more accurate and reliable results.
4. It provides more detailed information:
As it saves time, money and labor, more detail information can be collected in a sample
survey.
5. Sometimes only sampling method to depend upon:
Sometimes it so happens that one has to depend upon sampling method alone because
if the population under study is finite, sampling method is the only method to be used.
For example, if someone’s blood has to be examined, it will become fatal to take all the
blood out from the body and study depending upon the total enumeration method.
6. Administrative convenience:
The organization and administration of sample survey are easy for the reasons which
have been discussed earlier.
7. More scientific:
Since the methods used to collect data are based on scientific theory and results obtained
can be tested, sampling is a more scientific method of collecting data.
It is not that sampling is free from demerits or shortcomings. There are certain
shortcomings of this method which are discussed below:
1. Illusory conclusion:
If a sample enquiry is not carefully planned and executed, the conclusions may be
inaccurate and misleading.
2. Sample Not Representative:
To make the sample representative is a difficult task. If a representative sample is taken
from the universe, the result is applicable to the whole population. If the sample is not
representative of the universe the result may be false and misleading.
3. Lack Of Experts:
As there are lack of experts to plan and conduct a sample survey, its execution and
analysis, and its results would be
Unsatisfactory and not trustworthy.
4. Sometimes More Difficult Than Census Method:
Sometimes the sampling plan may be complicated and requires more money, labor and
time than a census method.
5. Personal Bias:
There may be personal biases and prejudices with regard to the choice of technique and
drawing of sampling units.
6. Choice Of Sample Size:
If the size of the sample is not appropriate then it may lead to untrue characteristics of
the population.
7. Conditions Of Complete Coverage:
If the information is required for each and every item of the universe, then a complete
enumeration survey is better.
Essentials of sampling:
In order to reach a clear conclusion, the sampling should possess the following essentials:
1. It must be representative:
The sample selected should possess the similar characteristics of the original universe
from which it has been drawn.
2. Homogeneity:
Selected samples from the universe should have similar nature and should mot have any
difference when compared with the universe.
3. Adequate samples:
In order to have a more reliable and representative result, a good number of items are
to be included in the sample.
4. Optimization:
All efforts should be made to get maximum results both in terms of cost as well as
efficiency. If the size of the sample is larger, there is better efficiency and at the same
time the cost is more. A proper size of sample is maintained in order to have optimized
results in terms of cost and efficiency.
UNIT 6: STATISTICAL LAWS
LECTURER: MR. KIKAMBI JOHN BOSCO
STATISTICAL LAWS
One of the basic reasons for undertaking a sample survey is to predict and generalize the
results for the population as a whole. The logical process of drawing general conclusions
from a study of representative items is called induction. In statistics, induction is a
generalization of facts on the assumption that the results provided by an adequate sample
may be taken as applicable to the whole. The fact that the characteristics of the sample
provide a fairly good idea about the population characteristics is borne out by the theory
of probability. Sampling is based on two fundamental principles of statistics theory viz,
(i) the Law of Statistical Regularity and (ii) the Law of Inertia of Large Numbers.
THE LAW OF STATISTICAL REGULARITY
The Law of Statistical Regularity is derived from the mathematical theory of probability.
According to W.I.King, “the Law of Statistical Regularity formulated in the mathematical
theory of probability lays down that a moderately large number of items chosen at
random from a very large group are almost sure to have the characteristics of the large
group.” For example, if we want to find out the average income of 10,000 people, we
take a sample of 100 people and find the average. Suppose another person takes another
sample of 100 people from the same population and finds the average, the average
income found out by both the persons will have the least difference. On the other hand
if the average income of the same 10,000 people is found out by the census method, the
result will be more or less the same.
Characteristics
1. The item selected will represent the universe and the result is generalized to
universe as a whole.
 2. Since sample size is large, it is representative of the universe.
3. There is a very remote chance of bias.
LAW OF INERTIA OF LARGE NUMBERS
The Law of inertia of Large Numbers is an immediate deduction from the Principle of
Statistical Regularity. Law of Inertia of Large Numbers states, “Other things being equal,
as the sample size increases, the results tend to be more reliable and accurate.” This is
based on the fact that the behavior or a phenomenon en masse. I.e., on a large scale is
generally stable. It implies that the total change is likely to be very small, when a large
number or items are taken in a sample. The law will be true on an average. If sufficient
large samples are taken from the patent population, the reverse movements of different
parts in the same will offset by the corresponding movements of some other parts.
Sampling Errors:
In a sample survey, since only a small portion of the population is studied its results are
bound to differ from the census results and thus, have a certain amount of error. In
statistics the word error is used to denote the difference between the true value and the
estimated or approximated value. This error would always be there no matter that the
sample is drawn at random and that it is highly representative. This error is attributed to
fluctuations of sampling and is called sampling error. Sampling error exist due to the fact
that only a sub set of the population has been used to estimate the population parameters
and draw inferences about the population. Thus, sampling error is present only in a
sample survey and is completely absent in census method.
Sampling errors occur primarily due to the following reasons:
1. Faulty selection of the sample:
Some of the bias is introduced by the use of defective sampling technique for the selection
of a sample e.g. Purposive or judgment sampling in which the investigator deliberately
selects a representative sample to obtain certain results. This bias can be easily overcome
by adopting the technique of simple random sampling.
2. Substitution:
When difficulties arise in enumerating a particular sampling unit included in the random
sample, the investigators usually substitute a convenient member of the population. This
obviously leads to some bias since the characteristics possessed by the substituted unit
will usually be different from those possessed by the unit originally included in the sample.
3. Faulty demarcation of sampling units:
Bias due to defective demarcation of sampling units is particularly significant in area
surveys such as agricultural experiments in the field of crop cutting surveys etc. In such
surveys, while dealing with border line cases, it depends more or less on the discretion
of the investigator whether to include them in the sample or not.
4. Error due to bias in the estimation method:
Sampling method consists in estimating the parameters of the population by appropriate
statistics computed from the sample. Improper choice of the estimation techniques might
introduce the error.
5. Variability of the population:
Sampling error also depends on the variability or heterogeneity of the population to be
sampled.
Sampling errors are of two types: Biased Errors and Unbiased Errors

Biased Errors:
The errors that occur due to a bias of prejudice on the part of the informant or enumerator
in selecting, estimating measuring instruments are called biased errors. Suppose for
example, the enumerator uses the deliberate sampling method in the place of simple
random sampling method, then it is called biased errors. These errors are cumulative in
nature and increase when the sample size also increases. These errors arise due to defect
in the methods of collection of data, defect in the method of organization of data and
defect in the method of analysis of data.
Unbiased Errors:
Errors which occur in the normal course of investigation or enumeration on account of
chance are called unbiased errors. They may arise accidentally without any bias or
prejudice. These errors occur due to faulty planning of statistical investigation.
To avoid these errors, the statistician must take proper precaution and care in using the
correct measuring instrument. He must see that the enumerators are also not biased.
Unbiased errors can be removed with the proper planning of statistical investigations.
Both these errors should be avoided by the statisticians.
Reducing Sampling Errors:
Errors in sampling can be reduced if the size of sample is increased. This is shown in the
following diagram.
From the above diagram it is clear that when the size of the sample increases, sampling
error decreases. And by this process samples can be made more representatives to the
population.
Testing of hypothesis:
As a part of investigation, samples are drawn from the population and results are derived
to help in taking the decisions. But such decisions involve an element of uncertainty
causing wrong decisions. Hypothesis is an assumption which may or may not be true
about a population parameter. For example, if we toss a coin 200 times, we may get 110
heads and 90 tails.

At this instance, we are interested in testing whether the coin is unbiased or not.
Therefore, we may conduct a test to judge the significance of the difference of sampling
or otherwise. To carry out a test of significance, the following procedure has to be
followed:
1. Framing the Hypothesis:
To verify the assumption, which is based on sample study, we collect data and find out
the difference between the sample value and the population value. If there is no
difference found or the difference is very small then the hypothetical value is correct.
Generally two hypotheses complementary to each offer are constructed, and if one is
found correct, the other is rejected.

(a) Null Hypothesis:

The random selection of the samples from the given population makes the tests of
significance valid for us. For applying any test of significance we first set up a hypothesis-
a definite statement about the population parameter/s. Such a statistical hypothesis,
which is under test, is usually a hypothesis of no difference and hence is called null
hypothesis. It is usually denoted by Ho. In the words of Prof. R.A.Fisher “Null
Hypothesis is the hypothesis which is tested for possible rejection under the
assumption that it is true.”

(b) Alternative Hypothesis.

Any hypothesis which is complementary to the null hypothesis is called an alternative
hypothesis. It is usually denoted by H1. It is very important to explicitly state the
alternative hypothesis in respect of any null hypothesis H0 because the acceptance or
rejection of Ho is meaningful only if it is being tested against an opposite hypothesis. For
example, if we want to test the null hypothesis that the population has a specified mean
μ0(say), i.e., H0:μ=μ then the alternative hypothesis could be:
(i) H1:μ≠μ0 (i.e., μ>μ0 or μ<μ0)
(ii) H1: μ>μ0 (iii) H1: μ<μ0

The alternative hypothesis (i) is known as a two-tailed alternative and the alternatives in
(ii) and (iii) are known as right-tailed and left-tailed alternatives. Accordingly, the
corresponding tests of significance are called two-tailed, right-tailed and left-tailed tests
respectively.
The null hypothesis consists of only a single parameter value and is usually simple while
alternative hypothesis is usually composite.