Module 3

CONSTRUCTIVISM

Objectives:
At the end of the lesson, the pre-service teacher should be able to:
1. examine the constructivist view of learning; and
2. discuss and apply the process-oriented guided-inquiry methodology of science
teaching.
Constructivism as a Theory for Teaching and Learning

Constructivism is ‘an approach to learning that holds that people actively

construct or make their own knowledge and that reality is determined by the
experiences of the learner’.

In elaborating constructivists’ ideas Arends (1998) states that constructivism

believes in personal construction of meaning by the learner through experience, and
that meaning is influenced by the interaction of prior knowledge and new events.

Principles of Constructivism

1. Knowledge is constructed, rather than innate, or passively absorbed.

Constructivism's central idea is that human learning is constructed, that learners

build new knowledge upon the foundation of previous learning.

This prior knowledge influences what new or modified knowledge an individual will
construct from new learning experiences (Phillips, 1995).

2. Learning is an active process.

The second notion is that learning is an active rather than a passive process. The
passive view of teaching views the learner as ‘an empty vessel’ to be filled with
knowledge, whereas constructivism states that learners construct meaning only through
active engagement with the world (such as experiments or real-world problem solving).
Information may be passively received, but understanding cannot be, for it must come
from making meaningful connections between prior knowledge, new knowledge, and
the processes involved in learning.

3. All knowledge is socially constructed.

Learning is a social activity - it is something we do together, in interaction with each

other, rather than an abstract concept (Dewey, 1938).

For example, Vygotsky (1978), believed that community plays a central role in the
process of "making meaning." For Vygotsky, the environment in which children grow up
will influence how they think and what they think about.

Thus, all teaching and learning is a matter of sharing and negotiating socially
constituted knowledge.

For example, Vygotsky (1978) states cognitive development stems from social
interactions from guided learning within the zone of proximal development as children
and their partner's co-construct knowledge.

4. All knowledge is personal.

Each individual learner has a distinctive point of view, based on existing knowledge
and values. This means that same lesson, teaching or activity may result in different
learning by each pupil, as their subjective interpretations differ.

This principle appears to contradict the view the knowledge is socially constructed.
The principle argues (a) that although individuals have their own personal history of
learning, nevertheless they can share in common knowledge, and (b) that although
education is a social process, powerfully influenced by cultural factors, nevertheless
cultures are made up of sub- cultures, even to the point of being composed of sub-
cultures of one.

Cultures and their knowledge-base are constantly in a process of change and the
knowledge stored by individuals is not a rigid copy of some socially constructed
template. In learning a culture, each child changes that culture.
 5. Learning exists in the mind.

The constructivist theory posits that knowledge can only exist within the human
mind, and that it does not have to match any real world reality (Driscoll, 2000). Learners
will be constantly trying to develop their own individual mental model of the real world
from their perceptions of that world.

As they perceive each new experience, learners will continually update their own
mental models to reflect the new information, and will, therefore, construct their own
interpretation of reality.

What are the three main types of constructivism?

Typically, this continuum is divided into three broad categories: Cognitive constructivism
based on the work of Jean Piaget, social constructivism based on the work of Lev
Vygotsky, and radical constructivism.

1. Cognitive constructivism states knowledge is something that is actively

constructed by learners based on their existing cognitive structures. Therefore, learning
is relative to their stage of cognitive development.

Cognitivist teaching methods aim to assist students in assimilating new information

to existing knowledge, and enabling them to make the appropriate modifications to their
existing intellectual framework to accommodate that information.

2. Social Constructivism learning is a collaborative process, and knowledge

develops from individuals' interactions with their culture and society. Social
constructivism was developed by Lev Vygotsky (1978) who suggested that,

Every function in the child's cultural development appears twice: first, on the social level
and, later on, on the individual level; first, between people (inter-psychological) and then
inside the child (intra-psychological).

3. Radical Constructivism was developed by Ernst von Glasersfeld (1974) and

states that all knowledge is constructed rather than perceived through senses.
Learners construct new knowledge on the foundations of their existing knowledge.
However, radical constructivism states that the knowledge individuals create tells us
nothing about reality, and only helps us to function in your environment. Thus,
knowledge is invented not discovered.

The humanly constructed reality is all the time being modified and interacting to fit
ontological reality, although it can never give a ‘true picture’ of it. (Ernest, 1994)

Constructivist Approaches to Teaching

Constructivist learning theory underpins a variety of student-centered teaching

methods and techniques which contrast with traditional education, whereby knowledge
is simply passively transmitted by teachers to students.

Role of the Teacher in a Constructivist Classroom

The primary responsibility of the teacher is to create a collaborative problem-

solving environment where students become active participants in their own learning.
From this perspective, a teacher acts as a facilitator of learning rather than an instructor.
The teacher makes sure he/she understands the students' preexisting conceptions, and
guides the activity to address them and then build on them (Oliver, 2000).

Scaffolding is a key feature of effective teaching, where the adult continually

adjusts the level of his or her help in response to the learner's level of performance. In
the classroom, scaffolding can include modeling a skill, providing hints or cues, and
adapting material or activity (Copple & Bredekamp, 2009).

Features of a Constructivist Classroom

Tam (2000) lists the following four basic characteristics of constructivist learning
environments, which must be considered when implementing constructivist teaching
strategies:

1) Knowledge will be shared between teachers and students.

2) Teachers and students will share authority.

3) The teacher's role is one of a facilitator or guide.

4) Learning groups will consist of small numbers of heterogeneous students.

Traditional Classroom Constructivist Classroom

Strict adherence to a fixed Pursuit of student questions and

curriculum is highly valued. interests is valued.

Learning is based on repetition. Learning is interactive, building on

what the student already knows.

Teacher-centered. Student-centered.

Teachers disseminate information Teachers have a dialogue with

to students; students are students, helping students construct
recipients of knowledge (passive their own knowledge (active learning).
learning).

Teacher's role is directive, rooted Teacher's role is interactive, rooted in

in authority. negotiation.

Students work primarily alone Students work primarily in groups

(competitive). (cooperative).

The Pedagogical Goals of Constructivist Classrooms

Honebein (1996) summarizes the seven pedagogical goals of constructivist learning

environments:
1. To provide experience with the knowledge construction process (students determine
how they will learn).
2. To provide experience in and appreciation for multiple perspectives (evaluation of
alternative solutions).
3. To embed learning in realistic contexts (authentic tasks).
4. To encourage ownership and a voice in the learning process (student centered
learning).
5. To embed learning in social experience (collaboration).
6. To encourage the use of multiple modes of representation, (video, audio text, etc.)
7. To encourage awareness of the knowledge construction process (reflection,
metacognition).

Brooks and Brooks (1993) list twelve descriptors of constructivist teaching behaviors:

1. Encourage and accept student autonomy and initiative.

2. Use raw data and primary sources, along with manipulative, interactive, and physical
materials.
3. When framing tasks, use cognitive terminology such as “classify,” analyze,” “predict,”
and “create.”
4. Allow student responses to drive lessons, shift instructional strategies, and alter
content.
5. Inquire about students’ understandings of the concepts before sharing [your] own
understandings of those concepts.
6. Encourage students to engage in dialogue, both with the teacher and with one
another.
7. Encourage student inquiry by asking thoughtful, open-ended questions and
encouraging students to ask questions of each other.
8. Seek elaboration of students’ initial responses.

9. Engage students in experiences that might engender contradictions to their initial

hypotheses and then encourage discussion.
10. Allow wait time after posing questions.

11. Provide time for students to construct relationships and create metaphors.

12. Nurture students’ natural curiosity through frequent use of the learning cycle model.

Critical Evaluation to Constructivism

Strengths

Constructivism promotes a sense of personal agency as students have ownership of

their learning and assessment.

Limitations

The biggest disadvantage is its lack of structure. Some students require highly
structured learning environments to be able to reach their potential.

It also removes grading in the traditional way and instead places more value on
students evaluating their own progress, which may lead to students falling behind, as
without standardized grading teachers may not know which students are struggling.
The Inquiry Approach
The inquiry approach in teaching science also learned discovery approach or
problem-solving approach puts a premium on the processes that children employ in
obtaining scientific information. It likewise stresses discoveries and understanding
science concepts through activity-based lessons. As such, all learning activities are
designed to provide direct experiences with natural phenomena and nature as a whole.
As a classroom methodology, it revolves around the child’s daily interaction with his
environment, more specifically on the questions he asks, the information he receives,
and what he does with his new learnings.

Kuslan and Stone* list a number of instructional characteristics which are

consistently present in inquiry teaching. They are:

1. Scientific processes such as observing, measuring, estimating, predicting,

comparing, classifying, experimenting, analyzing, communicating, inferring, and
drawing out inductions are habitually employed by children and teachers.
2. Time is unimportant. There is no urgency to complete a topic in order to meet a
deadline.
3. The answers sought are not known in advance to children. Not only are these
answers not often found in the textbooks, but textbooks and manuals are chosen
because they ask questions and suggest ways of finding answers, but do not
give answers.
4. Children are genuinely interested in finding solutions.
5. The content of the inquiry is not necessarily related to that which precedes or
follows.
6. Teaching and learning are “why” centered. Questions such as "How do we
know?” “Are we justified in this assumption?” and “Are we justified in this
conclusion?” are characteristic of the inquiry style.
7. A problem of some kind is identified and narrowed until it seems probable that it
can be solved by the class.
8. Hypotheses are proposed by the class in order to guide the investigation.
 9. Children take the responsibility for proposing ways of gathering the data from
controlled experimentation, observation, reading and other pertinent sources.
10. These proposals for action are cooperatively evaluated. Pertinent assumptions,
limitations and difficulties are identified whenever possible.
11. Children investigate in small groups. as a class, and as individuals to order to
gather the data by which to test the hypothesis
12. Children summarize their data and come to tentative conclusions about the
adequacy hypothesis. Every effort is made to formulate scientific explanation.
13. Conclusions and explanations are incorporated whenever possible into the great
guiding themes of the sciences.

Values of Inquiry Teaching

One of the long-range goals of science education today is to produce children
who can think and act like scientists. After going through the entire science program at
the elementary level they must have internalized scientific attitudes and values and
have gained proficiency in the scientific method. The inquiry approach clearly attempts
to achieve this goal since it highlights the processes through which learning should
occur as well as the formation of curious, inquiring, and creative minds.

Piaget theorized that children at the elementary level are in the concrete stage of
their intellectual development. They learn best by coming in direct contact with concrete
materials in the environment and/or by witnessing scientific phenomena. Inquiry
teaching is, therefore, in agreement with such a sound theory since it requires that
learning be derived through direct experiences gained. It takes into consideration the
nature of the child and his unique learning characteristics at certain stages of his mental
development.

Science educators are in common agreement that scientific facts and

information which the children discover themselves are remembered long and therefore
become stored as part of their permanent learning. When situations arise which need a
fast recall and application of such learned principles, the retrieval from memory is as
easily facilitated unlike when they memorized as isolated bits of information so
impressed in their training that they are not likely to be taken as their own.

Since inquiry teaching provides an atmosphere conducive for children to chart

and propel their own course of action, it develops independent thinking coupled with a
strong sense of responsibility. It is about time the teachers offer their children the
chance to plan and manage their own learning activity. Teachers should not be
surprised to discover that they are capable of divergent and original thinking. At this
stage, they easily get bored with routine and they like to try their own ways of doing
things. A more permissive atmosphere allows the fruition of new and creative ideas.
Once their attempts at their own innovations prove successful they develop the much
needed confidence in their own abilities.

Success at inquiries likewise leads to inner directed motivations compared to

motivations attached to external rewards. The joy and feeling of pride experienced from
self-discovered learning more than suffice for the effort that goes into the planning of
such a learning environment. Scores of school children miss experiencing the thrill and
satisfaction of discovering things by themselves because their learning activities have
been planned and rigidly managed by teachers who, because of their vast experience
and age have become so mechanical and impersonal in their routine teaching chores. A
successful learning experience which results from self-originated motivation guarantees
continued pursuance of inquiry activities in or out of school even through adulthood.

Participation in inquiry activities enhances the children’s reasoning ability.

One who discovers that light travels in straight line can better explain why shadows are
formed or why an eclipse may occur. Inquiry teaching facilitates the integration and
assimilation of discovered concepts into their own store of knowledge so that it
becomes easy for them to formulate generalizations from similar events or to apply such
concepts in predicting future events. A pupil who is constantly exposed to inquiry
lessons, compared to one who has never attempted to learn things by himself, develops
a sensitiveness which sharpens his rational power.
The Development of Skills
The present goals of science education intended for the elementary level shifts
heavily towards the development of skills in the basic science processes rather than on
the mastery of science facts. Parrot-like recitations of high sounding technical terms and
pure recall of memorized laws and theories have no place in a process-oriented
classroom instruction. The young are innately curious and an encyclopedic, often
passive, presentation of science content seldom satiates their questioning minds.

The current knowledge explosion in all fields of study does not warrant a
content-tied approach in teaching. After all, it is impossible to teach all there is to learn
in science during their six-year stay in the elementary grades. Moreover, the fast
accumulation of scientific information brought about by unabated experimentations in
various laboratories all over the world, may render the current findings obsolete by the
time the children complete their elementary schooling. Rather than emphasize the
learning of content per se at such an early age present teaching methodologies are
geared instead towards the development of scientific thinking, internalization of
desirable values, and eventually close adherence to a scientific and systematic way of
doing things. It is a truism that one with a scientific attitude will always employ the
science processes whether it is for simple verification or for seeking new information.

While science content may be forgotten especially when acquired through

repetitious recall or may someday be superseded by new findings, developed skill in the
basic investigative processes becomes a part of the child’s behavior patterns. Once
these skills are gained during the early formative years they remain long enough to be
of use throughout their adult life.

Science education is anchored on the rationale that the processes of obtaining

information are more important than the information itself. Hence, a corresponding
thrust focusing on the processes rather than on the products has emerged. Present
science program are aimed at equipping the basic investigative skills arriving scientific
information.
 With the present society teeming with the products of technology, a child who is
proficient in the science processes will be in a better position to appreciate the
contributions of such products to improve the quality of life. He will be more aware and
cognizant of the influence that science and technology wield over modem societies. As
a consumer of improved products and inventions he will be greatly helped in making
wise decisions and appropriate choices.

The Discovery Approach

Nature
The discovery approach refers to an inductive method of guiding pupils to
discuss and organize ideas and process by themselves. It means helping them use
ideas already acquired as a means of discovering new ideas. It is the process by which
the children under subtle direction go through the logical process of observation,
comparison and abstraction, generalization, and application. Instead of “telling” either by
the teacher or a textbook explanation, self-discovery sets up learning situations
whereby children are encouraged to explore a process or discover rules. The primary
concern is with developing a pattern of thinking instead of merely arriving at an answer.

The discussion, question and answer, and other methods become subsidiary
when the discovery approach is used. The child learns by observing and experiencing
from the day he is born. He develops techniques of discovery which will help him meet
the challenge of his environment. The method is so natural that pupils find it enjoyable
and teachers find it rewarding.

Types of Self-discovery
Self-discovery as a learning process is figuring out things for oneself. The
teacher, in employing this process as he provides the proper learning situation within
which the pupils can discover solutions to their problem, actually resorts to the use of
two types of discovery –the guided discovery and the pure discovery.
 Guided Discovery is an approach to instruction by which the teacher tries to
draw out from his pupils certain bits of information through properly organized questions
and explanations leading them to the eventual discovery of particular concepts or
principles

Pure Discovery is an approach where the pupils are expected to arrive at

certain concepts and principles completely by themselves, i.e., with little or no guidance
from the teacher expect for the explanation of particular terms or references.

Principles Underlying the Discovery Process

The success of the discovery approach entails following certain principles the
more fully the teacher understands and applies the principles that underlie the discovery
approach, the more success he can expect from its use. Such principles are as follows:
1. The learning process moves from a hunch or intuition to a storage of in-depth
analysis and then to the point where knowledge claims are based on concrete,
documentary evidence.
2. The classroom serves as a miniature laboratory for exploration and discovery.
3. Children learn as a result of their observations and the experiences they undergo.
4. Children discover relationships and make generalizations in their own individual
ways.
5. Learning through self-discovery is enhanced by individualized and small-group
explorations.
6. The methods used by children in learning through self-discovery are similar to the
ways in which scientists think, work, and organize knowledge.

Steps in Self-discovery as a Teaching Approach

The process brings the learner into more intimate contact with essential, concrete
experiences and with the actual operations of abstracting and generalizing from
empirical data. As the learner goes through the process, he uses his own “steps”; this
should not alarm the teacher as no two minds function exactly in the same manner.
Evaluation
Children’ s ability to employ methods of self-discovery can be evaluated by the following
means: (1) record observations of children’s performance as they conduct their
demonstrations, experiments, and other creative work, check hypotheses, and form
conclusions; (2) make children prepare diaries or logbooks of consecutive class
activities; (3) analyze methods of inquiry employed by pupils who have engaged in
creative activities; (4) evaluate tape-recorded class activities for evidence of critical
thinking in children’s oral contributions; and (5) use recommendations made by
specialists to define behavior patterns indicating children's ability to use methods of
inquiry.

Competent teachers and specialists in learning theory have recognized the value
of self-discovery by pupils. The techniques of discovery developed by pupils will enable
them to meet the needs of our technological age, which requires more than mere
mastery of information and skills.

The advantages of the discovery method when consistently and carefully used
are as follows: (1) more permanent, meaningful, and useful learning is achieved when
pupils are actively involved than the learning brought about as a result of teacher
direction and control; (2) a sense of freedom prevails as children are encouraged to
discover and test generalizations and to search out new ways of solving problems; (3)
new topics become new opportunities as children are encouraged to approach new
topics with confidence rather than apprehension. This confidence comes with the
knowledge that they have at their command techniques for discovering new ideas or for
applying old ideas in new situations; and (4) excitement pervades the classroom. The
discovery has high motivating effects on the learner. It releases the pupil’s energy and
enthusiasm and helps develop in him a more favorable attitude toward work.
The discovery approach is an important classroom tool. Like all tools, it must be
carefully used. Its use does not rule out the other valuable tools for the following
reasons:
1. It is not feasible as a primary means of teaching subject matter content because of
the time and cost involved.
2. Children can be subjective in their evaluation of external events and are likely to
jump to conclusions.
3. Few learners of average ability can discover solutions to problems by themselves.

The following sample lesson shows how the discovery approach is utilized in
organizing learning activities in arithmetic.
A LESSON PLAN IN
ELEMENTARY MATHEMATICS FOR GRADE 5
I. Objectives
At the end of the lesson, the pupil should be able to
A. Use correspondences in making comparisons between two sets
B. Express ratios by using the colon, number pair, and fractional term
C. Demonstrate how to form proportions
D. Interpret and solve problems involving ratio and proportion
II. Subject Matter
Ratio and Proportion
Div. Bul. 14, s. 1962
Elementary Mathematics and Curriculum Guide (rev. ed.), pp. 60-65
McSwain, et al., Arithmetic, pp. 187-197
Tangco, et-al., Mathematics for Children of Today, Grade VI, pp.
136-139
III. Activities
A. Drill
1. Basic combinations in subtraction-group X
2. Subtraction exercises with regrouping
B. Cumulative Review
1. Checking of homework
2. Opener: What two correspondences are suggested by each pair of
figures?
 A. xxx xxx
B. xxxx xxxx

A. xxxx xxxx
B. xxxxx xxxxx

A. xxxxx xxxxx
B. xx xx

C. Main Lesson-Preparation
1. Comparing equivalent fractions
2. Reviewing
a. concept of ratio
b. terms
c. equivalent ratios
3. Expressing ratios in fractional form
a. 20 boys to 35 girls in a class
b. 3 red balls to 7 green balls
c. 2 atis for P1.20
d. 24 seats to 30 passengers
e. 50 kilometres per hour

4. Writing an equivalent ratio for each of the following.

a. 8/ 12
b. 2/8
c. 10:12
d. (6, 10)
e. 40 to 60

D. Exploration and Discovery

 1. Emma’s album contains 8 postcards, while Linda’s album contains
42 postcards. What is the ratio of Emma’ s to Linda’s
postcards? Linda’s to Emma’s postcards?
2. If Emma paid ₱40.00 for her postcards, how much did Linda pay
for hers?
Emma-8 postcards - 40 pesos
Linda-12 postcards-N pesos
Solutions
a. Finding equivalent fractions
8/12 = 1 x 8/12
8/12 = 5/5 x 8/ 12 (Rename 1 as 5/5)
8/12 = 40/60
b. Cross multiplication
8/12 = 40/ N
8N = 480
N = 60
c. Using reciprocals
8/12 = 40/N
8/12 = 1/N x 40
N x 8/12 = (N x 1/N) x 40
8/12 x N = 1 x 40
8/12 x N = 40
(12/8 x 8/12) x N = 12/8 x 40
l x N=480/8
N=60
3. Solve for N:
6/9 = N/36
6/9 = 1/36 x N
36 x 6/9= (36x1/36) x N 216/9=l x N
4=N
E. Abstraction and Organization
 1. To form proportions:
Comparisons should be made in the same order so that we name
equal ratios.
2. Proportions may be solved by
a. finding equivalent fractions
b. cross multiplication
c. using reciprocals

F. Fixing Skills
Make the following proportions true:
1. 12/48 60/S
2. 150/10 n/100
3. 12/5 x/25
4. 14/16 t/48
G. Application
Last Christmas vacation, Jaime worked for 3 days in a bicycle repair
shop. Mario worked for 2 days. If Jaime’s share was 180 pesos, how
much was Mario’s share?
IV. Assignment
Solve for N.
1. 32/24 N/ 72
2. 27/ 18 9/N
3. 27/ 18 N/54
4. 21/14 N/28
5. Dante can run 35 meters in 8 seconds. If he goes at the same speed,
how long will it take him to run 140 meters?

THE PROCESS APPROACH

Actually there is no difference between the process approach and the discovery
approach because they mean the same thing. Only the terminology differs, but the
substance is the same. We go through a series of processes and finally discover
something. The term discovery connotes something new, something yet unknown.

The-basic philosophy of the discovery method is that the child learns by firsthand
experience and progresses at his individual rate of learning while he finds out concepts
for himself.

The Process Approach to Science Instruction

Problems in science will always arise as a child observes nature. One may
wonder or be astonished over a certain phenomenon and may even call it a miracle.
The child may be frustrated when he fails to find an adequate explanation. The demand
for sense in this state of confusion is the beginning of scientific inquiry.

An attempt to solve the problem is the introduction of the so-called approach to

science instruction. The process approach to science teaching is not new. It is not an
educational fad that may sooner or later become obsolete. Teachers have long been
using the different processes in their classroom activities.

One misconception of many teachers about the process approach is that it is a

method of teaching, which is not the case. Actually, the processes are used in the
question-and-answer method and in the unit, the project, the inductive, or other
methods. The only difference is in the amount of emphasis on the processes used in
teaching procedures. The process approach allows the children to
1. Understand that change, a cause-and-effect relationship, has been, is, and will
continue to be a fundamental phenomenon in our universe
2. Attain their maximum potential for effective thinking and action
3. Increase understanding of themselves and of their relationships to the universe
4. Retain the enthusiasm of seeking more and more knowledge
5. Accept the challenge that society needs their best talents and wisdom
Why Use the Process Approach?
The new curriculum emphasizes science as a process whereby the child learns to
understand his environment and simultaneously develops scientific skills through
personal experience with materials and phenomena

In view of the many new discoveries and inventions which have caused the
proliferation of knowledge, it is impossible to learn everything in one’s field of
specialization. This knowledge explosion poses the problems of what science concepts
to teach and how to teach them effectively.
Process and intellectual development. The interrelated nature of intellectual
development is explicitly recognized in the kinds of activities undertaken in the different
grades or years, sometimes referred to as integrated processes. These processes
include controlling variables, defining operationally, formulating hypotheses, interpreting
data, and as an ultimate form of such integration, experimenting. These processes can
be used in other subjects on all levels of education. A brief description of the expected
sequence of development in both simple and integrated process categories follows:
1. Observation
Observing is the process of noting the characteristics of an object or objects. It
involves sensory perceptions such as taste, sight, hearing, smell, and touch. Lessons
should start from simple observation to more complicated empirical observations.
2. Description or communication
Describing or communicating is the process of veiling what was perceived. It
requires precise verbal and written communications. The children should be taught
enough descriptive vocabulary to enable them to give accurate description of colors,
shapes, sizes, weights, volumes, etc.
3. Classification
Classifying is the process of sorting and arranging objects into meaningful-
groups. The aim of providing experiences in classification is to develop the skills in
showing relationships, identification and noting similarities and differences.
4. Measurement
 Measuring is the process of determining length, weight, depth, width, area,
volume, time, and temperature of objects or things. Mathematics is the language of
science. The aim of providing experiences in measurement is to develop the skills in the
use of different methods of measuring and to give the children the idea of standard
measurement.
5. Inference
Inferring is the process of arriving at a tentative conclusion. Inferring is thinking
about a fact based on observations or experiments. The aim of providing experiences in
inferring is to train the children in suspended judgment, which is a characteristic of a
scientific mind.
6. Hypotheses
Hypothesizing is the process of giving a tentative explanation, which is yet to be
tested for validity. A hypothesis is an educated guess. Hypotheses are often followed by
experimentation.
7. Prediction
Prediction is the process of foretelling probable consequences based on
observable and patterned facts. The process itself is projection or prognosis. Prediction
develops analytical thinking and guessing approximately what will happen next.
8. Control of variables
Controlling variables is the process of setting up the same conditions, properties,
or factors which may influence the end result of the experiment. To develop the skill in
identifying the cause of errors in the procedures of the experiment, variables may be is
the form of size, time, distance, kind, and weight.
9. Experimentation
Experimenting is the process of discovering concepts, principles, conclusions, or
testing hypotheses.

Teaching Procedure Involved in the Process Approach

Researchers in science teaching are trying to find out how science can be taught
in such a way that children will learn the fundamental concepts of both the physical and
biological sciences, and at the same time, learn that while scientific ideas are based on
the observation of natural phenomena, these ideas are also the product of human
inventiveness and imagination, and that for any idea to persist and be fundamental in
science, it must be tested against many observations and experiments. The following
are steps followed in the approach:

Selected materials, living and nonliving are brought into the classroom for
children to observe or manipulate in their own way or under the guidance of the teacher.
The nature of the material and the objective of the experiences determine to what extent
the pupils’ activity will be guided.

The teacher introduces the scientific concept that describes or explains what the
pupils have observed. This is called the invention lesson. This is necessary because
one cannot expect children to produce out of their minds the concepts that have been
invented by the scientific “greats" of the past.

Discovery lessons are provided to present further examples of the concept. Here
the child is expected to recognize that the new concept has applications to situations
other than the initial example presented. In short, these experiences reinforce, refine,
and enlarge the content of the content.
The process approach is presented in the lesson plan that follows.
A LESSON PLAN IN SCIENCE FOR GRADE 6
by Arlyne B. Dungca. Legarda Elementary School
I. Objectives
At the end of the lesson, the pupil should be able to
A. Interpret meaningfully the data on growth in the height of plants provided
in graph/graphs
B. Identify correctly the manipulated and controlled variable which may affect
the conduction of heat 1n different materials
C. Gather evidence on the expansion and contraction of solids by
experimenting on given materials
D. Predict with some degree of accuracy the height of the rising and falling of
 weights based on recorded observations.
E. Plot carefully the results of an experiment in a graph
II. Subject Matter
Unit: Matter, Energy, and Motion
Concept: Solids expand when heated and contract when cooled.
Activity 2, pp. 2-5, Elementary Science Curriculum Guide, Grade Six
Processes stressed: Prediction, controlling variables, communication, and
experimentation.
Materials: Timepieces, gas lamps, a board with a copper wire fastened to it,
observation charts, suspended washers, matches
III. Activities
A. Sharing period
1. Health inspection-appraisal of the proper grooming of the class
2. Weather report---giving observations about the weather ‘ conditions of
the day
3. Science news-giving data on the Voyager
B. Drill: interpreting data recorded in graph/graphs
C. Review: Identifying the controlled and manipulated variables in a given
situation Directions: Read the situation carefully and be able to answer the
question below it.
An experiment was devised to test which kind of material (glass, steel,
or copper) conducts heat the fastest.

Thumbtacks were attached to each rod with a drop of wax held above a candle flame
for 58 seconds.
Which of the following variables should be controlled? Indicate your answer by
writing the number of the correct responses only.
1. place where the experiment was performed
2. diameter and length of rods
3. amount of wax
4. weight and number of thumbtacks used
 5. distance of thumbtacks from the end of the rods
6. time of heating
7. part of the flame it is held kind of material rods are made of
8. sex and age of person performing the experiment accuracy of
timepiece
D. New lesson
1. Motivation: Recall the result of the experiment performed during the
previous lesson.
2. Getting acquainted with the materials on the table
3. Involvement activities
a. Stating the problem-identify the problem relevant to the situation
presented.
b. Making inferences and hypotheses about identical problems
c. Naming the variables that could affect the result of the experiment
and identifying those that should be controlled and those that
should be manipulated
d. Performing the experiment to gather evidence to determine the truth
or falsity of hypotheses
e. Recording results on individual and group observation guides
f. Plotting data on individual and group graphs
g. Formulating generalizations on the expansion and contraction of
solids based on their findings
4. Extension activities: Children solve some problems on the expansion
and contraction of solids applying the concepts learned.
a. Why is space provided between the rails of railroad tracks?
b. How are you going to open a tightly sealed bottle?
5. Evaluation: Children rate themselves, using the checklist for evaluation.
IV. Assignment: Look around your community. Find out how the contraction and
expansion of solids is applied in the construction of cemented streets and the
putting up of telephone wires.
Guide Questions
1. What is constructivism as a theory for teaching and learning?
2. What is Inquiry Approach?

Answers to Guide Questions

1. Constructivism is ‘an approach to learning that holds that people actively construct
or make their own knowledge and that reality is determined by the experiences of
the learner’. In elaborating constructivists’ ideas Arends (1998) states that
constructivism believes in personal construction of meaning by the learner through
experience, and that meaning is influenced by the interaction of prior knowledge and
new events.

2. The inquiry approach in teaching science also learned discovery approach or

problem-solving approach puts a premium on the processes that children employ in
obtaining scientific information. It likewise stresses discoveries and understanding
science concepts through activity-based lessons. As such, all learning activities are
designed to provide direct experiences with natural phenomena and nature as a
whole. As a classroom methodology, it revolves around the child’s daily interaction
with his environment, more specifically on the questions he asks, the information he
receives, and what he does with his new learnings.
Key Points:
1. Constructivism has five principles. These are:
 Knowledge is constructed, rather than innate, or passively absorbed.
 Learning is an active process
 All knowledge is socially constructed.
 All knowledge is personal.
 Learning exists in the mind.

2. What are the three main types of constructivism?

 Cognitive constructivism states knowledge is something that is actively constructed
by learners based on their existing cognitive structures. Therefore, learning is
relative to their stage of cognitive development.
 Social Constructivism learning is a collaborative process, and knowledge develops
from individuals' interactions with their culture and society.
 Radical Constructivism was developed perceived through senses.

3. The primary responsibility of the teacher is to create a collaborative problem-solving

environment where students become active participants in their own learning.

4. Features of a Constructivist Classroom

 Knowledge will be shared between teachers and students.
 Teachers and students will share authority.
 The teacher's role is one of a facilitator or guide.
 Learning groups will consist of small numbers of heterogeneous students.
Assessment #3
Name: _______________________________________________________________
Course: ________________________________ Date: _________________________
Instructions:
1. Research for a video clip where you can observe the classroom setting and where
students identify practices consistent with constructivism. Identify these
constructivist’ principles vividly seen and discuss each.

2. Prepare a detailed lesson plan that applies the process-oriented guided-inquiry

methodology of science teaching.
References:

Arends, R. I. (1998). Resource handbook. Learning to teach (4th ed.). Boston, MA:
McGraw-Hill.

Brooks, J., & Brooks, M. (1993). In search of understanding: the case for constructivist
classrooms, ASCD. NDT Resource Center database.

Copple, C., & Bredekamp, S. (2009). Developmentally appropriate practice in early

childhood programs. Washington, DC: National Association for the Education of Young
Children.

Dewey, J. (1938) Experience and Education. New York: Collier Books.

Driscoll, M. (2000). Psychology of Learning for Instruction. Boston: Allyn& Bacon

Elliott, S.N., Kratochwill, T.R., Littlefield Cook, J. & Travers, J. (2000). Educational
psychology: Effective teaching, effective learning (3rd ed.). Boston, MA: McGraw-Hill
College.

Ernest, P. Varieties of constructivism: Their metaphors, epistemologies and pedagogical

implications. Hiroshima Journal of Mathematics Education, 2 (1994).

Fox, R. Constructivism examined. Oxford review of education, (2001).

Honebein, P. C. (1996). Seven goals for the design of constructivist learning

environments. Constructivist learning environments: Case studies in instructional
design,

Oliver, K. M. (2000). Methods for developing constructivism learning on the

web. Educational Technology,

Phillips, D. C. (1995). The good, the bad, and the ugly: The many faces of
constructivism. Educational researcher.

Tam, M. (2000). Constructivism, Instructional Design, and Technology: Implications for

Transforming Distance Learning. Educational Technology and Society,.
Teaching Guide for GSIs. Learning: Theory and Research (2016). Retrieved
from http://gsi.berkeley.edu/media/Learning.pdf

von Glasersfeld, E. V. (1974). Piaget and the radical constructivist

epistemology. Epistemology and education,.

von Glasersfeld, E. (1994). A radical constructivist view of basic mathematical

concepts. Constructing mathematical knowledge: Epistemology and mathematics
education,.

Vygotsky, L. S. (1978). Mind in society: The development of higher psychological

processes. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

Louis I. Kuslan and A. Harris Stone, Teaching Children Science: An Inquiry Approach
(California: Woodsworth Publishing Co., Inc., 1968)

Amparo S. Lardizabal, et.al.(1995).Principles and Methods of Teaching 3rd Edition.

Quezon City: Phoenix Publishing House, Inc.

Salandanan, Gloria G., et.al., (1996). The Teaching Of Science And Health,
Mathematics, And Home Economics, And Practical Arts. (Teaching Strategies III).
Quezon City: Katha Publishing Co., Inc.

https://www.simplypsychology.org/constructivism.html#:~:text=The%20constructivist%2
0theory%20posits%20that,their%20perceptions%20of%20that%20world.