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Unit :04

Turning Effect of Forces

Q: What do you mean by line of action of force? Explain.
Ans: Line of action of Force: The line along which a force acts is called the line of action of
force.
Explanation: Sometimes we need to extend the direction in
which the force acts. In physics, the line of action (also
called line of application) of a force is a geometric
representation of how the force is applied. It is
the line through the point at which the force is applied in
⃗.
the same direction as the vector F
Importance of line of action of force: The concept is
essential, for instance, for understanding the net effect of multiple forces applied to a body.
For example, if two forces of equal magnitude act upon a rigid body along the same line of
action but in opposite directions, they cancel and have no net effect. But if, instead, their lines
of action are not identical, but merely parallel, then their effect is to create a moment on the
body, which tends to rotate it.
Q (SLO # 43): Differentiate between like and unlike parallel forces
OR (Q.4.01): What are parallel forces? Differentiate between like
and unlike parallel forces. Explain with help of figure.
Ans: Parallel force: In a plane if a number of forces acts on a body in
such a way that their points of action are different but their lines of
action are parallel to each other then such force are known as parallel
force.
Like parallel Forces: Such parallel forces which are in the same
direction are called like parallel forces. For example, a bag with apples
in it as shown in figure. The weight of the bag is due to the weight of all
the apples in it. Since the weight of every apple in the bag is the force of
gravity acting on it vertically downwards, therefore, weights of apples
are the parallel forces. All these forces are acting in the same direction
and are known as like parallel forces.
Unlike parallel Forces: Such parallel forces which are opposite in
direction are called unlike parallel forces. In figure (a), an apple is
suspended by a string. The string is stretched due to weight of the apple.
The forces acting on it are; weight of the apple acting vertically
downwards and tension in the string pulling it vertically upwards. The
two forces are parallel but opposite to each other. These forces are
called unlike parallel forces. In figure (b), forces F1 and F2 are also
unlike parallel forces, because they are parallel and opposite to each
other. But F1 and F2 are not acting along the same line and hence they
are capable to rotate the body.
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Q: What do you mean by a rigid body?

Ans: If the distance between different particles of a body does not change by applying a force
or forces on it then such a body is known as rigid body. In other words, a rigid body is the
one that is not deformed by force or forces acting on it.
Q: Define axis of rotation.
Ans: Aix of rotation is the line about which the body rotates.
Q.4.02: What is moment of a force or torque? On what factors it depends? Write its
formula and unit.
Ans: Moment of force: Physically torque is defined as “turning effect produced in a body
about a fixed point due to an applied force is called torque or moment of force”. It is a vector
quantity and is denoted by the Greek letter “𝜏”.
Dependence of Torque: Torque produced in a body depends on
the following two factors;
i) Force: Force has direct relation with moment of force i.e.
greater the force, greater will be the moment of the force or
torque.
Example: While riding the bicycle, if we press the pedal hard
with our feet, its wheels will start rotating fast and the speed of
the bicycle increases. Similarly if we press the pedal softly, the
wheel will rotate slowly and the speed of the bicycle will be less.
ii) Moment arm: The perpendicular distance between the axis of
rotation and the line of action of the force is called moment arm.
It is represented by the symbol ‘L’ as shown in figure. Moment
arm also has direct relation with moment of force i.e. longer is
the moment arm greater is the moment of force.
Example: Mechanics loosen or tighten the nut or a bolt with the
help of a spanner. A spanner having long arm helps him to do it
with greater ease then the one having short arm. It is because the turning effect of the force is
different in the two cases. The moment produced by a force using a spanner of longer arm is
greater than the torque produced by the same force but using a spanner of shorter arm.
Mathematical Form: Mathematically torque is defined as “the product of force (F) and
moment arm (L)”. i.e.
Torque = force applied × moment arm
=F×L (i)
SI unit of torque is newton-metre (Nm). Torque in a body will be 1 Nm if it is caused by a
force of 1 N acting perpendicular to a moment arm of 1 m.
Q: Discuss different types of torque or what do you mean by clockwise and
anticlockwise torque or moment? (Sign conventions)
Ans: If torque or moment of force rotates the body in clockwise direction, then such type of
torque is called clockwise torque or moment. For example, we use clockwise moment to
tighten a nut using spanner.
Similarly if a torque or moment of force rotates a body in the anticlockwise direction, then
such type of torque is called anticlockwise torque or moment. For example we use
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anticlockwise torque to open a nut using spanner. Conventionally clockwise torque is taken
as negative, whereas anticlockwise torque is taken as positive.
Q.4.03: Define center of mass. What is the effect of mass distribution in a body on its
center of mass?
Ans: Center of mass (CM): Center of mass of a body is that specific point of the body about
which mass is equally distributed in all directions. OR Centre of mass of a system is such a
point where an applied force causes the system to move without rotation.
Explanation: The center of mass is the point at which we can imagine all the mass of an
object to be concentrated. Thus the center of mass is also the point at which we can imagine
the force of gravity acting on the entire object to be acting. If we can imagine all of the mass
to be concentrated at this point when calculating the force due to gravity, it is legitimate to
call this point the center of gravity (CG) a term often used interchangeably with center of
mass.
Position of the center of mass: The CM/ CG does not always lie inside the mass and may
change its location. The position of centre of
mass of the system depends on masses of the
various particles of the system and their relative
positions. For example the arm is stretched out
the CM/ CG lies inside the mass distribution, but
when the arm is bent, the CM/ CG shifts to the
new location outside the mass distribution as shown in figure. Thus, if a body has more mass
distributed in its upper part, the center of mass/ gravity will get shifted closer to the top of the
body and vice versa. Hence we can say that mass distribution in a body can change the
position of its center of mass/ gravity.
Q.4.04: What is centre of gravity (CG)? Where will be the center of gravity of these
regular shaped bodies; circular plate, rectangular and square
shaped plate, triangular shaped plate, cylinder, sphere (also
draw figures to support your answer).
Ans: Center of gravity: A point in a body where the whole
weight of the body appears to act vertically downward.
Example: A body is made up of a large number of particles as
shown in figure. Earth attracts each of these particles vertically
downward towards its centre. The pull of the Earth acting on a
particle is equal to its weight. These forces acting on the particles
of a body are almost parallel. The resultant of all
these parallel forces is a single force equal to the
weight of the body. A point where this resultant force
acts vertically towards the centre of the Earth is
called the centre of gravity CG of the body.
Centre of gravity of symmetrical objects: The
centre of gravity of objects which have symmetrical
shapes can be found from their geometry. For example
✓ The centre of gravity of a uniform rod lies at a point where it is balanced. This
balance point is its middle point G.
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✓ The centre of gravity of a uniform square or a rectangular sheet is the point of

intersection of its diagonals.
✓ The centre of gravity of a unifom1 circular disc is its centre.
✓ The centre of gravity of a solid sphere or hollow sphere is the centre of the spheres.
✓ The centre of gravity of uniform triangular sheet is the point of intersection of its
medians.
✓ The centre of gravity of a uniform circular ring is the centre of the ring.
✓ The centre of gravity of a uniform solid or hollow cylinder is the middle point on its
axis.
Q: Differentiate between the center of mass and the center of gravity.
Ans:
Center of Mass Center of Gravity
i) Center of mass of a body is i) Center of gravity is a point in
that specific point of the body a body where the whole weight
about which mass is equally of the body appears to act
distributed in all directions. vertically downward.
ii) It is the mean point of mass in ii) It is the mean point of force
an object. gravity in an object.
iii) Change in gravitational field iii) Varies with changes in
has no effect on it. gravitational field.
iv) The center of mass is used iv) The center of gravity is used
for studying the motion of the to understand the stability of the
body. body.
v) It is denoted by symbol CM. v) It is denoted by symbol CG.

Q (SLO # 48): Describe how to determine the position of the center of gravity of a plane
lamina using a plumb line? OR (Q.4.05): How
can you find the center of gravity of an
irregular shaped thin sheet of plastic?
Ans: Take an irregular sheet of plastic. Make
holes A, B, and C as shown in figure near its
edge. Support the sheet of plastic through one of
the holes (let it be A), so that it can swing freely about A. The sheet of plastic will come to
rest with its centre of gravity just vertically below the hanging point. Vertical line from A can
be located using a plumbline hung from the hanger. Mark the line on the sheet of plastic
behind the plumbline. Repeat it by supporting the sheet of plastic from hole B. The line from
B will intersect at a point CG. Similarly, draw another line from the hole C. Note that this
line also passes through CG. It will be found that all the vertical lines from holes A, B, and C
have a common point G. This common point CG is the centre of gravity of the sheet of
plastic.
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Q: Define equilibrium. What are its types? Give examples.

Ans: Equilibrium: It is the state of a body in which under the action of several forces and
torques acting together there is no change in translational motion as
well as rotational motion is called equilibrium. OR If a body remains
at rest or moves with uniform velocity then it will be in equilibrium.
OR If the acceleration of a body is zero then it is said to be in
equilibrium.
Explanation: No change in translational or rotational motions means
that no linear or angular acceleration. Mathematically for a body to be
in equilibrium
a = 0 (linear acceleration)
And  = 0 (angular acceleration)
Note: The study of objects in equilibrium is called statics.
Types of equilibrium: There are two types of equilibrium.
i. Static equilibrium: When a body is at rest under the action of several forces acting
together the body is said to be in static equilibrium.
Example: A book resting on the table is in static equilibrium. The weight ‘mg’ of the book is
balanced by a normal reaction force from the table surf ace as shown in figure.
ii. Dynamic equilibrium: When a body is moving at uniform velocity under the action of
several forces acting together the body is said to be in dynamic equilibrium. It is further
divided in to two types.
a) Dynamic Translational Equilibrium: When a body is moving with uniform linear
velocity the body is said to be in dynamic translational equilibrium.
Example: A paratrooper falling down with constant velocity is in dynamic translational
equilibrium.
b) Dynamic Rotational Equilibrium: When a body is moving with uniform angular velocity
the body is said to be in dynamic rotational equilibrium.
Example: A compact disk (CD) rotating in CD player with constant angular velocity is in
dynamic rotational equilibrium.
Q.4.06: What is equilibrium? Describe the conditions of equilibrium.
Ans: Equilibrium: It is the state of a body in which under the action of several forces and
torques acting together there is no change in translational motion as well as rotational motion
is called equilibrium. OR If a body remains at rest or moves with uniform velocity then it
will be in equilibrium.
Conditions of equilibrium: There are two
conditions for a body to be in equilibrium.
First Condition of Equilibrium: According to
the first condition of “the resultant of all the
forces or vector sum of all the forces acting on the
body must be zero”.
Mathematical form: Let n number of forces ⃗F1, ⃗F2, ⃗F3 ...... ⃗Fn are acting on a body such that
⃗ net = F
F ⃗ 1+ F
⃗2+F
⃗ 3 + ...... + F
⃗n=0 (i
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Explanation: For an object to satisfy the first condition of equilibrium the force polygon
must be zero. For example if there are four forces on the object and their vector sum is zero
as shown in figure, then the first condition of equilibrium will be satisfied and the object will
either be at rest or will move with uniform velocity. When the 1st condition of equilibrium is
satisfied, no linear acceleration is produced in the body.
Second condition of equilibrium: According to the second condition of equilibrium “vector
sum of all the torques acting on the body must be zero”.
Mathematical form: If net is the sum of torques 1, 2, 3,........., n then
net = 1+ 2 + 3 + ...... + n = 0
Or Σ net = 0 (i)
When the 2nd condition of equilibrium is satisfied, then no rotational acceleration is
produced in the body. However for complete equilibrium both the first and second condition
of equilibrium must be satisfied.
Q: Why there is a need of second condition for equilibrium if a
body satisfies the first condition for equilibrium?
Ans: When two equal but opposite forces act at two different points of
the same body like on steering wheel, it rotates due to torque (i.e.
couple) acting on it. So it does not remain in equilibrium, although
sum of forces is zero.
Example: First condition for equilibrium does not ensure that a body
is in equilibrium. Consider a body pulled by the forces F1 and F2 as
shown in figure (a). The two forces are equal but opposite to each
other. Both are acting along the same line, hence their resultant will be
zero. According to the first condition, the body will be in equilibrium.
Now shift the location of the forces as shown in figure (b). In this situation, the body
is not in equilibrium although the first condition for equilibrium is still satisfied. It is because
the body has the tendency to rotate. This situation demands another condition for equilibrium
in addition to the first condition for equilibrium. This is called second condition for
equilibrium.
Q (SLO # 34): Describe and identify the states of equilibrium.
Ans: Equilibrium: It is the state of a body in which under the action of several forces and
torques acting together there is no change in translational motion as well as rotational motion
is called equilibrium. OR If a body remains at rest or moves with uniform velocity then it
will be in equilibrium. There are three states of equilibrium i.e.
i. Stable equilibrium
ii. Unstable equilibrium
iii. Neutral equilibrium
Stable equilibrium: A body is said to be in stable equilibrium if after a slight tilt it returns to
its previous position.
Position of the center of gravity: When body is in stable equilibrium, its centre of gravity is
at the lowest position. When it is tilted, its centre of gravity rises. It returns to its stable state
by lowering its centre of gravity. A body remains in stable equilibrium as long as the centre
of gravity acts through the base of the body.
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Examples: table, chair, box, and brick lying on a floor

etc.
Reason of stability: Consider a block as shown in figure
(a). When the block is tilted, its centre of gravity G rises.
If the vertical line through G passes through its base in
the tilted position as shown in figure (b), the block
returns to its previous position. If the vertical line through G gets out of its base as shown in
figure (c), the block does not return to its previous position. It topples
over its base and moves to new stable equilibrium position.
Unstable equilibrium: If a body does not returns to its previous
position when set free after a slightest tilt is said to in unstable
equilibrium.
Position of the centre of gravity: The centre of gravity of the body is
at its highest point in the state of unstable equilibrium. As the body
topples over about its base, its centre of gravity moves towards its
lower position and does not return to its previous position.
Example: Suppose a pencil is made to stand in equilibrium on its tip as
shown in figure (a). When we leave it, the pencil topples over about its
tip and falls down as shown in figure (b). The body may be made to stay only for a moment.
Thus a body is unable to keep itself in the state of unstable equilibrium.
Reason of instability: On disturbing the line of action of weight of the body goes outside of
the base area of that body. As a result torque produced due to weight of the body topples it
down.
More Examples: A stick standing vertically on the tip of a finger and a cone standing on the
tip of a finger etc.
Neutral equilibrium: If a body is disturbed slightly, it moves
but the position of its centre of gravity (CG) remains same then
the body is said to be in neutral equilibrium.
In neutral equilibrium, all the new states in which a
body is moved are the stable states and the body, remains in its
new state.
Position of the centre of gravity: In neutral equilibrium, the
centre of gravity of the body remains at the same height, irrespective to its new position.
Example: A ball laying on a horizontal surface as shown in figure. Roll the ball over the
surface and leave it after displacing from the previous position. It remains in its new position
and does not return to previous position.
Reason of neutral equilibrium: Incase of neutral equilibrium line of action of weight of the
body and the reaction (R) always coincides with each other. As a result no torque is produced
due to weight of the body.
More Examples: A pencil, cylinder, or an egg lying horizontally on a flat surface.
Q (SLO # 45): Analyse objects in equilibrium using the principle of moments. OR
(Q.4.06): State and explain the principle of moments.
Ans: Principle of moments: A body is balanced if the sum of clockwise moments acting on
the body is equal to the sum of anticlockwise moments acting on it.
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Explanation: A body initially at rest does not rotate if sum of all the clockwise moments
acting on it is balanced by the sum of all the anticlockwise moments acting on it. Basically
the second condition of equilibrium is also known as principle of moments. To balance
torques or moment of force the perpendicular distance from the axis of rotation (i.e. moment
arm) plays an important role. By convention the anti-clockwise torques are taken positive
while clockwise torques are taken negative. This leads to the second condition of equilibrium
that the sum of both these torques must be zero.
Q (SLO # 46): Justify experiment to verify the principle of moments.
Ans: Principle of moments: A body is balanced if the sum of clockwise moments acting on
the body is equal to the sum of anticlockwise moments acting on it.
Verification of the principle of moments: Let
a uniform meter stick is balanced at its center.
Now if we suspend weight of 4 N at 0.1 m from
the pivot, it exerts the same torque as 2 N
weight at 0.4 m from the pivot. A uniform meter
stick will balance on pivot under these
conditions as shown in the figure.
Anticlockwise torque: Clockwise torque:
τA.C.W = w1 × d1 τC.W = - w2 × d2
τA.C.W = 4 × 0.2 τC.W = - 2 × 0.4
τA.C.W = + 0.8 Nm τC.W = - 0.8 Nm
Net torque is given by
τnet = τ1 + τ2
τnet = 0.8 + (- 0.8)
τnet = 0 Nm
Similarly three or more torques around a pivot (as axis of rotation) ca also balance each other.
Q (SLO # 49): Analyse qualitatively the effect of the position of center of gravity on the
stability of simple objects.
Ans: Stability: A measure of the ability an object to return to its original position when the
force that changed its position is removed. Stability is the extent to which an object resists
toppling over. Stable objects do not topple over easily and vice versa.
Relation between stability and position of centre of mass: Position of centre of mass of an
object plays an important role in its stability. The position of the centre of mass of a body
affects whether or not it topples over easily. This is important in the design of such things as
tall vehicles (which tend to overturn when rounding a corner), racing cars, reading lamps, and
even drinking glasses. To make objects stable, their centre of mass must be kept as low as
possible. It is due to this reason, racing cars are made heavy at the bottom, and their height is
kept to be minimum.
Q (SLO # 50) Propose how the stability of an object can be improved?
Ans: Stability: A measure of the ability an object to return to its original position when the
force that changed its position is removed. Stability is the extent to which an object resists
toppling over. Stable objects do not topple over easily and vice versa.
Improving object stability: The two important factors required to increase the stability of an
object are:
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i. The centre of mass (gravity) should be as low as possible.

ii. The area of the base should be as wide as possible.
iii. By both
These factors will ensure that the vertical line passing through the centre of gravity of a body
will always lie inside the base of the body when it is tilted or inclined.
Examples:
✓ Racing cars are designed with low centers of gravity and wide bases.
✓ Flower vases, desk lamps, table and pedestal fans, water jugs, and various ornamental
objects make use of the same principle.
Q.28: Why the height of a racing car (formula car) is kept low whereas the tyres are
kept outside of their body?
Ans: To increase the stability of the racing car.
Reason: The height of a racing car is kept small so that the position of its centre of gravity is
lowered while the tyres are kept outside of their body to increase the base area respectively.
By doing so, the line from its centre of gravity will always lie inside the base of the racing car
even when it is tilted or inclined and it will remain in the state of stable equilibrium.
Q: Why a vehicle has a wide base area and is made heavy at the bottom?
Ans: A vehicle is made heavy at its bottom to keep its centre of gravity as low as possible. A
lower center of gravity keeps it stable. Moreover, the base area of a vehicle is made wide so
that the vertical line passing through its centre of gravity should not get out of its base area
during turn and will remain in stable equilibrium.
Q (SLO # 51): Illustrate the applications of stability physics in real life.
Ans: Stability: A measure of the ability an object to return to its original position when the
force that changed its position is removed. Stability is the extent to which an object resists
toppling over. Stable objects do not topple over easily and vice versa.
Applications of stability in everyday life: Various toys and equipments use the principle of
stability to regain their balance after being disturbed. These objects are called “self-righting”
or “self-balancing” toys. They are designed with their centre of mass below the support point
and have a specific weight distribution that helps them restore their original position. These
objects might include
✓ Balancing birds
✓ Wobbling dolls
✓ Design of racing cars
✓ Reading lamps
✓ Weighted-bottom drinking cups etc
Q: Using the concept of stability explain the motion of an egg shaped self balancing
toy.
Ans: Stability: A measure of the ability an object to return to its original position when
the force that changed its position is removed. Stability is the extent to which an object
resists toppling over. Stable objects do not topple over easily and vice versa.
Motion of egg shaped self balancing toy: One such toy is of shape an egg. On tilting the
position of the pivot changes because of its round bottom. When tilted to the left the
weight ‘w’ from the centre of gravity (CG) is to the right of the pivot with moment arm
(perpendicular distance) ‘d’ as shown in figure (a). This creates a clockwise moment that
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makes the toy turn clockwise. Due to inertia the toy will go past the vertical position and
to the right as shown in figure (b). Similarly
since the weight is to the left of the pivot it
creates an anti-clockwise moment. Therefore
this toy always has a restoring mechanism that
brings it back to its vertical position where the
weight is directly above the pivot. In this
position the weight passing through the pivot
does not create any moment (no perpendicular distance). Hence the toy will be at rest.
Q.4.08: Define force of friction. What causes friction? What are the advantages and
disadvantages of friction?
Ans: Friction: A force which opposes relative motion or attempted motion between surfaces
in contact. OR The force which opposes the motion of moving objects is called friction.
Factors on which friction depends: It depends upon different factors such as
i. Nature of the two surfaces in contact i.e. smoother the surfaces, smaller will be the
friction and easier to move the body and vice versa.
ii. Normal force or pressing force.
Cause of friction (microscopic description of friction): Every surface is rough (has ups and
downs), even surfaces that appear to be highly polished can even look quite rough when
examined under a microscope as shown in figure. When
one surface is placed over another surface, then at
contact points these ups and downs are interlocked and
form a sort of “cold welds”. When one surface is tried
to move over the other, these cold welds resist the
relative motion between them and cause friction.
Advantages of friction:
i. Friction enables us to move on the ground.
ii. Friction enables us to stop or move objects / vehicles on the ground.
iii. A nail can stay in wood due to friction.
iv. We can tie a knot in a rope due to friction.
v. We can write due to friction.
vi. Birds can fly.
vii. We can climb up a hill
Disadvantages:
i. Energy is lost in machines due to production of heat and sound as a result of friction
(decreases the efficiency of machines).
ii. Friction causes wear and tear in the moving parts of machines as well as that of tyres
in case of vehicles.
iii. It limits the speed of the moving objects.
Q: Discuss different types of friction.
Ans: There are two types of frictional forces.
i. Static friction
ii. Kinetic friction
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i) Static friction (fs): The frictional force that tends to prevent a stationary object from
starting to move is called static friction. OR The frictional force that exists between different
surfaces when they are at rest with respect to each other is called static friction.
ii) Kinetic friction (fk): The frictional force that acts during motion of an object opposite to
the direction of motion of the object is called kinetic friction.
When a body (say block) starts motion, then static friction is replaced by kinetic friction.
Usually, the magnitude of the kinetic frictional force is less than the maximum magnitude of
the static frictional force (fk < fs).
Types of Kinetic friction: Kinetic friction is further subdivided into the following two types.
a. Sliding Friction: The frictional force that exists between two surfaces when they
slide against each other. OR The frictional force that arises due to the dragging of one
solid object over the other is called sliding friction. For example pushing a block on a
surface etc.
b. Rolling friction: When a body rolls over a surface, the force of friction is called
rolling friction.
Q (SLO # 37): Differentiate qualitatively between rolling and sliding friction. OR
Q.4.09: Compare rolling friction and sliding friction. How are they different in terms of
contact surfaces, motion, and forces involved? Explain with examples.
Ans:
Sliding Friction Rolling Friction
i) Occurs when an object slides on i) Occurs when the body rolls over
the surface. the surface.
ii) Sliding friction take place due to ii) Rolling friction take place due to
the interlocking between the the deformation of surfaces.
surfaces.
iii) The surfaces slide past each iii) The contact points changes as
other during motion. the body rolls.
iv) A finite area of the body is in iv) Only on point of the body is in
contact with the surface. contact with the surface.
v) Its value is greater. v) It is smaller (2 or 3 order of
magnitude).
vi) For example erasing a paper vi) For example movement of the
using a rubber. wheels of a car.

Q (SLO # 38): Justify methods to reduce friction.

Ans: The friction can be reduced by:
i. Making the sliding surfaces smooth.
ii. Making the fast moving objects a streamline shape (fish shape) such as cars,
aeroplanes, etc. This causes the smooth flow of air and thus minimizes air resistance
at high speed.
iii. Lubricating the sliding surfaces.
iv. Using ball bearings or roller bearings. Because the rolling friction is lesser than the
sliding friction.
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Q (SLO # 35): Analyse the dissipative effect of friction.

Ans: Friction is a force that opposes the relative motion of two surfaces in contact, and it has
significant dissipative effects in various systems. Here’s an analysis of these effects.
Conversion to Heat: Friction converts kinetic energy into thermal energy. As surfaces rub
against each other, the microscopic interactions at the contact points generate heat, leading to
energy loss in mechanical systems.
Work Done Against Friction: When an object moves against friction, work is done to
overcome this force. This work results in energy dissipation, reducing the system's overall
mechanical energy.
Conclusion: Thus friction plays a critical role in the dynamics of systems, contributing to
energy dissipation as well as heat generation. While it is essential for many applications,
managing its effects is crucial for enhancing efficiency and prolonging the lifespan of
mechanical systems. Understanding the dissipative nature of friction allows engineers to
design more effective and reliable systems.
Q: Define fluid by giving examples?
Ans: Fluid: A fluid is a substance that can flow. OR The states of matter in which molecules
can move from one point to the other are known as fluids. OR It is a collective name given to
both liquids and gases.
Examples of fluid: Liquids like water, oil, milk, and gases such as air, oxygen etc.
Q: What is meant by fluid friction or viscous or drag force? Discuss the factors on
which the value of drag force depends.
Ans: Viscous drag: The opposing force offered by a fluid due to its viscosity to the motion
of solid objects through them is known as viscous drag or drag force.
Explanation: The viscous drag force experienced by a body moving in a fluid is due to the
collision of the fluid molecules with body. From practical life we see that when a solid body
moves through fluids such as liquid or gas the fluid resists the motion of the body and finally
the body comes to rest.
Factors on which drag force depends: The magnitude of drag force depends on the
following factors.
i. Size of the body
ii. Shape of the body
iii. Orientation of the body
iv. Properties of the fluid
v. Speed of the object relative to the fluid
Q: Why and how sky divers and swimmers change their effective size?
Ans: Sky divers and swimmers change their effective size and orientation by bending,
twisting, and starching their body parts. This allows them to manipulate drag and thereby
allowing them to control speed and direction of motion.
Q (SLO # 36) OR Q. 4.10: Analyse the dynamics of an object reaching terminal velocity.
Ans: The Terminal Velocity (vt): The constant maximum velocity that is attained and
maintained by an object while falling through air (or any other resistive medium)
Condition: A body reaches its terminal velocity when the drag force acting on the body
becomes equal to the weight of the body.
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Explanation: During free fall the objects does not speed up indefinitely. The speed of free
falling object initially increases because of weight of the body. But as the speed increases the
drag force also increases and hence resulting in
slowing down the object.
A point reaches where both the weight and
drag force becomes equal and dynamic translational
equilibrium is achieved. The object has now attained
its maximum velocity termed as “terminal velocity”.
At terminal speed the diver’s acceleration is zero. In
other words the speed remains constant. For humans
before opening the parachute terminal speed in air is about 53 ms-1 or 90 kmh-1. After the
parachute opens terminal speed is reduced to between 5 ms-1 and 10 ms-1 as shown in figure.
Q (SLO # 53): Describe qualitatively motion in a circular path due to a centripetal
force. OR Q. 4.11: Define centripetal force. Describe the motion of a body in circular
path under the action of centripetal force.
Ans: Centripetal force: The force needed to bend the normally straight path of a body into
circular path is called centripetal force. OR Such a force that keeps a body to move in a
circular path is called centripetal force.
Explanation: Consider a body tied at the end of a string moving with uniform speed in a
circular path. A body has the tendency to move in a straight line due to inertia. The string to
which body is tied keeps it to move in a circle by pulling the body towards
the center of the circle. The string pulls the body perpendicular to its
motion as shown in figure. This pulling force continuously changes the
direction of motion and remains towards the centre of the circle. This
“centre seeking” force is called centripetal force. Centripetal force always
acts perpendicular to the motion of the body.
Mathematical Form: Let a body of mass m moves with uniform speed v
in a circle of radius r. The centripetal force acting on the body is given by
m v2
Fc = - (i
r
The negative sign indicates that centripetal force is directed towards the center of the circular
path.
Q (SLO # 54): Identify the sources of centripetal force in real life examples. OR Q. 4.12:
Identify different sources of centripetal force in real life examples.
Ans: Centripetal force: The force needed to bend the normally straight path of a body into
circular path is called centripetal force. OR Such a force that keeps a body to move in a
circular path is called centripetal force.
Real life examples of centripetal force:
i) When a stone is tied to one end of a string and rotated in a circle the tension in the string
provides the required centripetal force.
ii) The moon revolves around the Earth. The gravitational force of the Earth provides the
necessary centripetal force.
iii) While taking a turn the frictional force between the tyres and the road provides the
centripetal force.
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iv) While moving around the nucleus of an atom the electric force provides centripetal force
to the electron.
Q (SLO # F-01) Define and calculate average orbital speed.
Ans: Orbital speed: The speed of a body with which it revolves around the Earth at a certain
height.
Mathematical form: Let
d = distance covered
t = time taken
r = orbital radius
vave = average speed
Then we know that
d
vave = (i
t
For one complete revolution
d = 2πr (circumference of the circular orbit)
And t = T (time period i.e. time required to complete one revolution)
So equation becomes
2πr
vave = (ii
T
From above equation it is clear that orbital speed of a satellite depends upon the orbital radius
only. Thus for a particular orbital radius all the satellites have the same orbital speed
irrespective of the size of the satellite.
Q: What do you know about Global Positioning System? How it works? Explain.
Ans: Many applications of satellite technology affect our lives. An increasingly important
application is the network of “24 satellites” called the “Global Positioning System (GPS)”
which can be used to determine the position of an object. Figure illustrates how the system
works, by locating position of enemy tank.
A measurement using a single satellite
locates the tank somewhere on a green
circle, as Figure (a) shows, while a
measurement using a second satellite
locates the tank on another circle. The
intersection of the circles reveals two
possible positions for the tank, as in Figure
(b). With the aid of a third satellite, a third
circle can be established, which intersects
the other two and identifies the tank’s exact position, as in Figure (c).

CEPTUAL QUESTIONS
Give a short response to the following questions.
Q.4.01: Why long spanner is used to open or tight nuts of vehicle’s tyre? While
tightening a small nut extra-long wrench is not suitable? While tightening small nut
extra long wrench is it suitable?
Ans: Long spanner is used to increase the value of torque whereas extra-long wrench can
damage the small nut.
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Explanation: Mathematically torque is given by

τ=F×d
In case of vehicle’s tyre large value of torque is required to tighten or lose the nut.
Thus by using a spanner of larger length i.e. moment arm will result in greater torque and
hence less force to open or tighten the nut respectively. On the other hand by using an extra-
long wrench for a small nut can damage the nut or surrounding component.
Q.4.02: Why door knobs are fixed at the edge of door? What will happen if the door
knob is at the middle of the door?
Ans: The perpendicular distance between the axis of rotation and the line of action of the
force is called moment arm. Greater the moment arm greater will be the moment of force or
torque. In case of doors the handle is usually on the opposite edge of the door from the hinge
which increases the moment arm. As a result we can easily open or close the door by
applying less force. On the other hand if the door knob is at the middle of the door then
moment arm will decrease and hence more force will be required to open or close the door.
Q.4.03: If you drop a feather and a bowling ball from the same height, which one will
reach terminal velocity first? Which of them will hit the ground first?
Ans: Due to smaller weight the feather will reach terminal velocity first. On the other hand
the bowling ball will hit the ground first due to more weight and hence greater terminal
velocity as compared to that of the feather.
Q.4.04: Why do ice skates effortlessly slide on ice while your shoes cause skidding?
Ans: When pressure is applied on the ice a thin layer of water is formed on the ice surface.
This thin layer of water reduces friction between the ice skate blade and the ice, allowing for
smooth gliding. As a result an ice skater can effortlessly slide on the ice.
Q.4.05: Explain why it’s easier to push a car on flat tyres than inflated ones. What
happens to the frictional force between the tyres and the road?
Ans: When the car’s tires are flat, the contact area between the tires and the road increases
significantly. With a larger contact area due to flat tires, the normal force increases, leading
to a higher frictional force. This increased frictional force makes it easier to push the car as
the tires grip the road better and provide more traction.
Q.4.06: When standing on a crowded school bus which stance would provide better
stability and prevent you from being falling over: legs joined or legs spread apart?
Ans: While standing on a crowded school bus our legs apart will provide greater stability. By
keeping the legs apart our base area increases which makes more stable and hence prevent
from being pushed over by sudden external force or forces.
Q.4.07: Why a moving bicycle is easier to balance? Relate this to the principles of
rotational motion.
Ans: When a bicycle is in motion, the wheels act as gyroscopes due to their rotational
motion. Gyroscopic effect helps in maintaining the stability of the bicycle by resisting any
changes in orientation. This gyroscopic effect creates a stabilizing force that helps the
bicycle remain upright even when the rider shifts their weight or the bicycle encounters
external disturbances.
Q.4.08: Why is a pencil standing on its tip unstable and what factors affect the stability
of an object balanced on a point?
Ans: The two important factors that affect the stability of an object are:
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✓ The centre of mass (gravity) should be as low as possible.

✓ The area of the base should be as wide as possible.
As the tip area of a pencil is very small that is why the pencil standing on its tip is unstable.
Q.4.09: While driving what happens if the driver takes the curve too fast? How does
centripetal force play a role in keeping the car from skidding off the road?
Ans: The centripetal force acting on the body is given by
m v2
Fc = - r
From above equation it is clear that centripetal force has direction relation with
velocity. Thus if the driver takes curve too fast the car may skid off due to lack of centripetal
force. Centripetal force is necessary to keep the car in a curved path and is provided by the
frictional force acting between the road and tyres of the car.
Q.4.10: Consider a situation where you swing a ball connected to a string in a circle.
How does the tension in the string vary as the ball moves across different points in its
circular path and what forces are involved?
Ans: As a ball connected to the string in a vertical circular path tension in the string changes.
For example at the top of the path tension is maximum whereas minimum at the bottom of
the circular path. The forces involved in this case are the
✓ Gravitational and
✓ Tension in the string
Q.4.11: Why is it important for communication satellites in geostationary orbit to
maintain specific speed?
Ans: Geostationary satellites: Satellites which complete one rotation around the earth in 24
hours are called geostationary satellites. Communication satellites are geostationary satellites
which always remain at same position above the earth surface. So, directions of receiving
antennas need not to be changed.