Name: Kolawole Oluwafunmiso Gabriel

Matric No: MCS/19/1002

1 a) Define the boundary layer and discuss why we need to study it.
Ans: The boundary layer is a thin region of fluid (liquid or gas) adjacent to the surface of a solid object
where the effects of viscosity are significant. In this region, the fluid's velocity changes from zero at the
solid surface (due to the no-slip condition) to the free-stream velocity of the fluid away from the surface.
The boundary layer can be either laminar (smooth and orderly flow) or turbulent (chaotic and mixed flow).

Importance of Studying the Boundary Layer

1. Drag Reduction: Understanding boundary layers helps in designing shapes and surfaces that minimize
drag, improving the efficiency of vehicles like cars, airplanes, and ships.

2. Heat Transfer: The boundary layer affects heat transfer rates between surfaces and fluids. Optimizing it
can enhance the performance of cooling systems and heat exchangers.

3. Flow Separation: Studying the boundary layer helps in controlling flow separation, which can reduce
drag and increase lift in aerodynamic applications.

4. Predicting Flow Patterns: Accurate knowledge of boundary layer behavior is crucial for predicting
complex fluid flows in engineering and environmental applications, such as weather forecasting, HVAC
design, and pollutant dispersion.

5. Turbulence Modeling: Understanding the transition from laminar to turbulent flow within the boundary
layer is essential for developing accurate models in computational fluid dynamics (CFD) simulations.

b) On the schematic of the evolution of atmospheric boundary layer, figure 1, please label the
respective layers appropriately. Also sketch the profiles of humidity, temperature and wind in the
boundary layer during daytime convective and night time stable conditions.

Free Atmosphere

Interfacial layer
Inversion

Mixed Layer Residual layer

Top of nocturnal layer

NBL NBL
Surface Layer
Sunrise Sunset(3pm) Sunrise(3am) SunsetƬƬ
Fig. 1. The schematic of the evolution of atmospheric boundary layer above, please label the respective
layers appropriately.

2 a) Explain what is meant by atmospheric stability. Discuss briefly four stability parameters you know.
Ans : Atmospheric stability refers to the tendency of the atmosphere to resist or enhance vertical motion
of air parcels. It is an important concept in meteorology because it affects weather patterns, cloud
formation, and turbulence. An atmosphere is considered stable if displaced air parcels tend to return to
their original position, and unstable if they tend to continue moving away from their original position.

Four Stability Parameters

I) Lapse Rate: The lapse rate is the rate at which atmospheric temperature decreases with altitude.
- Types:
- Environmental Lapse Rate (ELR): The actual observed rate of temperature decrease with altitude.
- Dry Adiabatic Lapse Rate (DALR): The rate at which a dry air parcel cools as it rises, approximately
9.8°C per kilometer.
- Moist Adiabatic Lapse Rate (MALR): The rate at which a saturated air parcel cools as it rises, typically
around 5°C per kilometer.
- Significance: Stability is determined by comparing the ELR to the DALR and MALR. The atmosphere is
stable if the ELR is less than the DALR, unstable if greater, and conditionally unstable if between the DALR
and MALR.

Ii) Brunt–Väisälä Frequency (N): The Brunt–Väisälä frequency measures the stability of the atmosphere
based on the buoyancy of vertically displaced air parcels.

- Significance: A positive N indicates a stable atmosphere that supports oscillations, while a negative or
imaginary,N indicates instability.

Iii) Richardson Number (Ri): The Richardson number is a dimensionless number that compares the
stabilizing effect of buoyancy with the destabilizing effect of shear in the atmosphere.

- Significance: If Ri > 1 , the atmosphere is stable; if Ri < 1 , it is unstable and prone to turbulence.

Iv) Convective Available Potential Energy (CAPE): CAPE measures the amount of energy available for
convection and is an indicator of the potential for severe weather, such as thunderstorms.
- Formula: CAPE is calculated as the integral of the positive buoyancy of an air parcel, typically expressed
in Joules per kilogram (J/kg).
- Significance: Higher CAPE values indicate greater instability and potential for strong convection and
severe weather events.

b) What is the significance of the Monin-Obukhov length (L).

3 a) Discuss the surface radiation and energy budgets.

Ans : A)Surface Radiation Budget :
- Incoming Radiation : The Earth receives solar radiation from the Sun, which includes both direct (beam)
and diffuse (scattered) radiation. This incoming solar radiation is the primary energy source for the Earth's
surface.
 - Outgoing Radiation : The Earth's surface emits thermal radiation (infrared radiation) back to space as
heat. This outgoing radiation is influenced by factors like surface temperature, surface emissivity, and
atmospheric properties such as greenhouse gas concentrations.

B) Surface Energy Budget :

- Incoming Energy : In addition to solar radiation, the Earth's surface receives energy from other sources
such as longwave radiation emitted by the atmosphere, heat conduction from the subsurface, and latent
heat flux from processes like evaporation.
- Outgoing Energy : Energy leaves the Earth's surface through various processes, including outgoing
longwave radiation, sensible heat flux (transfer of heat through conduction and convection), and latent
heat flux (transfer of heat through phase changes such as evaporation and condensation).

C) Balance :
- At equilibrium, the incoming energy (primarily solar radiation) equals the outgoing energy (primarily
thermal radiation). This balance maintains the Earth's overall temperature and climate.
- However, the surface radiation and energy budgets can vary spatially and temporally due to factors like
latitude, season, surface properties (e.g., land, ocean, ice), atmospheric conditions, and human activities.

b) The average values of the ratio of ground heat flux to net radiation determined from
experimental data are 0.35 and 0.65 for daytime and night time respectively. Assuming a
Bowen ratio of 4, estimate the sensible and latent fluxes at the site when the measured net
radiation is (a) 550 W/m2, (b) -85 W/m2.
Ans : since ratio of ground heat flux to net radiation are 0.35 and 0.65 for daytime and night time
respectively, therefore,

(a) Rn = 550 Wm-2 ,Hg = 0.35 * 550 = 192.5Wm-2

using Rn = H + HL + Hg and B = H/HL = 4
H = Rn - Hg HL = Rn - Hg
-1
1+B 1+B
4 = H/HL , H = 4HL

H = Rn - Hg
1 + B-1

H = 550 - 192.5
1 + 4-1

H = 357.5
1 + 0.25

H = 357.5
1.25

H = 286Wm-2

4 = H/HL , H = 4HL
 HL = H/4 = 286/4 = 71.5Wm-2

Therefore, sensible heat = 286Wm-2 , latent heat = 71.5Wm-2

(b) Rn = -85 Wm-2 ,Hg = 0.65 * -85 = -55.25Wm-2

using Rn = H + HL + Hg and B = H/HL = 4
H = Rn - Hg HL = Rn - Hg
-1
1+B 1+B
4 = H/HL , H = 4HL

H = Rn - Hg
1 + B-1

H =-85 - (-55.25)
1 + 4-1

H = -29.75
1 + 0.25

H = -29.75
1.25

H = -23.8Wm-2

4 = H/HL , H = 4HL

HL = H/4 = -23.8/4 = -5.95Wm-2

Therefore, sensible heat = -23.8Wm-2 , latent heat = -5.95Wm-2

c) What do you understand by Potential evaporation and evapotranspiration and also

equilibrium evapotranspiration?
Ans : Potential Evaporation : It refers to the maximum rate at which water could evaporate from a surface
under ideal conditions, assuming there are no limitations such as water availability or energy input. It's
mainly influenced by factors like temperature, humidity, wind speed, and solar radiation.

Evapotranspiration (ET : This is the combined process of water loss from the Earth's surface through both
evaporation and transpiration by plants. Evaporation occurs directly from soil, water bodies, or other
surfaces, while transpiration is the release of water vapor through plant leaves during photosynthesis.

Equilibrium Evapotranspiration (ET0) : It represents the hypothetical rate of evapotranspiration from a

large area of short green grass, assuming the surface has unlimited water supply and is not limited by
factors like vegetation or soil moisture. ET0 is often calculated using reference evapotranspiration
equations and serves as a baseline for estimating actual evapotranspiration rates in different
environments.

4. A stack in an rural area is emitting 105 g/s of SO 2. It has an effective stack height of 110 m. The
wind speed is 4 m/s at 10 m. It is a clear summer day with the sun nearly overhead. Using the
 Gaussian plume dispersion model, estimate the ground level concentration at a) 2 km downwind
on the centreline and b) 2 km downwind, 0.1 km off the centreline.
The point source Gaussian plume model is:

Where χ = downwind concentration at the ground level (g/m3)

E = emission rate of pollutant (g/s)
sy,sz = plume standard deviations (m)
u = wind speed (m/s)
x, y, z, H = distances (m)

Please see below the requirements for using the model.

Unless the wind speed at the virtual stack height is known, it must be estimated from the ground wind
speed

where ux = wind speed at Height zx and p = empirical constant (Table 2.)

Ans : since It is a clear summer day with the sun nearly overhead, the stability class is B and
the Sy and Sz are 290 and 220 respectively and since it is in a rural area, p at B is 0.07

U =4 (110/10)0.07

U = 4(11)0.07

U =4* 1.18ms-1
U =4.72ms-1

(a) concentration at 2 km downwind on the centreline

Conc(2000,0,0,110) = _____105_________ * exp[-0.5(110/220)2]

(3.142*290*220*4.72)

= __105_ * exp[-0.5*0.25]
946169.312

= 1.109 *10-4 * exp(-0.125)

= 1.109 *10-4 * 0.8824
 = 0.9785 *10-4 gm-3
= 97.85micro gm-3

(b) concentration at 2 km downwind, 0.1 km off the centreline

Conc(2000,100,0,110) = _____105_________ * exp[-0.5(100/290)2]* exp[-0.5(110/220)2]

(3.142*290*220*4.72)

= __105_ *exp[-0.5*0.1188] * exp[-0.5*0.25]

946169.312

= 1.109 *10-4 * exp(-0.0594)* exp(-0.125)

= 1.109 *10-4 * 0.9423 *08824
= 0.922 *10-4 gm-3
= 92.2micro gm-3

5. The following mean velocity profiles were measured during the Nigeria NIMEX-1 experiment over a
uniform short grass surface under near neutral stability conditions.
Z(m) 0.5 1 2 3 5 7 10 15
U(m/s) 0.8693 1.0182 1.1589 1.1968 1.2908 1.3538 1.3897 1.4635
Using the provided graph Sheet;
a) Determine the roughness length and surface stress for the above measurements. Use  = 1.26 kg
m-1
b) Estimate eddy viscosity and mixing length at 1 and 10 m.

Ans :
A) First of all, we find the logarithmic values of z
Z(m) U(m/s) ln(Z)
0.5 0.8693 -0.6931
1 1.0182 0.0000
2 1.1589 0.6931
3 1.1968 1.0986
5 1.2908 1.6094
7 1.3538 1.9459
10 1.3897 2.3026
15 1.4635 2.7081
 3.0000

2.5000 f(x) = 5.81716168524181 x − 5.87504704146083

R² = 0.993134329599308
2.0000

1.5000
In(Z)

1.0000

0.5000

0.0000
0.8 0.9 1 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5
-0.5000

-1.0000
U(m/s)

The linear equation of the graph gives In(Z) = 5.8172U - 5.875 and comparing this equation to

kU/u* = 5.8172U

U* = k/5.8172
U* = 0.4/5.8172

U* = 0.069m/s

Also,
In(Zo) = -5.875

Zo = exp(-5.875)

Zo = 2.8*10-3m = 2.8mm

Therefore roughness length = 2.8mm

Surface stress,Ƭ = slope * density
Ƭ = 5.8172 * 1.26
Ƭ = 7.33

Surface stress = 7.33N/m2

B) Estimating eddy viscosity and mixing length at 1 and 10 m

eddy viscosity and mixing length are given by Km = kzU* , lm = kz

Therefore at 1m, eddy viscosity = 0.4* 1* 0.069 = 0.0276
Mixing length = 0.4* 1 = 0.4m

Therefore at 10m, eddy viscosity = 0.4* 10* 0.069 = 0.276

 Mixing length = 0.4* 10 = 4m

6. The following measurements were made at noon over a grass field.

Height Wind speed Temperature (°C) Specific humidity
(m) (m/s) (g/kg)
0.25 1.11 23.52 8.22
0.50 1.34 23.35 7.73
1.00 1.51 23.30 6.88
2.00 1.63 23.14 6.65
6.00 1.80 22.95 6.05

a. Determine the average value of the Bowen ratio from these measurements. The psychrometric
constant  = cp/Lv, where cp = 1005 J kg-1 K-1 and Lv = 2.5 MJ kg-1 = 2500J kg-1
b.
Ans : Bowen ratio = Sensible heat/Latent heat
Bowen ratio = rCpuT / rLvuq
Where r is the density of air = 1.2kgm-3
Average value of wind speed = (1.11 +1.34 +1.51 +1.63 +1.80)/5
= 1.48
Average value of Temperature = (23.52 + 23.35 + 23.30 + 23.14 + 22.95)/5
= 23.25
Average value of Specific Humidity = (8.22 + 7.73 + 6.88 + 6.65 + 6.05)/5
= 7.11
Therefore,Bowen Ratio = (1.2 *1005*1.48*23.25)/(1.2*2500*1.48*7.11)

Bowen ratio = (1005*23.25)/(2500*7.11)

Bowen ratio = 23366.25/17775
Bowen ratio = 1.31

b. Calculate the sensible and latent heat fluxes using the Bowen ratio energy balance method (BREB)
between the 0.5m and 2m height, given net radiation and ground heat flux as 750 W/m 2 and 75
W/m2 respectively.
Ans :
Rn = 750 W/m2 , Hg = 75 W/m2
The sensible and latent heat fluxes using the Bowen ratio energy balance method (BREB) between the
0.5m and 2m height are calculated using
H = Rn - Hg HL = Rn - Hg
-1
1+B 1+B
Where H is the sensible heat flux, HL = latent heat flux
For height of 0.5m
H = Rn - Hg HL = Rn - Hg
1 + B-1 1+B

H = 750 - 75 HL = 750 - 75
1 + 1.31-1 1 + 1.31

H = 675 HL = 675
1 + 0.763 1.31

H = 675 HL = 675
1.763 1.31

H = 382.8 HL =292.2
Therefore, the sensible heat and latent heat fluxes at 0.5m are 382.8W/m2 and 292.2W/m2

c. What do you understand by Potential evaporation and evapotranspiration and also Equilibrium
evapotranspiration?
Ans : Potential Evaporation : It refers to the maximum rate at which water could evaporate from a surface
under ideal conditions, assuming there are no limitations such as water availability or energy input. It's
mainly influenced by factors like temperature, humidity, wind speed, and solar radiation.

Evapotranspiration (ET : This is the combined process of water loss from the Earth's surface through both
evaporation and transpiration by plants. Evaporation occurs directly from soil, water bodies, or other
surfaces, while transpiration is the release of water vapor through plant leaves during photosynthesis.

Equilibrium Evapotranspiration (ET0) : It represents the hypothetical rate of evapotranspiration from a

large area of short green grass, assuming the surface has unlimited water supply and is not limited by
factors like vegetation or soil moisture. ET0 is often calculated using reference evapotranspiration
equations and serves as a baseline for estimating actual evapotranspiration rates in different
environments.
 8a. Describe the Boundary Layer and outline its importance.
Ans : The boundary layer is the layer of fluid (air or water) adjacent to a solid surface, where the flow is
influenced by the presence of that surface. In atmospheric science, the atmospheric boundary layer (ABL)
refers to the lowest part of the atmosphere affected by the Earth's surface and its underlying factors like
topography and land use. The boundary layer is characterized by turbulent fluid motion, including vertical
mixing of momentum, heat, and moisture.
Importance :
1. Weather and Climate : The boundary layer plays a critical role in weather phenomena such as
temperature inversions, fog formation, and atmospheric stability, influencing local weather patterns and
climate variability.

2. Air Quality : It affects the dispersion and transport of pollutants near the Earth's surface, impacting air
quality and human health.

3. Wind Energy : Understanding boundary layer dynamics is essential for optimizing wind turbine
placement and predicting wind energy resources.

4. Aviation : Knowledge of boundary layer characteristics helps pilots understand turbulence patterns and
make informed decisions during flight operations.

b. What conceptual tools are often used to study the boundary layer.
Ans : I) Monin-Obukhov Similarity Theory : This theory provides a framework for describing the vertical
structure of the boundary layer based on similarity relationships between different atmospheric variables.

Ii) Energy Budget Analysis : Studying the energy exchange processes within the boundary layer helps
quantify the contributions of different factors such as radiation, turbulence, and surface properties.

Iii) Observational Techniques: Instruments like sodars, lidars, radiosondes, and aircraft measurements
provide valuable data for studying boundary layer dynamics and structure.

c. Mention the problems encountered in the use of such tools and how the problems are resolved.
Ans : 1. Complexity : The boundary layer is a highly dynamic and complex system, making it challenging to
model accurately. Simplified models and parameterizations are often used to represent boundary layer
processes in numerical weather prediction models.

2. Measurement Errors : Instrumentation limitations and spatial variability can introduce errors in
boundary layer observations. Quality control procedures and data assimilation techniques help correct
errors and improve data accuracy.

3. Scale Interactions : Interactions between different scales of motion (e.g., turbulence, mesoscale
circulations) within the boundary layer pose challenges for modeling and prediction. Multi-scale modeling
approaches and high-resolution simulations help capture these interactions more effectively.

9(a) Explain the meaning of all the symbols in the surface energy balance
Equation
Rn −G=H+ λE
Ans : 1. Rn : Net Radiation - This represents the net energy exchange between the Earth's surface and its
surroundings due to incoming (solar) and outgoing (thermal) radiation. It's the difference between
incoming shortwave radiation (from the sun) and outgoing longwave radiation (emitted by the surface).

2. G: Ground Heat Flux - This represents the energy transfer between the Earth's surface and the
subsurface (soil or water) through conduction. It accounts for the heat exchange within the ground layer.

3. H : Sensible Heat Flux - This represents the transfer of heat between the Earth's surface and the
atmosphere through conduction and convection. It's associated with the temperature difference between
the surface and the air above it.

4. λE: Evapotranspiration - This represents the combined flux of latent heat and sensible heat associated
with the evaporation of water from the surface and transpiration from plants. It's often used
interchangeably with LE.

(b) Sketch the diurnal variation of all the terms in the surface energy balance for a surface covered in
short grass in cloud-free conditions at mid latitudes. State clearly any assumptions you make and indicate
typical values. Describe how the balance shifts throughout the courseof the day.

(c) Explain how the diurnal variation of the surface energy balance forshort grass drives the diurnal
variation in the atmospheric boundary layer under ideal cloudless conditions. Use sketch diagrams to
illustrate (i) this cycle and (ii) the vertical thermodynamic structure of the boundary layer at key stages in
the cycle. Annotate your sketch diagrams with typical values of temperature and boundary layer depth.

(d) Explain how your answers to parts (b) and (c) would differ if the surface was an urban area rather than
a vegetated surface.

10. Describe the turbulent structures that control the thermodynamic structure and evolution of the
convective boundary layer. Hence describe carefully the assumptions made to derive the Carson model for
the variation of the height, h, of the convective boundary layer, namely

{ }
t 1
2(1+2 E)
∫ H (t ')dt '
2
h(t )=
ρC p γ 0 s

If Hs = 350 W/m2, which remains constant, and E = 0.2, γ = 6.5K km-1, calculate the depth of the convective
boundary layer 6 hours after sunrise.

11. A stack in an rural area is emitting 95 g/s of SO 2. It has an effective stack height of 100 m. The
wind speed is 5 m/s at 10 m. It is a clear summer day with the sun nearly overhead. Using the
Gaussian plume dispersion model, estimate the ground level concentration at a) 2 km downwind
on the centerline and b) 2 km downwind, 0.1 km off the centerline.

The point source Gaussian plume model is:

Where χ = downwind concentration at the ground level (g/m3)
E = emission rate of pollutant (g/s)
sy,sz = plume standard deviations (m)
u = wind speed (m/s)
x, y, z, H = distances (m)

Please see below the requirements for using the model.

Unless the wind speed at the virtual stack height is known, it must be estimated from the ground wind
speed

where ux = wind speed at Height zx and p = empirical constant (Table 2.)

Ans : since It is a clear summer day with the sun nearly overhead, the stability class is C and
the Sy and Sz are 200 and 130 respectively and since it is in a rural area, p at C is 0.10

U =5 (100/10)0.10

U =5 (10)0.10

U = 5*1.26ms-1
U = 6.3ms-1

I)concentration at 2 km downwind on the centreline

Conc(2000,0,0,100) = _____95_________ * exp[-0.5(100/130)2]

(3.142*200*130*6.3)

= __95_ * exp[-0.5*0.5917]
514659.6
 = 1.84 *10-4 * exp(-0.29585)
= 1.84 *10-4 * 0.7438
= 1.37 *10-4 gm-3
= 137 micro gm-3

Ii) concentration at 2 km downwind, 0.1 km off the centreline

Conc(2000,100,0,100)= _____95_________ * exp[-0.5(100/200)2]* exp[-0.5(100/130)2]

(3.142*200*130*1.26)

= __95_ * exp[-0.5*0.25] *exp[-0.5*0.5917]

514659.6

= 1.84 *10-4 *exp(-0.125)* exp(-0.29585)

= 1.84 *10-4 *0.8825* 0.7438
= 1.21 *10-4 gm-3
= 121 micro gm-3

12 a) Explain what is meant by atmospheric stability. Discuss briefly four stability parameters you know.
b) What is the potential temperature of a 1 kg parcel of air if it has a temperature of -20 oC at 700
mb.
Ans : Ө = temp*(1000/pressure)k
Where k = R/Cp = 287.05/1004.5 = 0.285

Ө = -20 * (1000/700)0.285

Ө= -20 * (1.43)0.285

Ө = -20 * 1.107

Ө = -22.14oC
c) What is the equivalent potential temperature of the parcel if the water vapor mixing ratio is 3
g/kg?

Ans : Өe = Ө*exp[Lr/CpT ]

Өe = -22.14 * exp[ (2.5 *103 * 3 )/(1005*-20) ]

Өe = -22.14 * exp[ 7500 /-20100 ]
Өe = -22.14 * exp[ -0.3731]
Өe = -22.14 * 0.6885
Өe = -15.24oC

13. The following mean velocity profiles were measured under near neutral stability conditions.
Z(m) 1 3 10 30
 U(m/s) 3 4 5 6

a) Determine the roughness length and friction velocity. Use k = 0.4

Ans = First of all, we find the logarithmic values of z

Z(m) U(m/s) In(Z)
1 3 0.00
3 4 1.10
10 5 2.30
30 6 3.40

4.00

3.50
f(x) = 1.14075649493124 x − 3.43280553635951
3.00 R² = 0.999658900012918

2.50

2.00
In(Z)

1.50

1.00

0.50

0.00
2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5 5.5 6 6.5
U(m/s)

The linear equation of the graph gives In(Z) = 1.1408U - 3.4328 and comparing this equation to

In(Zo) = -3.4328

Zo = exp(-3.4328)

Zo = 0.0322m = 3.22cm

Therefore roughness length =3.22cm

kU/u* = 1.1408U

U* = k/1.1408
U* = 0.4/1.1408

U* = 0.3506m/s

Friction velocity = 0.3506m/s

 b) Explain the nature and cause of depletion of solar radiation passing through the atmosphere.
Ans :
The depletion of solar radiation passing through the atmosphere occurs due to several factors:
1. Scattering : When sunlight interacts with molecules and particles in the atmosphere, it undergoes
scattering, where the direction of the light is changed without absorption. Rayleigh scattering, which is
more pronounced for shorter wavelengths (blue light), causes the sky to appear blue and contributes to
the depletion of direct solar radiation reaching the surface.

2. Absorption : Certain atmospheric gases, such as ozone (O3), water vapor (H2O), and oxygen (O2),
absorb specific wavelengths of solar radiation. This absorption reduces the amount of solar radiation
reaching the Earth's surface, particularly in specific spectral regions.

3. Reflection : Surfaces within the atmosphere, such as clouds, aerosols, and the Earth's surface, reflect a
portion of the incoming solar radiation back to space, further depleting the amount of radiation reaching
the surface.

4. Attenuation with Distance: Solar radiation passing through the atmosphere encounters air molecules
and aerosols, which absorb and scatter radiation. As sunlight travels through the atmosphere, it loses
energy, resulting in a decrease in intensity with increasing distance from the source.

c.) Discuss the atmospheric window and the consequences of the absorption of longwave radiation
by atmospheric gases and the so-called green house effect (atmospheric effect).
Ans :
The atmospheric window refers to the spectral range of electromagnetic radiation where the Earth's
atmosphere is relatively transparent, allowing radiation to pass through with minimal absorption. This
window primarily exists in the infrared region between approximately 8 to 14 micrometers.

The consequences of the absorption of longwave radiation by atmospheric gases, such as water vapor,
carbon dioxide, methane, and ozone, contribute to the greenhouse effect. These gases absorb outgoing
longwave radiation emitted by the Earth's surface, trapping heat in the lower atmosphere and preventing
it from escaping directly into space. This phenomenon warms the Earth's surface and lower atmosphere,
creating a stable and habitable climate conducive to life as we know it.

However, human activities, such as burning fossil fuels and deforestation, have increased the
concentrations of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere, enhancing the greenhouse effect and leading to
global warming and climate change. The consequences include rising global temperatures, changes in
precipitation patterns, melting polar ice caps, and more frequent and severe extreme weather events.
Managing greenhouse gas emissions is crucial to mitigate the adverse effects of the greenhouse effect on
the Earth's climate and ecosystems.

14a. Given a uniform soil with rC = 1.677x106 J m-3 K-1, a soil heat flux plate placed at an 0.08 m depth,
and soil-averaging temperature sensors located at 0.02 and 0.06 m depth to represent the change
in heat storage between the surface and 0.08 m depth. If the heat flux plate measurement
averages G2 = 20 W m-2 and the average soil temperature from the two sensors increases by 1 K
during a one-hour period, what is the soil heat flux density (G = G1) at the surface?
14b. How does the energy budget of a bare soil surface differ from that of a vegetative surface.
Ans : The energy budget of a bare soil surface differs from that of a vegetative surface due to several
factors:
I) Albedo : Bare soil surfaces typically have a lower albedo compared to vegetative surfaces. This means
they absorb more incoming solar radiation rather than reflecting it. In contrast, vegetative surfaces,
especially those with dense vegetation, tend to have higher albedo values due to the reflective properties
of leaves and canopies.

Ii) Evapotranspiration : Vegetative surfaces transpire water through the stomata of their leaves,
contributing to evapotranspiration. This process cools the surface and removes heat from the surface
energy budget. Bare soil surfaces, on the other hand, have lower evapotranspiration rates since there is
no transpiration from vegetation. However, bare soil surfaces can still experience evaporation directly
from the soil surface.

Iii) Heat Flux : Bare soil surfaces typically have higher sensible heat fluxes compared to vegetative surfaces
because there is less evapotranspiration to cool the surface. This leads to higher temperatures near the
surface and can create a more significant temperature gradient between the surface and the atmosphere.

Iv) Radiative Balance : While both bare soil and vegetative surfaces absorb incoming solar radiation, the
partitioning of this energy differs. Vegetative surfaces allocate a portion of the absorbed energy to
photosynthesis and biomass production, while bare soil surfaces primarily use the absorbed energy for
heating the soil and warming the atmosphere through sensible heat fluxes.