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Control: is the power of restrain and regulation by which something can be started, slowed down,
expedited or stopped.
Coordination: (L. co-joint, ordinates-regulated) is orderly or harmonious working of different but inter-
related parts so as to perform one or more activities very smoothly.
Need for control and coordination in an organism: The body of a multicellular organism consists of a
number of components and sub-components; each specialized to perform a particular function. However,
all the components are not required to function all the time at the same speed. A system of controls is
required to function all the time at the same speed. A system of controls is required to allow them to
perform or not to perform, slow down or speed up their working. Further, most activities require the
simultaneous or sequential functioning of a number of parts, stopping some and stimulation others. During
feeding, eyes locate the food, nose registers its smell, hands pick up the food and take it to mouth, mouth
opens to receive the food, teeth and muscles take part in its mastication and saliva moistens it. Tongue
perceives its taste. It moves the food below the teeth. Later it pushes the crushed food into pharynx. All
this is possible only through a system of coordination.

Animals Nervous System:

It is the system of nervous organs, nerves and neurons that form a network throughout the body for
conducting information via electrical impulses so as to coordinate and control activities of different parts
as well as provide appropriate response to both internal and external stimuli.
Functions of Nervous System:
1. Control: Nervous system exerts control over the functioning of different tissues, organs and parts
of the body.
2. Coordination: It coordinates the activity of different but inter-related organs so as to perform a
particular function, e.g., swallowing.
3. Surrounding: It makes an animal aware of its surroundings with the help of sense organs.
4. Internal Environment: Nervous system gathers information about the internal environment of the
body.
5. Higher Faculties: Intelligence, reasoning, memory, emotions, will, etc are due to nervous system.
6. Involuntary Movements: They are movements of internal organs carried out by a section of
nervous system without consulting the will of the individual, e.g., peristalsis.
7. Reflexes: They are immediate, automatic, protective response to harmful stimuli.
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Structure of Neuron and Nerve Cell:

Neuron or nerve cell is a structural and functional unit of nervous system that is specialised to
receive, conduct and transmit impulses. It is very long, sometimes reaching 90-100 cm. An individual
nerve cell consists of a cellular head and long thread like tail. The cellular head is the critical non-
replaceable part. The tail can regenerate itself if cut or injured. Most of the heads are located in the brain
or Spinal Cord. The tails or nerve fibres are bundled together into nerve trunks. From the brain and Spinal
Cord, these nerve trunks branch out into the extremities of the body. A neuron has three parts cell body,
dendrites and axon.
a. Cell Body or Cyton (= Soma, Perikaryon): It is broad, rounded, pyriform or stellate part of the
neuron that contains a central nucleus, abundant cytoplasm and various cell organelles except
centrioles. Because of the absence of centrioles, neurons cannot divide. Injured neurons are neither
replaced nor repaired. Cytoplasm of cell body is also called neuroplasm. Nucleus is large with a
prominent nucleolus. Special structures present in cell body of a neuron are small ribosome
containing Nissl granules and fine fibrils called neurofibrils. Cell body maintains the neuron
through its metabolic activity and growth.
b. Dendrites (Dendrons): They are fine short and branched protoplasmic processes of the cell body
that pick up sensations (physical, mechanical, electrical, chemical) and transmit the same to the
cell body. Dendrites contain Nissl granules and neurofibrils.
c. Axon: It is a long fibre-like cytoplasmic process that carries impulses away from the cell body.
Axon is branched terminally. The terminal branches are called terminal arborisations. Axon
terminals may end in muscle fibres, glands, other structures or form synapses with dendrites of
other neurons. Axon terminals are often knob-like.Axon is covered by one or two sheaths. The
sheathed axon is called nerve fibre. A number of nerve fibres are joined to form a nerve. The cell
membrane covering the axon is called axolemma. Cytoplasm of axon is termed as axoplasm.

Synapse:
It is a narrow gap containing junction between two neurons where an axon terminal comes in near
contact with dendrite terminal of next neuron. Axon terminal is expanded to form a presynaptic knob. The
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dendrite terminal is slightly broadened and depressed to form post-synaptic depression. A narrow fluid
filled space, called synaptic cleft, occurs between the two. As the impulse reaches the presynaptic knob, it
stimulates release of neurotransmitter into cleft. Neurotransmitter molecules come in contact with
membrane of post-synaptic depression. It functions as stimulus and produces an impulse in the dendrite
part of the second neuron. Because of the release of neurotransmitter on one side of the synapse, impulse
travels through the neurons only in one direction.

Reflex Action: is an automatic, mechanical and immediate response to a harmful stimulus. Reflex Action
is a nerve mediated, automatic involuntary and spontaneous response to a stimulus acting on a specific
receptor without consulting the will. It was discovered by Marshall Hall (1833). Reflex action is an
accurate, unconscious, involuntary and instantaneous response to a stimulus where delay can be harmful.
On being pricked or coming in contact with hot surface or flame, the hand is withdrawn even before pain
is perceived by brain.

Reflex Arc: Reflex action requires a stimulus, a receptor organ, sensory neurons, a part of central nervous
system, motor neurons and effector organ. The pathway taken by a stimulus to travel from receptor organ
to effector organ is known as reflex arc. Its components are as follows;
i. Receptor Organ: It is a tissues or organ which receives the stimulus for initiating nerve impulse,
e.g., skin, eye, and ear.
ii. Sensory Neurons: They conduct impulses from receptor to central nervous system.
iii. Part of Central Nervous System: It is spinal cord or brain. Accordingly, there are two types of
reflexes, spinal reflexes and cerebral reflexes. Cerebral reflexes include closure of eyes
exposed to flash of light, salivation at sight or smell of salivation at the time of crushing of
food. Peristalsis, inspiration and expiration. In central nervous system the impulse is
transferred from sensory neuron to motor neuron either directly or through an inter-neuron.
iv. Motor Neurons: They conduct motor impulse from central nervous system to the effector organ.
v. Effector Organ: It is a muscle, gland or organ. The effector organ is activated by motor impulse
to provide a suitable response to the stimulus.
Importance of Reflex Action:
1. Overloading: It checks overloading and overtaxing of brain.
2. Survival Value: Reflex actions have survival value.
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3. Quick Response: There is a immediate response to otherwise harmful stimuli without the brain
having analyzed the same.
4. Conditioned Reflexes: With the help of conditioned reflexes we perform a number of our
activities, e.g., reading, writing, typing, pedaling, playing a musical instrument.
Difference between Reflex Action and Walking

Reflex Action Walking

Reflex action is inborn and present in an It is acquired through learning
individual right from birth
It is inherited It is not inherited
It is automatic. An individual cannot control it. It is under control of the cerebellum part of
the brain.
It cannot be changed It can be changed
It has survival and protective value It has various functions, generally other than
survival and protection.

Human Nervous System

Human nervous system has three parts
a) Central Nervous System (CNS)
b) Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)
c) Autonomic Nervous System (ANS)

Central Nervous System (CNS): CNS is hollowed part of nervous system that lies along the mid dorsal
part of the body inside axial Skelton. It has two parts i) the Brain ii) the Spinal Cord:
i) Human Brain (Encephlon)
It is the widest and the uppermost part of central nervous system which weighs 1.2-1.4 kg and
constitutes 98% of the total nervous system. Human brain is the most advanced and well developed of all
animals. The brain is differentiated into three parts-fore brain, mid brain and hind brain. The parts of the
brain can be discussed as under:
1. Olfactory Lobes: They are a pair of wisely separated which occur on the inferior surface of
cerebrum. Each olfactory lobe consists of an anterior olfactory bulb and a posterior narrow
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olfactory stalk. Olfactory lobes relay sense of smell received from olfactory epithelium to the
temporal part of the cerebrum.
2. Cerebrum: It is the largest part of the brain which forms nearly 80% of the same. Cerebrum
occupies the front, lateral and superior parts of the brain. It has two closely placed cerebral
hemispheres separated by a longitudinal cerebral fissure. The cerebral hemispheres are
attached interiorly by a thick nerve band called corpus callosum. Superior surface is convex
while the inferior surface is concave. Internally, each cerebral hemisphere has a fluid filled
cavity called lateral ventricle. There is a thick outer layer of grey matter called cerebral cortex.
Inner to it is cerebral medulla of white matter. Grey matter is made of cell bodies while white
matter is formed of myelinated nerve fibres. Cerebral cortex is thrown up into folds. The deep
groves between the folds are called fissures. A longitudinal fissure divides the cerebrum into
two hemispheres. Right cerebral hemisphere controls the functioning of left parts of the body
while the left cerebral hemisphere controls the right parts of the body.
3. Diencephalon: It lies on the inferior side of the cerebrum. It has epithalamus on its roof,
thalami on the sides and hypothalamus on flow. A narrow cavity called third ventricle occurs
in diencephalon. Epithalamus bears pineal body and anterior choroid plexus (for filtering out
cerebrospinal fluid from blood). Thalami (singular thalamus) relay sensory impulses (except
that of smell) from medulla and other parts to cerebrum. They also regulate activity of smooth
muscles. Hypothalamus has control centres for hunger, thirst, fatigue, sleep, sweating, body
temperature and emotions. It also secretes a number of hormones. Ten of them control the
functioning of anterior pituitary while two hormones pass into posterior pituitary to function as
its hormones.
4. Mid Brain: It is small area having two thick fibrous tracts and four swellings. Fibrous tracts are
called cerebral peduncles or crura cerebri. They connect hind brain with fore brain. The four
swellings are known as corpora quadrigemina or colliculi. They are connected with reflex
movements of head, neck and trunk in response to light, sight and sound stimuli. The two
superior colliculi or corpora quadrigemina have centes for sight reflexes while the two inferior
corpora quadrigemina have centres of auditory reflexes.
5. Cerebellum: It is second largest part of the brain, constituting about 12.5% of the total.
Cerebellum lies behind cerebrum and above medulla oblongata. It has two large furrowed
lateral cerebellar hemispheres and a central worm like vermis. Cerebellum coordinates
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muscular activity of the body. It also maintains equilibrium or posture of the body as during
walking, jumping, lifting, catching, bending, etc.
6. Pons (Pons Varolli): It is a cross-wise bundle of nervous tissue that lies on the antero-ventral
side of medulla oblongata. It connects the cerebellum, medulla oblongata and cerebrum. Pons
functions as relay centre among different parts of brain. It also possesses pneumotaxic area of
respiratory centre.
7. Medulla Oblangata: It is the hindermost part of the brain which lies below cerebellum. It
continues behind into spinal cord. Medulla oblongata has a fluid filled cavity called forth
ventricle. Its roof bears posterior choroid plexus (for filtering cerebrospinal fluid from blood)
and three pores for connecting external cerebrospinal fluid with internal cerebrospinal fluid.
Medulla oblongata contains (i) Respiratory centre for regulating rate of breathing. (ii) Cardiac
centre for regulating rate of heart beat. (iii) Regulation of blood pressure. (iv) Reflex centre for
swallowing, vomiting, coughing, sneezing, salivation, peristalsis, etc.
Pons, medulla oblongata and mid brain are collectively called brain stem.
Functions of Brain:-
1. Sensory Information:- Brain receives information from all the sensory receptors and sense organs
of the body.
2. Processing:- It processes the information obtained from various sources and chooses the most
appropriate response.
3. Response:- Brain sends instructions to effector organs all over the body to provide the appropriate
response to received stimuli.
4. Control:- It has controls for regulating the functioning of various body organs.
5. Coordination:- Working of the different organs of a system is coordinated by brain.
6. Reflexes:- It has centres for reflexes related to sound, sight and involuntary functioning of many
body parts.
7. Faculties:- It is the seat of intelligence, memory, reasoning, learning and emotions.

ii) Spinal Cord:-

It is a narrow cylindrical lower part of central nervous system which is 43-45cm in length. It
lies inside vertebral column that extends from base of brain upto early part of lumbar region. It
begins as continuation of the medulla oblongata and ends at about the second lumbar vertebra.
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The cord is well protected within this bony canal. Protection is also provided by the meninges
and the cerebrospinal fluid.
The spinal cord is a series of 31 sections called segments, each segment giving rise to a pair
of spinal nerves. Each pair of spinal nerves is connected to a segment of the spinal cord by two
points of attachment called roots.
The posterior or dorsal root contains sensory fibres only and conducts nerve impulses form
the periphery to the spinal cord. Each dorsal root also has a swelling called the dorsal root
ganglion. It contains the cell bodies of the sensory neurons. The other point of attachment of a
spinal nerve to the cord is the ventral root. It contains motor neuron axons only and conducts
impulses from the spinal cord to the periphery.
Its cross-section, the spinal cord shows an inner gray matter lying within a white matter.
The gray matter forms an H of the gray matter is a small space called the central canal. The
canal runs the length of the spinal cord and contains the cerebrospinal fluid.

Functions of Spinal Cord:-

i) It conveys sensory nerve impulses form the periphery to the brain and to conduct motor impulses
from the brain to the periphery.
ii) It serves as a reflex centre.

Peripheral Nervous System (PNS):

The peripheral nervous system is composed of the cranial nerves and spinal nerve processes that
connect the brain and spinal cord with receptor muscles and glands.
a) Cranial nerves: Out of the 12 pairs of cranial nerves 10 originate from the brain stem. Some cranial
nerves contain only sensory fibres and are called sensory nerves. The others contain both sensory
and motor fibres and are referred to as mixed nerves.]
b) Spinal nerves: The 31 pairs of spinal nerves are named and numbered according to the region and
level of the spinal cord from which they emerge. All spinal nerves are mixed nerves.

Autonomic Nervous System (ANS):

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It is a special system of ganglia and peripheral motor nerve fibres which innervates various organs
and glands of the body for stimulation, slowing down and stopping their functions, without
consulting the will. Autonomic nervous system develops from branches of some cranial and spinal
nerves called visceral nerves. Autonomic nervous system has two opposing divisions, sympathetic
and parasympathetic.
1. Sympathetic Nervous System:- It is formed from branches of 12 thoracic and first three lumbar
spinal nerves. The system forms 2 long chains of ganglia, a few isolated ganglia and long post-
ganglionic fibres that innervate different organs, muscles and glands of the body. The
sympathetic fibres secrete noradrenaline into them for activation. Sympathetic system is also
specialized to prepare the body for any emergency, like hormone adrenaline. It causes
constriction of peripheral blood vessels, increased blood supply to heart, increased blood
supply to heart, increased heart beat, higher breathing rate, dilation of pupil, etc.
2. Parasympathetic Nervous System:- It is formed from branches of III, VII, IX and X cranial
nerves and sacral spinal nerves II, III and IV. The ganglia are located over the organs from
where short postganglionic fibres develop to innervate the organs. The organs are influenced
by secretion of neurottansmitter acetycholine. Parasympathetic nervous system moderates or
reduces heart beat, reduces blood pressure, dilates peripheral blood vessels, constricts pupil,
stimulates excretion and peristalsis.

Difference between Cerebrum and Cerebellum

Cerebrum Cerebellum
It is a part of fore brain. It is part of hind brain.
Cerebrum constitutes 80% of brain. It constitutes 12.5% of brain.
It forms the front, superior and lateral sides of It lies in the posterior region of brain.
the brain.
Cerebrum is made of two parts called cerebral Cerebellum has three parts, two lateral
hemispheres. cerebellar hemispheres and one central vermis.
It contains two cavities called lateral ventricles. A cavity is nearly absent.
It is seat of intelligence and memory. It coordinates muscular activity.
Cerebrum controls intelligence, movements, Cerebellum maintains equilibrium of the body.
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speech, sight, smell, taste, hearing and other

sensations.

How are Nervous Organs Protected?

Both brain and spinal cord are protected from mechanical injury and shock by bony cases around
them. Brain is covered by cranium or brain box of skull. Spinal cord is similarly covered by vertebral
column. Additional protective coverings called meninges (singular meninx) occur between brain or spinal
cord and the surroundings skeleton.
Layers of fluid around brain and spinal cord protect them from shock. Duramater prevents slipping
of brain and spinal cord from bony covering.
How does Nervous Tissue Cause Action?
Nervous system generally operates through muscles. Axon terminal in contact with muscle fibre is
broadened to function as motor end plate. The plasmalemma of the muscle fibre is folded and depressed in
the region of neuromuscular junction. A narrow fluid filled gap occurs between the plasmalemma of
muscle fibre and motor end plate of axon terminal. Whenever, an impulse reaches the motor end plate, it
includes the release of neurotransmitter (acetylcholine or noradrenaline) into cleft area. The
neurotransmitter sensitizes the chemoreceptor sites of muscle fibre membrane. Sodium channels of the
latter open. The positive potential developed due to the entry of sodium, results in release of calcium ions
open active sites of actin filaments slide past the myosin filaments producing new cross bridges and
shortening the size of muscle fibre. The arrangement of actin and myosin filaments is different in striated
and unstriated muscle fibres. The results in their differential contraction.

Chemical Co-ordination In Plants: -

Plants produce certain specific chemical substances, which control its growth. These accordingly
called as plant growth regulators and include auxins, cytoikinins, gibberellins, and ethylene and absesic
acid. Among these the first four are referred to as plant hormones and the last one as a growth inhibitor.
When a plant hormone is an organic compound, which is synthesized in one tissue of a plant and migrates
to another part or tissues where in a very minute quantity affects the growth of that plant. A plant hormone
is an organic substance, which is produced in any part of the plant and is transferred or migrated to
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another part where it influences a specific physiological process. Some of the hormones and their
physiological effects are as follows:

(i) Auxins: -

Auxins are a group of hormones produced by the root and shoot apices. These are essential for cell
elongation. Auxins were first of all discovered by a Dutch botanist F. W. Went in 1928 and were
chemically found to be Indole Acetic Acid, which is derived from an amino acid tryptophan. The common
naturally occurring auxin is the indole acetic acid. Synthetic Auxins, the compounds made in NAA
(naphthalene acetic acid) and 2,4-D (2,4-dichlorophenoxy acetic acid).

Functions of Auxins: - The important functions of auxins are as under: -

1. It stimulates cell division in the root and shoot apices.

2. It promotes cell elongation by increasing cell wall elasticity.
3. It stimulates seed germination.
4. It promotes growth of root at lower concentration and of shoot at very high concentration.
5. It initiates development of xylem.
6. It helps in the production of parthenocarpic fruits.
7. It affects or retards the growth of lateral buds.
8. It prevents pre harvest fruit fall in apples and pears.
9. It speeds up various physiological processes of a cell e.g. protein synthesis, respiration etc.

(ii) Cytokinins: -These were first of all isolated in 1955 at Wisconsin University (USA) from an old stock
of nucleic acids. These are also named as kinetins because of their property to activate the division of
cytoplasm

During cell division. These are also obtained from coconut milk, apples and fruits etc.cytokinesis are the
chemicals, which promote cytokinesis in the cells of various plant origin. They are synthesized in the
endosperm of the seeds and the roots of the plants. The first cytokinin was isolated by Miller et-al (1954).
Zeatin was the first natural cytokinin of plants.

Functions of Cytokinins: - The important functions of cytokinins are as under:

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1. It activates cell division by activating DNA and protein synthesis.

2. It promotes the growth of the lateral buds by neutralizing the effects of the auxins.
3. It counter acts the longitudinal growth in stems induced by the auxins.
4. It helps in the expansion of cotyledon by leaves and foliage leaves.
5. It enhances the growth of the callus.
6. It overcomes ageing and senescence.

(iii) Gibberellins: -

Gibberellins are growth hormones, which promote cell elongation. Japanese pathologist called
Kurosawa in 1926 first of all discovered these growth hormones. Gibberellins from fungus called
gibberella fujikorol. This fungus secreted a substance, which was found to be responsible for causing
tallness. This substance was called gibberellin or gibberellic acid (GA,) Later on other three Japanese
workers Yabuta, Sumiki, and Hayashi isolated them from culture filtrate of the fungus, which referred to
as gibberellic acid. Later on, gibberellins were discovered in a variety of plants and now a day 36 different
types of gibberellins are known.

Functions of Gibberellins: - Some of the important uses of the gibberellins are listed as under:

1. It causes cell elongation in stem.

2. It does not affect the growth of the roots and inhibits the initiation of adventitious roots.
3. It stimulates the growth and development of the seedlings and parthenocarpic fruits.
4. It stimulates cell division especially in cambial region.
5. It helps in breaking dormancy of seed, buds and tubers.
6. It helps in seed germination.
7. It promotes growth of leaves and flowers.

(iv) Ethylene: -
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Ethylene is also a growth regulator. It is produced as a gas in the cells of the higher plants. It is
involved in breaking dormancy, induction of growth of roots and root hairs, fruit ripening and regulation
of cell elongation.
(v) Absessic acid: -

The American botanists W.C. Liu and H.R Corns during their investigation found a substance was
abundant at a senescent stage of the cotton plant. This substance was instrumental in abscission and was
accordingly named as Absessin. Later on, addicott and his co-workers (1965) found a simple compound
called Absesic acid having same properties. It is now isolated from dormant seeds, buds, and other parts of
the plant. It is primary growth inhibitor or suppressor of growth. Initially the growth inhibitor was called
dormin

Functions of absessic acid: -

1. It retards growth, promotes leaf fall and causes dormancy of seeds, buds and tubers.
2. It causes loss of RNA, proteins and chlorophyll.
3. It causes of closing of the stomata and decreases the loss of water.
4. It inhibits both cell division and cell enlargement.
5. It antagonizes the growth promoting hormones and acts as a growth inhibitor.

Functions of Plant Hormones

1. Induction of Dormancy: ABA induces dormancy of buds, seeds and storage organs.
2. Breaking of Dormancy: Gibberellins and cytokinins break dormancy of seeds, buds and storage
organs.
3. Growth: It is mediated by auxin and Gibberellins.
4. Cell Division: Auxins and cytokinins control cell division.
5. Stomata: Cytokinins bring about opening of stomata while abscisic acid (ABA) causes their
closure.
6. Movements: Movements of growth are caused by differential distribution of auxin and other
growth hormones.
7. Ripening of Fruits: It is controlled by gaseous hormones, ethlylene.
8. Coordination: Plants coordinate their activities and responses with the help of hormones.
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Plant Movements Due to Growth:

Plant movements due to growth are: a) Autonomic b) Paratonic

a) Autonomic Movements of Growth:- They are shown by apical regions of stems and tendrils. The
movements are called nutations (or circumnutation). While growing the apices of these organs
bend in different directions resulting in their rotation. It helps the climbing stems and tendrils to
find support for climbing or clinging.

b) Paratonic Movements of Growth:- They are growth movements in response to an external

stimulus. Paratonic movements of growth are of two types, nastic and tropic.

Tropic Movements of Growth:

Tropic movements generally occur in cylindrical organs like stems and roots. The important tropic
movements are phototropism, geotropism, hydrotropism, thigmotropism and chemotropism.

1. Phototropism:- It is directional growth movement of curvature which occurs in response to

unidirectional exposure to light. The region on photoperception is shoot apex while the region of
response is in blue area of elongation. Phototropic movement is generally caused by increased
auxin on the dark side and lesser auxin on the illuminated side. It causes more growth o the dark
side in stem causing it to bend towards the source of light.

2. Geotropism:- It is directional growth movement of curvature which occurs in response to force of

gravity. The region of graviperception is root cap in root, nodes and apex in shoots. The region of
response or curvature is the zone of elongation in case of stem and root. For nodes the curvature
producing region lies nearby.

3. Hydrotropism:- It is directional growth movement of curvature which occurs in response to

unilateral stimulus. Hydrotropism in generally shown only by roots. Roots are positively
hydrotropic.Positive hydrotropic response of roots is stronger than their geotropic response. This
can be tested by placing germinating seeds in moist saw dust contained in a sieve. The radicles will
pass down and come out of the sieve pores under the influence of gravity. However, after some
growth, they bend back and enter the saw dust again showing that hydrotropic response is stronger
than geotropic response.
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4. Thigmotropism (Haptotropism):- It is directional growth movement of curvature which occurs in

response to stimulus of contact. Thigmotropism is found in twiners and tendrils. After initial
contact with support due to mutation, the tendril or twiner shows less growth in the region of
contact and more growth on the other side. As a result they bend over the support. Later on
bending or coiling may occur in lower parts of the tendril as well.

5. Chemotropism:- Chemotropism is directional growth movement of curvature that occurs in

response to a stimulus of contact. Thigmotropism is found in twiners and tendrils. After initial
contact with support due to mutation, the tendril or twiner shows less growth in the region of
contact and more growth on the other side. As a result they bend over the support. Later on
bending or coiling may occur in lower parts of the tendril as well.

6. Chemotropism:- Chemotropism is directional growth movement of curvature that occurs in

response to a chemical stimulus. It is best seen in the growth of pollen tube inside style, ovary and
ovule. Here every region produces its own nutrients and chemotactic chemicals for growth and
passage of pollen tube. Chemotropism can be observed by germinating a number of pollen grains
in a minimal medium.

Chemical Co-ordination of Animals: -

In animals the various physiological processes are regulated by hormones, which are special
chemical messengers and help in controlling and coordinating the various activities of the body. These
hormones are produced by endocrine glands present in the body of human beings. Hormones are chemical
messengers. They are discharged in the blood from where they reach different parts of the body. A
hormone acts as a trigger.

The hormones in animals show following characteristic features-

1. They are commonly synthesized by ductless glands called as endocrine glands.

2. They are produced at a place other than the site of action. They travel through blood to other parts
where they cause changes.
3. They are secreted directly into the blood stream.
4. The structures that respond to the hormones are called as target organs, which are very specific.
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5. They are secreted in response to the changes in the external or the internal environment of the body
and are called as chemical messengers also.
6. They may stimulate or inhibit the activity of the target organ, thus regulating its activity.
7. They are effective in minute quantities, often in trace amounts, which are difficult to detect at times.
8. The hormones are rapidly altered or destroyed immediately after their action is over, i.e. after they
have acted on the target tissue.

Endocrine System or Hormonal System:-

It is a system of isolated ductless glands that pour their secretion directly into circulatory system
for passage to different targets in order to control their metabolism, permeability, growth, differentiation
and activity. Endocrine system is also called hormonal system. Endocrine system often operates in
coordination with nervous system. Endocrine system controls and coordinates many processes of the body
where nervous system has no role, e.g., cell permeability, cell division, cell growth, cell differentiation,
development of sex organs, secondary sex characters and several other activities. Any discrepancy can
lead to a disorder.

Endocrine glands in human body:-

Hypothalamus: -
It lies at the floor of diencephalon. Hypothalamus produces neurohormones (formed by secretory
neurons) which are passed on the pituitary gland for controlling its activity. They are of two types,
releasing hormones (RH) and inhibitory hormones (IH), viz. TSH-RH, ACTH-RH, FSH-RH, LH-RH, P-
RH, GH-RH (STH-RH), GH-IH(=somatostatin).

Pituitary Gland: -
It is known as hypothalamic gland. It is a small round pea shaped gland found as an out growth in
the floor of the brain It is also called as the master gland of the body. It is connected with the brain by
a short, thin stock called infundibullum. It is composed of three lobes – anterior lobe, intermediate
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lobe and posterior lobe. The anterior and intermediate lobes are known as Adenohypophysis and the
posterior lobe is known as Neurohypophysis.

ANTERIOR LOBE Six different hormones are secreted from this part, they are

1. Growth hormone or somatotrophin (GH) it promotes the growth of the body during early
life.. it influences the growth of long bones and muscles. Excess or less secretion of this
hormone causes abnormalities in growth.
2. Thyroid Stimulating Hormone:- (TSH) Its primary function is to regulate the growth of
the thyroid gland. It stimulates thyroid gland to produce Thyroxine.
3. Adrenocorticotrophic hormone (ACTH) It stimulates the adrenal cortex to grow and
secrete all of its normal hormones at an increased rate.
4. Follicle Stimulating Hormone (FSH) It stimulates the growth of ovarian follicle up to the
point of ovulation. It stimulates ovary to produce oestrogen. While in males it stimulates the
development of seminiferous tubules and maintains spermatogenesis.
5. Luteinising Hormone(LH) In the male it goes to the testes and inside the testes, it
influences the Leydig cells to secrete testosterone. In females, it works with FSH and is
responsible for the final maturation of ovarian follicles and ovulation.
6. Prolactin or Luteotrophic Hormone (LTH) It helps in the maintenance of frequency and
in the secretion of another female hormone oestrogen and progesterone

Intermediate Lobe:- The lobe connects the posterior and the anterior lobe of the pituitary glands . From
this part, only one hormone is released. This is called Melanocyte stimulating hormone (MSH) this
hormone is effective in lower vertebrates where it gives the skin its color. It also regulates the contents of
lipids in hair.
Posterior Lobe:- The posterior part of the pituitary gland is termed neurohypophysis. This lobe is made
of nervous tissues and consists of termination of many neurosecretory fibres of the neurosecretory cells.
From this part two hormones are released-

1. Oxytocin This hormone brings about contraction in the wall of the uterus at the time of birth of
animal. When oxytocin sets the contraction of the uterine wall, this causes a kind of pain to the
mother, termed labour pain.
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2. Vasopressin:- This hormone is also called antidiuretic hormone (ADH) . It influences the area of
nephron so that water may be reabsorbed and brought back to the blood. In this way, the volume of
urine is reduced.

Pineal Glands: - It is a small cone shaped gland lying between the cerebral hemisphere and the dorsal
side of the brain. It secretes a hormone called Melatonin, which inhibits ovarian growth and ovulation

Thyroid Gland:- The mammalian thyroid gland is composed up of two lobes that lie together on
either side of the trachea just behind the thyroid cartilage . Human thyroid weighs 25gms. It secretes
Thyroxine and thyrocalcitonin hormones. Thyroxine controls the general metabolism of the body. It
accelerates the energy production and oxygen consumption of the body. It stimulates absorption of
glucose in the intestine and synthesis proteins in the body Thyrocalcitonin decreases the amount of
calcium in the body, by taking excess calcium to the bone.

Parathyroid Gland:- These are 4 in number and are named so because they are found on the surface
of the thyroid glands. This gland secrets para thormone, which serves to increase the blood calcium by
taking it out of the bone.

Thymus Gland:- this gland can be seen in the new borne child close to the heart. It gradually
becomes smaller with advancing years. It secretes thymosine and produces lymphocytes known as T
lymphocytes.

Adrenal Gland: - The adrenal glands of man are two small yellowish glands each lying above or near
the kidney. Histologically each gland is composed of 2 distinct regions- an outer cortex and an inner
Medulla. The two parts differ in function and development.

(a) Adrenal cortex:- The main hormones secreted by adrenal by adrenal cortex are corticoids in the
form of gluco, mineral and sex corticoids. The most important mineralo-cortocoid is aldosterone,
which is concerned with the water balance of the body. Glucocorticoids regulate the metabolism of
carbohydrates fat and proteins and come stress by increasing blood glucose level.
(b) Adrenal medulla: it produces two main hormones, adrenaline (Epinephrine) and noradrenaline
( nor- epinephrine). Adrenal is also known as emergency hormone because it increases the
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Conversation of glycogen to provide extra energy to the body during emergency situation. It also helps
the body to handle situations of extreme danger by increasing heart rate, blood pressure, increasing
blood glucose level by selective contraction and dilation of blood vessels.

Pancreas:- The pancreas is double gland consisting of exocrine position, which secretes various
digestive enzymes of the pancreatic juice and round or oval patches of cells called Islet of Langerhans.
Each Islet consists of two types of cells. Alpha cells and beta cells. Alpha cells secrete a hormone
called glycogen, which increases the blood sugar level from low to normal, and beta cells secrete a
hormone called insulin, which decreases the blood sugar, level from high to normal and also induced
protein synthesis.

Ovaries:- Ovaries are female sex glands. These are chiefly concerned with the production of the
female sex hormone oestrogen and progesterone. The developing follicles before ovulation secrete
oestrogen. It is associated with the development of the female sex hormones and the secondary
characteristics at puberty. Progesterone on the other side promotes the growth of mammary glands up
to the full maturity. During pregnancy, it is also associated with the contraction of uterus and swelling
of mammary glands.

Testis:- Testes are male sex glands. These are associated with the production of the male sex
hormones testosterone, which is secreted by the interstitial cells; it promotes the development of male
sex organs, secondary characters and developing of sexual desire.

Feed back system:- is a regulatory mechanism in which presence of certain level of substance
promotes or inhibits its further formation. Regulation of thyroxine production by its concentration in
blood is an example of hormonal feed back system. Concentration of thyroxine in blood is detected by
hypothalamus. If it is low, hypothalamus produces TSH-RH. The latter passes into anterior lobe of
pituitary through hypophyseal portal vein. TSH-RH stimulates pituitary gland to produce TSH or
thyroid stimulating hormone. TSH passes into circulatory system and reaches thyroid. Thyroid begins
to secrete more thyroxine. It concentration of thyroxine rises above its optimum level, hypothalamus
stops producing TSH-RH. The unstimulated pituitary also stops producing TSH (thyroid stimulating
hormone). Non-availability of TSH results in failure of thyroid to produce thyroxine. Non-formation
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of new thyroxine will automatically result in reduction in level of blood thyroxine to suboptimum level
when hypothalamus will be again stimulated.

Some important terms:-

Hermaphrodite:- An organism in which both the male and female sex organs are present is called
hermaphrodite or bi-sexual. Hydra and earthworm are such organisms.

Gamete:- Two types of r reproductive cells produced in males and females are called gametes.
Female gametes are larger in size than the male gametes but are non- motile. The male gametes are
motile.

Puberty:- In humans , reproductive organs become functional only after attaining sexual maturity.
This is attained at the age of 13- 14 years. In males, and 10-11 years in females, the age of attaining
sexual maturity is called puberty. It leads to development of secondary sexual characters

Placenta:- From the outer most membrane of the embryo, a number of out pushing’s arise and get
inserted into the inner wall of uterus of mother to form placenta. This device draws nutrition from the
maternal blood.

Umbilical cord:- It serves a link between the fetal and maternal circulation.

Homeostasis:- One hormone accelerate the function of a particular organ, but the other hormone puts
a brake on it. This system of opposing effects leads to a proper control and balance in the working of
the organs. When there is too much of acceleration of the effect organ, the later sends a message back
to the endocrine gland asking to stop secreting the hormone. This is a kind of feed back information,
which serves to bring about a steady state or a stable state. This steady state of body function is called
Homeostasis.