nutrients

Review
Changes in Body Composition and Nutritional Periodization
during the Training Macrocycle in Football—A Narrative Review
Wiktoria Staśkiewicz-Bartecka 1, * , Marek Kardas 1 , Grzegorz Zydek 2 , Adam Zajac
˛ 3 and Jakub Chycki 3

1 Department of Food Technology and Quality Evaluation, Department of Dietetics, Faculty of Public Health
in Bytom, Medical University of Silesia in Katowice, ul. Jordana 19, 41-808 Zabrze, Poland;
[email protected]
2 Department of Sport Nutrition, Jerzy Kukuczka Academy of Physical Education in Katowice,
ul. Mikołowska 72A, 40-065 Katowice, Poland; [email protected]
3 Department of Sports Training, Institute of Sport Sciences, Jerzy Kukuczka Academy of Physical Education
in Katowice, ul. Mikołowska 72A, 40-065 Katowice, Poland; [email protected] (A.Z.);
[email protected] (J.C.)
* Correspondence: [email protected]; Tel.: +48-032-275-51-95

Abstract: Nutrition periodization in football training is an important determinant of adaptation to

cyclic training loads. Personalizing an athlete’s diet is crucial to ensure optimal performance and
body composition, depending on the phase of training. The purpose of this review is to answer
the question of how the body composition of football players changes over the training macrocycle
and how dietary recommendations should be tailored to specific training periods. The review of
scientific evidence was conducted based on the available literature, typing in phrases related to
training and nutrition periodization using the PubMed and Google Scholar database methodology
tools. A literature search resulted in the selection of 346 sources directly related to the topic of the
study, and then those with the highest scientific value were selected. There is a need to adjust energy
and nutrient intake according to the different training phases in a football player’s preparation
cycle. During the preparatory phase, it is recommended to increase protein and energy intake to
support anabolic processes and muscle mass development. During the competitive period, due to
the intensity of matches and training, the importance of carbohydrates for glycogen replenishment
Citation: Staśkiewicz-Bartecka, W.;
and recovery is emphasized. The transition phase requires the regulation of caloric intake to prevent
Kardas, M.; Zydek, G.; Zajac,
˛ A.;
adverse changes in body composition. Hydration has been identified as a key element in each phase
Chycki, J. Changes in Body
of training. Cooperation between coaches, nutritionists, and players is essential to optimize sports
Composition and Nutritional
Periodization during the Training
performance and rapid recovery, and the authors recommend continuous adaptation and nutritional
Macrocycle in Football—A Narrative optimization as an integral part of football training.
Review. Nutrients 2024, 16, 1332.
https://doi.org/10.3390/nu16091332 Keywords: football nutrition; body composition; macrocycle training; periodization of nutrition

Academic Editor: Gary D. Miller

Received: 5 April 2024

Revised: 23 April 2024 1. Introduction
Accepted: 27 April 2024 One of the most popular sports right now is football, which is drawing record crowds
Published: 29 April 2024
to stadiums and TV screens. According to the FIFA Big Count 2006, about 270 million
individuals, or 4% of the world’s population, play football [1]. The FIFA 2022 World Cup
in Qatar involved over 800 players from 32 countries, with a total estimated market value
exceeding EUR 12 billion [2]. Despite the sport’s popularity and the substantial amounts of
Copyright: © 2024 by the authors.
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
money invested in it, players still have insufficient nutritional awareness [3]. Athletes have
This article is an open access article
been allowed to eat whatever they wanted, whenever they deemed it suitable, for a long
distributed under the terms and time. However, the increasing demands on athletic ability, the rise in the pace and intensity
conditions of the Creative Commons of football games over the past 20 years, and the commercialization of the sport have led to
Attribution (CC BY) license (https:// a search for solutions to enhance the players’ athletic level. One approach to achieve this is
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ to adjust nutrition to meet the demands of football [4,5].
4.0/).

Nutrients 2024, 16, 1332. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu16091332 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/nutrients

Nutrients 2024, 16, 1332 2 of 20

In the last few years, concerns about athletes’ diets have received a lot of attention.
A well-balanced diet that considers energy, macronutrients, fluids, and the right supple-
ments can positively impact sports performance [6]. The nutritional aspect constitutes an
important element in an athlete’s training program. International guidelines, grounded in
scientific research, advocate for the appropriate amount, type, and timing of food intake to
ensure effective training, while minimizing the risk of injury and trauma [7]. Achieving
optimal metabolic efficiency requires striking a balance between nutrition, training, and
the recovery process. Providing energy from suitable sources and maintaining a proper
energy balance are crucial for individuals leading active lifestyles, particularly professional
athletes [8].
The purpose of this study is to examine the concept of nutritional periodization
within the football training macrocycle and its efficacy in managing diet to optimize the
athletic performance and body composition of football players. This includes analyzing the
adjustments needed in energy intake, macronutrient ratios, and hydration across different
phases of the training cycle to individual players’ athletic and health objectives.

2. Method
The main aspect that motivated the review work carried out was to look for changes
in body composition occurring during the various elements of the training macrocycle
in the works cited, and to find nutritional recommendations to support these changes.
Unfortunately, the current state of knowledge on the subject, despite the many studies, is
still poor, so the authors decided to conduct a review of the most current knowledge in this
area, to identify those sources that address the described topic and gather in one place the
available knowledge.

2.1. Review Procedure

A preliminary search for items consistent with the topic and purpose of the review
was conducted to identify the research field. After reviewing the existing data, a keyword
package was selected that seemed most relevant and consistent with the review topic.
The databases PubMed and Google Scholar were searched using the following
(MeSH)terms: “body composition analysis”, “macrocycle”, “preparatory period”, “com-
petitive period”, “transition period”, “football”, “soccer”, “nutritional recommendation”,
“nutrition in football”, and “supplements”. The MeSH terms were internally validated by
the coauthors. A review of the scientific evidence was conducted based on the available
literature by entering sample phrases (consistent with the MeSh dictionary) with Boole
operators, logical operators, and special characters.

2.2. Eligibility Criteria and Search Strategy

Articles in this review had to be (1) published before the end of December 2023
and after December 2003, (2) available as a full text in English, (3) categorized as original
research, reviews, or meta-analyses, and (4) the studied population comprised adult football
players (aged 18 years). Articles that were published after 2003 have been included to make
sure that the topic covered is not a completely new field of research, but also to avoid very
old data, because dietetics, as well as the physical demands of football, are rapidly evolving.
The database review was completed on 1 March 2024. Titles and abstracts were reviewed
to verify these criteria. If all inclusion requirements were met or remained unclear, articles
were read in full. If the full text showed that not all the requirements were met, the article
was excluded. Additional literature was obtained by searching references in manuscripts
(snowball method).
A literature search yielded 346 sources directly related to the topic of the study, and
then those with the highest scientific value were selected according to the eligibility criteria.
Nutrients 2024, 16, 1332 3 of 20

2.3. Critical Appraisal

When assessing the sources critically, consideration was given to whether the pub-
lications had been published in peer-reviewed journals with at least two reviewers. As
previously mentioned, 138 sources were eligible for the final review. The primary restriction
of the employed methodology was the omission of sources composed in languages other
than English.
“Gray literature,” or works that have not undergone review or are university-owned
(theses, conference reports, government pamphlets, newsletters, etc.), was not included
in the review. These sources are valuable, but there is a good chance they include out-of-
date information.

3. Characteristics of the Sport of Football

Sports usually involve at least two opponents, often organized into teams, pairs, or
individuals that work together to achieve common aims. Since the primary purpose of
football is to score a goal and keep the opposition from scoring a goal, this leads to the
emergence of tactical behavior and strategic definitions [9,10]. Since the aims of the two
teams are mutually exclusive, there are dynamic interactions between the parties, which
evolve during the game, leading to a process of interaction [10,11].
Football is a high-intensity activity, where periods of active recovery or passive rest are
used to offset the exertion. The effort during a match is variable, involving running, sprints,
and dynamic changes of direction, during which players perform about 726 different
movements and turns [12,13]. At the highest level, field players travel roughly 10–12 km,
while goalkeepers go about 4 km [14]. Studies report that players in the midfield position
cover the longest distances during the game [15,16]. The intensity of effort decreases in the
second half of the match, as does the distance, which is reduced by 5–10% [17]. During a
football game, sprinting occurs every 90 s or so and lasts an average of 2–4 s [14]. Football
players walk for about 18–27 min (20–30% of game time), run at very low intensity for
about 13–23 min (15–25% of game time), run at moderate intensity for 9–13 min (10–15% of
game time), and run at high intensity for 4–7 min (4–8% of game time) [15,17]. From the
point of view of the intermittent effort profile, the work-to-rest ratio is 1:8 [17]. Each player
engages in 1000–1400 short activities throughout a match, changing every 4–6 s [14].

4. The Importance of Body Composition in Football

The body composition of athletes is determined by the proper supply of nutrients,
which results in adequate performance of the body [18,19]. An athlete’s body composition
can provide valuable insight into their general health and physical performance [20]. Age,
gender, somatotype, genetics, degree of physical activity, and individual variability all
influence the ideal body composition [21]. Body composition in athletes affects movement
quality and performance levels, which in turn affects athletic performance, in addition to
being viewed as a health condition [22].
Anthropometric and fitness traits that have been linked to specific football players’
success have been found in recent years [22]. It has been confirmed that there are pre-
dispositions directed toward players performing different functions on the field during
games [23]. In football, four playing positions are distinguished: goalkeeper, defender,
midfielder, and striker. Accordingly, players are characterized by specific anthropometric
and performance characteristics that allow them to achieve better results. Goalkeepers
and defenders are characterized by a higher height and greater body mass than other
players [24]. Compared to strikers and midfielders, defenders typically have larger bodies
and are taller. The smallest group of players in terms of body mass and height is the
midfield [25]. When comparing the body composition of football players, it is crucial to
take relative values (e.g., %FM instead of FM [kg]) into account, since variations in body
size may be the cause of the variance in absolute values of lean body mass between players
in different roles, rather than variations in body composition [23,25]. Due to the varying
Nutrients 2024, 16, 1332 4 of 20

physiological and metabolic demands of football depending on the function played on the
field, players’ body compositions varies [26].
The optimal physique of a player, taking into account body fat mass (FM), lean body
mass (LBM), and fat-free mass (FFM), depends on his function on the field and individual
predispositions [22]. There is no single value that is a reference for percent body fat (%FM),
but the average level of it in the body of football players takes values in the range of 8% to
13%, although values deviating from the above have been described [27,28].
Football players may need to make adjustments to the daily ratio’s composition at
different periods during the season to maintain an ideal body composition [18]. This
could happen in the preseason or after an injury. Strength and power can be enhanced
by increasing skeletal muscle mass, which is a desirable training adaptation [29]. In
addition, preserving skeletal muscle mass during injury and immobilization projects a
faster return to full function. Excess body fat negatively affects an athlete’s mass-to-power
ratio, acceleration ability, and total energy expenditure [30]. Athletes may also choose
to consciously alter their body composition to achieve a desired appearance, which can
interfere with athletic goals [11]. Therefore, each football player’s body composition goals
should be agreed upon with a nutritionist or team physician [11,27].

5. Time Structure of the Training Process and Physical Requirements and Changes in
Body Mass Composition
An athlete should view training as a process that prepares them physically, mentally,
strategically, and technically to perform at their best [31]. This multifactorial approach
maximizes the effects of the training stimulus by utilizing established physiology, psy-
chology, and physics concepts [32]. Since the goal of training is to increase performance,
it must include a sufficient stimulus for adaptation, appropriate methods for tracking
improvements, and other pertinent measures like rest, mental support, healthy eating, and
carefully chosen supplements [33].
Maintaining an optimal body mass is essential for overall health [27], particularly for
individuals involved in increased physical activity, like professional athletes. The body
composition of players is influenced by the physical stress caused by professional foot-
ball [13,14]. Research indicates that factors like nutritional knowledge, food preferences,
and level of activity help athletes maintain their ideal body composition [7,34–40]. Ath-
letes’ current training programs are primarily structured according to the periodization
theory [41], which involves the deliberate sequencing of various training units to meet
predetermined goals [42,43].
The amount of work an athlete completes within the examined time frame, training
unit, or training cycle refers to their training load [44]. The concept of load comprises two
values: volume and intensity of effort. Volume represents the quantitative component of
work, expressed in terms of time, distance, weight, and number of repetitions. Intensity,
on the other hand, is the component of work resulting from the speed of the exercise
performed, the number of repetitions in a given unit of time, the number of series, and
the nature of intervals. Therefore, it is expressed by the ratio of power developed to the
maximum power achievable in a particular exercise by a given athlete [43,44]. The variation
in physical loads between athletes is extremely important and is related to the specificity of
the various functions performed on the field during football matches [15–17,23,37,45]. A
direct response to the demands of the function performed is the energy cost to the body,
which modulates the composition of the body during the season [46,47].
An essential tool for getting athletes ready for competition is body composition anal-
ysis, which also shows a player’s nutritional status. Optimal body composition is an
important component of fitness, as excess body fat acts as unnecessary weight in the typ-
ical activities of the game, i.e., running and jumping. It is known that body fat content
influences acceleration capacity, power-to-weight ratio, and energy expenditure [23]. Con-
versely, each functional performance parameter’s value is determined by the percentage of
lean body mass [48].
 important component of fitness, as excess body fat acts as unnecessary weight in the typ-
ical activities of the game, i.e., running and jumping. It is known that body fat content
influences acceleration capacity, power-to-weight ratio, and energy expenditure [23].
Conversely, each functional performance parameter’s value is determined by the percent-
Nutrients 2024, 16, 1332 5 of 20
age of lean body mass [48].
The time structure of football training takes into account various aspects, such as the
development of physical endurance and the optimization of training processes [48]. De-
The time structure of football training takes into account various aspects, such as
pending on the competition calendar, the preparation of players in team sports is carried
the development of physical endurance and the optimization of training processes [48].
out in single-cycle, two-cycle, and three-cycle models. In professional football, a two-cycle
Depending on the competition calendar, the preparation of players in team sports is carried
training model is usually used. The two-cycle model of the training process involves com-
out in single-cycle, two-cycle, and three-cycle models. In professional football, a two-cycle
petitions in the spring and fall system. One cycle is a six-month macrocycle that is known
training model is usually used. The two-cycle model of the training process involves
as the fall round, which runs from July to December, and the other is the spring round,
competitions in the spring and fall system. One cycle is a six-month macrocycle that is
which runs from January to June [48]. In football, three training periods function in the
known as the fall round, which runs from July to December, and the other is the spring
structure of the six-month macrocycle: preparatory, competitive, and transition. Macrocy-
round, which runs from January to June [48]. In football, three training periods function
cle training in football involves planning the entire training process of professional players
in the structure of the six-month macrocycle: preparatory, competitive, and transition.
over a longer
Macrocycle period.inThe
training fundamental
football cycle in professional
involves planning football
the entire training clubs’of
process training is the
professional
macrocycle with the aforementioned periods [41]. Figure 1 shows a diagram of the
players over a longer period. The fundamental cycle in professional football clubs’ trainingtrain-
ingthe
is macrocycle
macrocycle in with
football.
the aforementioned periods [41]. Figure 1 shows a diagram of the
training macrocycle in football.

Figure 1. Macrocycle training in football (taking into account the two-cycle model) [41].
Figure 1. Macrocycle training in football (taking into account the two-cycle model) [41].
5.1. Preparatory Period
5.1. Preparatory
Fundamental Period
to the construction and stabilization of the team’s sporting form are
the preparation
Fundamental periods, occurring inand
to the construction thestabilization
spring (January
of theand February)
team’s sportingand
formautumn
are the
(second half periods,
preparation of June and July) [49].
occurring Unlike
in the individual
spring (Januarysports, football’sand
and February) preparatory period
autumn (second
is relatively
half shorter
of June and July) compared to the
[49]. Unlike competitive
individual period,
sports, a disproportion
football’s preparatorythat especially
period is rela-
intensifies when
tively shorter teams participate
compared in international
to the competitive competitions
period, [50]. During
a disproportion this phase,
that especially the
inten-
goal of training is to restore athletes’ physical condition following the transition
sifies when teams participate in international competitions [50]. During this phase, the period, with
training loads generally increased compared to the competitive period [51,52]. Intensive
conditioning training, friendly matches, and technical and tactical exercises are scheduled
in parallel during this period, aiming to enhance the body’s ability to exercise, as well
as its technical, motor, and tactical skills [52]. Examples of exercises include passing
drills, dribbling courses, shooting practices, defensive shaping possession games, set-piece
training, and position-specific exercises [11].
Nutrients 2024, 16, 1332 6 of 20

The season’s period significantly influences an athlete’s body composition. During

the preparatory period, the athletes’ fitness is shaped and performance recovers from a
period of rest [53]. Modifications to training loads and nutrition are made to align with
the athlete’s desired outcome during this phase, aiming for an optimal loss of fat mass
(FM), while preserving or increasing lean body mass (LBM), to impact sports performance
positively [54,55].
A study by McEwan et al. showed a reduction in FM during this period from 10.6 ± 1.88 kg
to 9.56 ± 1.81 kg and an increase in LBM from 59.58 ± 5.27 kg to 60.61 ± 5.18 kg in elite Spanish
league players [28]. In a study by Owen et al. conducted with professional European
football players during the preparatory period, an increase in LBM from 67.21 ± 5.31 kg
to 68.23 ± 5.49 kg and a reduction in FM from 7.47 ± 1.78 kg to 6.79 ± 1.54 kg were
observed [37]. The results obtained in the study by Staśkiewicz et al. indicate an increase in
SMM content from 40.95 ± 3.48 kg to 41.3 ± 3.53 kg on average during the preparatory
period [56]. Analyzing the results of Staśkiewicz et al. on the preparatory period, taking into
account the function performed by the player during the match, they showed a significant
increase in LBM in defenders from 73.94 ± 4.67 kg to 74.93 ± 4.16 kg, and an increase
in SMM from 42.63 ± 2.79 kg to 43.27 ± 2.53 kg. In addition, SMM content increased
from 38.96 ± 3.42 kg to 39.2 ± 3.39 kg in midfield players [56]. A study by McEwan et al.
confirms these results; during the preparatory period, defenders increased their LBM from
61.83 ± 4.58 kg to 62.49 ± 4.47 kg, while that of midfielders increased from 57.36 ± 2.72 kg
to 59.81 ± 3.1 kg [28]. A study by Owen et al. found an increase in LBM and a reduction
in FM during the preparatory period in players serving as defenders, midfielders, and
forwards [37].

5.2. Competitive Period

Increasing aerobic capacity is the primary goal of training during the competitive
period, leading to more running activity and less movement time during games [57]. This
phase presents challenges in planning, as training loads must be adjusted to maximize
physiological adaptations, while avoiding overtraining and injury [49,58]. The competitive
period focuses on maximizing athletic performance based on the skill dispositions and
fitness levels achieved during the preparation period [6]. Elite players experience a heavy
load during this period due to participating in more matches [13,59].
Training loads during the competitive period encompass both external and internal
factors. External loads relate to physical exertion during training or matches, while internal
loads involve psychological factors and biochemical stress responses [46]. Despite advance-
ments in understanding the physical demands of football, the detailed tracking of players’
training loads remains an area of active research [12,60]. Studies indicate differences be-
tween the intensity of training and match loads, with training sessions covering shorter
distances at lower intensities compared to matches [12,46,61].
In a conventional seasonal scheme with one game per week, players often conduct
4–5 training sessions on the field, distributing the total training load according to the day
of the week and the priority of the upcoming match. Additionally, players engage in
off-field training sessions, such as weight training, resulting in a total of 8 to 10 training
sessions per week [44]. Resistance training may be tapered during this period to maintain
strength without causing fatigue, utilizing about 50–70% of 1 RM, with an emphasis on
explosive movements to promote power. The Rate of Perceived Exertion (RPE) for overall
training sessions might range from moderate to high (6–8 out of 10), with individual drills
potentially reaching higher RPEs of 9–10 but with sufficient recovery to ensure readiness
for match play. Coaches aim to peak players’ physical and technical abilities during this
period, while ensuring they are fresh for competition [62].
However, in the competitive period, training intensity is reduced compared to the
preparatory period, with more focus on recovery training between games [39]. Profes-
sional athletes adjust their diets to match the exercise volume during this time, aiming to
maintain a suitable body composition throughout the competition. Imbalances in energy
Nutrients 2024, 16, 1332 7 of 20

consumption can lead to fluctuations in body fat and muscle mass, impacting both perfor-
mance and health [63,64]. It is important to note that the organization of training sessions,
both strength and on-field, may not follow a strict sequence, potentially affecting athletes’
varying macronutrient intake profiles [59].
Analyzing body composition during the competitive period, a study by Staśkiewicz
et al. found a decrease in LBM from 71.68 ± 5.85 kg to 71.14 ± 5.93 kg and an increase in FM
from 9.76 ± 2.57% to 10.32 ± 2.77% [56]. A study by Carling et al., involving 30 professional
football players participating in the French League 1, showed an increase in LBM over
the competitive period from 69.41 ± 5.53 kg to 70.1 ± 5.67 kg. FM content, on the other
hand, was reduced from 10.45 ± 1.61% to 10.19 ± 1.75% [23]. A study by Kultu et al.
found a reduction in LBM content from 63.2 ± 6.0 kg to 62.6 ± 6.0 kg and a reduction
in FM content from 10.2 ± 3.0% to 10.0 ± 3.0% [65]. Devlin et al. conducted a study
involving 18 Australian football players and showed a reduction in LBM from 56.8 ± 5.1 kg
to 56.4 ± 5.5 kg on average during the competitive period, and an increase in FM from
8.7 ± 1.4 kg to 9.5 ± 1.7 kg on average [54]. One possible explanation for the concurrent
decrease in LBM content and rise in FM content during the competitive period could be
a reduction in training load. General training and high-intensity conditioning exercises
are part of the training program during the preparatory phase, whereas game tactics, ball
possession, and fixed game passages comprise a significant amount of the competitive
period’s workouts and are associated with lower workloads. These findings imply that the
players’ body composition cannot be maintained by match effort alone [66].

5.3. Transition Period

During the transition period, training participation is either drastically reduced or
completely stopped, allowing athletes to engage in voluntary, non-periodic training or
recreational sports [64]. This period is primarily focused on treating injuries of various
severities and readapting the body to apply similar training stimuli in the next competition
cycle [13]. However, this cessation of training can result in the partial or total loss of some
evolved adaptive alterations brought about by the preparation and competition periods [67].
Detraining, which is the partial or complete physiological loss of training adaptations due
to a reduction in or cessation of training, occurs during this period and can affect sports
performance in the following season [64,68–70].
The kinetics of changes in body composition during the transition period are modu-
lated by its duration, the reduction in the number of training units, and the athletes’ fitness
level, potentially leading to unwanted changes [66]. Factors contributing to these changes
include fewer training units and less club match play, inactive leisure activities, and the
professional football players’ incapacity to adjust their diet to reduced physical activity [71].
An unbalanced diet during this period can lead to an increase in body mass, impacting
fitness and performance. Moreover, decreased muscle mass due to a lack of training stimu-
lus during this phase can result in reduced strength and endurance, increasing the risk of
injury when intense training resumes during the preparatory period [64].
According to Staśkiewicz et al.’s study, there was an increase in body mass, when
the average weight went from 79.27 ± 7.44 kg to 80.13 ± 7.47 kg. An analysis of body
composition showed an increase in FM [56]. Reinke et al., in a study involving players
of the German top division, showed that, during the transition period, the average body
mass of players decreased from 90.2 kg to 88.4 kg; in addition, there was a decrease in
LBM on average from 74.5 kg to 72.3 kg and an increase in FM on average from 10.5 kg to
11.2 kg [72]. Ostojic’s study analyzed the body composition of 30 English League 1 players
and showed an increase in transition body mass from 74.8 ± 6.0 kg to 77.2 ± 7.6 kg on
average. In addition, there was a decrease in LBM from 67.6 ± 5.3 kg to 67.4 ± 6.2 kg and
an increase in FM from 9.6 ± 2.5% to 12.6 ± 3.3% [66].
Nutrients 2024, 16, 1332 8 of 20

6. Nutritional Recommendations and Periodization of Nutrition in Football

To release an expert statement on a variety of nutrition-related topics about profes-
sional athletes, the Union of European Football Associations (UEFA) convened specialists
in sports nutrition research and practitioners who worked with elite football clubs, na-
tional associations, and federations in 2020 [27]. The original statement was released over
10 years ago, but more and more scientific research in the last few years has made an update
regarding the timeliness and accuracy of the guidelines necessary [27].
The physical and technical requirements for football have been trending significantly
in recent years [73]. As a result, training plans are adjusted appropriately, leading to heavier
workloads to help players adjust to demands [12,74,75]. A higher number of matches is
linked to a higher risk of injury. In addition, players play matches at varying times to
accommodate television schedules. The movement of international players, as well as
regional and intercontinental contests, frequently reflect dietary differences in cultures [27].
In nutrition, there is also a great deal of uncertainty. The recommended dietary
allowance (RDA), for instance, is the average daily intake that is adequate to meet the
nutritional needs of 98% of healthy individuals in a population. However, it is unclear how
these values should be interpreted when determining the daily intake of various athlete
groups [76].
The “food first” theory—which holds that food is the foundation for the body’s proper
operation in an exercise-loaded situation and that supplements can only assist an appropri-
ate nutritional strategy—is endorsed and supported by UEFA-appointed experts [27].
The process of establishing dietary guidelines is complicated by several restrictions.
The first has to do with the paucity of studies on football as a sport and the inability of
lab models created to mimic the game to accurately recreate match requirements [75,77].
As a result, data from other sports and easier activities must be extrapolated. When
it comes to sports like football, participants in recreational football leagues frequently
comprise the study group in research studies [12,74]. Results involving elite athletes are
rare. Furthermore, the approach taken to evaluate the eating patterns and nutritional status
of players is frequently faulty and produces inaccurate data [27].

6.1. Energy Processes Occurring during the Game of Football

Football players engage in a range of movements during a game, including walking,
sprinting, changing directions, jumping, striking the ball, and making contact with the
opposition [78]. Throughout the game, field players’ heart rates are kept at an average of
85% of their maximum heart rates, with an average relative exercise intensity of 70% of their
maximum oxygen uptake (VO2 max). Approximately 1300–1600 kcal of energy expenditure
is indicated by these values [79,80]. A daily energy expenditure of approximately 3500 kcal
was estimated [81,82]. Physical activity is fueled by an integrated series of energy systems
that include anaerobic (phosphagen and glycolytic) and aerobic (fat and carbohydrate
oxidation) pathways, using endogenous and exogenous substrates [81].
The phosphagen system’s adenosine triphosphate and phosphocreatine offer a quick
source of energy for muscle contraction, but not at a level that can sustain an energy supply
for longer than about ten seconds [82]. The primary mechanism enabling intense exercise
lasting 10–180 s is the anaerobic glycolytic pathway, which quickly metabolizes glucose
and muscle glycogen via the glycolytic cascade [79,83].
Aerobic pathways serve as the main source of fuel for events lasting longer than
approximately two minutes, as the phosphagen and glycolytic pathways are unable to
supply the energy needed for muscles to contract at very high rates. Major substrates
include muscle and liver glycogen, intramuscular lipids, adipose tissue triglycerides, and
amino acids from muscle, blood, liver, and intestine [27,45].
The body uses more aerobic pathways and fewer anaerobic pathways when oxygen is
more readily available to working muscles [27,45]. The body never uses just one pathway,
nor does it become more dependent on aerobic pathways overnight. The number of
Nutrients 2024, 16, 1332 9 of 20

pathways depends on several factors, including substrate availability, previous nutrient

intake, training levels, and the intensity, duration, frequency, and type of training [80,83].
Skeletal muscle in athletes is remarkably malleable; this property enables it to react
quickly to changes in nutrition and mechanical loads, leading to functional and metabolic
adaptations to particular environments [79]. Nutritional recommendations for performance
account for these adaptations, stating that energy systems should be modified during
different training modalities to guarantee the most efficient use of fuel during exercise [80].
Increases in the number of transport molecules that transport nutrients across membranes
to the site of use in the muscle cell, the number of enzymes that activate or regulate
metabolic pathways, the strength of the tolerance to metabolic byproducts, and the amount
of fuel stored in muscle are examples of adaptations that lead to an increase in metabolic
flexibility. Adipose tissue is one substrate that is present in relatively large quantities, while
other substrates, like carbohydrate supplementation to replenish glycogen deficiencies after
training, may need to be adjusted as needed [27,80].
Muscles use up energy at a rate that is directly correlated with exercise intensity. Work-
ing muscles transform chemical energy into kinetic energy and heat during activity, which
needs to be expelled by thermoregulatory systems [84]. Muscle cells produce adenosine
triphosphate (ATP), the direct source of muscle energy, through the oxidation of carbo-
hydrates and fatty acids. This process produces energy aerobically. Phosphocreatine, the
direct source of ATP re-synthesis, decreases significantly from ≈79.0 to ≈20.0 mmol/kg−1
dry weight, but the ATP concentration only decreases from ≈25.0 to ≈16.0 mmol/kg−1
dry weight, even after intense exercise [85]. It seems that training does not affect the ATP
concentration. The phosphocreatine and glycolytic pathways in anaerobic metabolism can
also produce ATP [79,84].

6.2. Dietary Recommendations for Macronutrient Intake

To achieve sporting goals, nutrition is crucial. Athletes frequently use a range of
ergogenic aids in an attempt to increase performance. Any training method, mechanical
apparatus, dietary supplement, exercise regimen, pharmacological treatment, or psycho-
logical strategy that can boost training adaptation or physical performance is referred to
as an ergogenic aid [86]. Ergogenic agents can aid in improving an athlete’s performance
during exercise, hastening their recuperation after an activity, and reducing the risk of
injury during rigorous training. But often, it would be enough to modify the typical diet to
suit the athlete’s needs [78].
Macronutrients do have ergogenic aid effects, even though they cannot be directly cat-
egorized as such [87]. An athlete’s performance is improved by consuming carbohydrates
right before or right after exercise, because they increase glycogen stores and postpone
fatigue [79]. Proteins can optimize body composition, which has an anabolic effect. Fur-
thermore, appropriate growth and development, preserving health and well-being, and
lowering the risk of illness, injury, and disease are all impacted by nutrition [88]. A healthy
diet helps prevent potential health issues. Poor diet can have an adverse effect on body
function, in addition to lowering performance [86,89].

6.2.1. Carbohydrates
The typical pattern of play in team sports involves a ‘stop and go’ style, where players
engage in repeated bouts of brief high-intensity exercise interspersed with lower-intensity
activity. Carbohydrates serve as a primary energy source for athletic performance in team
sports players [90]. As exercise intensity increases, the importance of carbohydrates also
rises. However, due to limited carbohydrate reserves in the body, the depletion of liver
and intramuscular glycogen during prolonged periods of high-intensity exercise signifi-
cantly impacts athletic performance. Carbohydrate depletion resulting from prolonged
high-intensity team sports impairs performance by inhibiting fat metabolism and leading
to the accumulation of metabolites such as ammonia (NH3), lactate, hydrogen ions (H+),
and inorganic phosphates (Pi) [91,92] The body’s capacity to store carbohydrates is compar-
Nutrients 2024, 16, 1332 10 of 20

atively small, but it can be significantly altered every day by eating foods that are suggested
to help with this [10]. Because they are used in both anaerobic and aerobic pathways,
carbohydrates serve as both a flexible substrate for muscle work and a vital source of
energy for the brain and central nervous system [93]. They can also support exercise at a
variety of intensities. Research indicates that strategies that maintain high carbohydrate
availability can help one perform longer, continuous, or intermittent high-intensity exercise
more efficiently [94]. A depletion of stores is also linked to fatigue, which manifests as a
decreased ability to exercise and a decline in focus. These results serve as the foundation for
some dietary approaches that supply carbohydrates before, during, and following physical
activity [95].
Carbohydrate loading, whether achieved through a high-carbohydrate diet or addi-
tional carbohydrate supplements following the depletion of carbohydrate stores due to
prolonged high-intensity exercise, enhances glycogen synthesis by increasing concentra-
tions of glucose transporter (GLUT-4) and glycogen synthase enzymes [96]. Furthermore,
it elevates the secretion of anabolic hormones such as growth hormone (GH) and testos-
terone and enhances glucose efficiency through heightened insulin secretion as the blood
glucose concentration increases [90]. Additionally, it lowers levels of free fatty acids (FFA)
and glycerol in the bloodstream. Moreover, the consumption of additional carbohydrate
supplements before exercise enhances carbohydrate metabolic efficiency by activating
the intramuscular pyruvate dehydrogenase complex (PDC) [97], leading to an increase
in intramuscular adenosine triphosphate (ATP), creatine phosphate (PCr), and glycogen
content through heightened excess post-exercise oxygen consumption (EPOC) [98]. These
benefits of carbohydrate loading via a high-carbohydrate diet or additional carbohydrate
supplements have been demonstrated to optimize liver and muscle glycogen storage and
improve exercise performance across various athletes [98].
Athletes are advised to up their carbohydrate intake to a value of 6–8 g/kg body
weight the day before, the day of, and the day after the competition, due to the significance
of muscle glycogen in post-match preparation and recovery. It is important to remember
that, even 48 h after the match, the type II fibers’ muscle glycogen content might not fully
recover with an intake of about 8 g per kilogram of body weight [99]. Alternatively, a daily
carbohydrate intake of 3 to 6 g/kg body weight may be sufficient for energy replenishment
and recovery, given the lower daily loads on typical training days (one session per day in
a microcycle with one match day), combined with the fact that athletes typically do not
perform any additional physical activity outside of the club [46]. On training days, the
daily carbohydrate intake should range from 3 to 8 g/kg body weight per day, depending
on the training scenario, match schedule, and player-specific training goals [27,83].

6.2.2. Proteins
The musculoskeletal and tendon tissues are stressed by systematic football training;
therefore, protein-containing structure repair is necessary to preserve and enhance their
integrity and function [94]. Skeletal muscle damage caused by physical exertion (EIMD)
is associated with increased proteolysis and protein breakdown [100], tissue damage at
the membrane and subcellular levels (both within and outside the sarcomeres), and the
release of pro-inflammatory cytokines (such as IL-1 and IL-6) by muscles and other tissues
to mobilize local and systemic immune reserves [101]. Some nutritional interventions
suggest that an increased intake of protein and carbohydrates may mediate regeneration
processes and promote muscle recovery, thus expediting the return to full functionality [46].
Protein supplementation has been shown to accelerate skeletal muscle protein turnover
by disrupting their synthesis and degradation under conditions of increased physiological
stress, such as those experienced during intense football matches [102].
An RDA level of 0.8 g/kg body weight per day is required for the majority of Euro-
peans [94]. According to the available research, 1.6–2.2 g of protein per kilogram of body
weight should be consumed daily to enhance training adaptation [103]. A higher intake
might only make sense during brief bursts of intense training or when consuming less
Nutrients 2024, 16, 1332 11 of 20

energy [104]. When there is an adequate energy supply to meet training needs, a mixed
diet will enable protein requirements to be satisfied. Athletes typically report consuming
the recommended amount of protein [46]. A balanced diet that includes moderate servings
of high-quality protein spread throughout the day should be the goal for achieving the
recommended daily intake of protein [27]. Most football players can avoid using protein
supplements if they plan their diets properly, but they are a quick and easy way to replace
food, particularly after a workout [27]. An athlete should aim to consume ~0.4 g/kg body
weight of protein per meal, or 3–4 meals a day, to reach a daily total of ~1.6 g/kg body
weight of protein [103]. Leucine content is one of the factors that affect protein quality,
which is a significant concern. Leucine is an amino acid that stimulates the synthesis of
muscle fibers; approximately 2.5 g of leucine should be consumed with each meal [105].
Because of the catabolic environment that the energy deficit creates, protein requirements
rise during energy restriction above the recommended RDA values. Thus, depending on
the training load and other metabolic stresses, such as weight loss or injury recovery, it
makes sense to increase protein intake in this case to a value of 2.0–2.4 g/kg body weight
per day [106].

6.2.3. Fats
A balanced diet must include fat because it gives you energy, forms part of cell
membranes, and makes it easier for you to absorb fat-soluble vitamins [107]. For individuals
who are not physically active, 10% of their total dietary energy intake should come from an
adequate intake of linoleic and α-linolenic acid [108].
Eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) are omega-3 polyun-
saturated fatty acids that play a crucial role in regulating inflammatory processes in the
body [109]. These fatty acids have been suggested to offer benefits to athletes due to their
anti-inflammatory properties. These benefits include replacing arachidonic acid in mem-
brane phospholipids, influencing the release of inflammatory eicosanoids and cytokines,
and producing anti-inflammatory lipid mediators. Emerging evidence among athletes
indicates that improving omega-3 status through supplementation can promote muscle
recovery, reduce oxidative stress associated with exercise, and lower levels of neurofil-
ament light, a biomarker for axonal injury, following sport-related subconcussive head
injuries [110,111].
To meet overall energy needs, athletes should modify their fat intake to accommodate
protein and carbohydrate requirements. Guidelines for reducing the consumption of trans
fats and using saturated fats sensibly should also be adhered to. As a result, the daily
calorie value of the food is often consumed as fat, ranging from 20 to 35 percent [107].
Athletes should customize their fat intake according to their exercise load and desired body
composition [27]. Some athletes purposefully consume a smaller amount of fat-containing
products. This causes the consumption of fat to be restricted to less than 15–20% of daily
energy and causes many products that contain important nutrients to be avoided [112].
The popularity of the ketogenic diet is another significant factor. There are currently no
intervention or observational studies on team sports and their applicability [113]. A diet
high in fat and low in carbohydrates is not advised for football players due to a lack of
evidence [112].

6.2.4. Fluids
Athletes sweat 1.5 L per hour, consume 0.7 L per hour, and change in body mass by
1.5% on average [114].
Sweat evaporating through the skin’s surface is the main way that the body loses heat
during increased physical activity [115]. This can result in sweat-induced dehydration
and is a vital mechanism for regulating internal body temperature. A 2% body weight
water deficit is referred to as 2% dehydration. While there are other factors, such as the
loss of water vapor and carbon dioxide with exhaled air, the primary cause of body mass
reduction during intense physical activity is sweating due to thermoregulation [114,116].
Nutrients 2024, 16, 1332 12 of 20

Even mild dehydration of 1% to 2% can impair football-specific performance, par-

ticularly intermittent high-intensity sprinting and dribbling skills. Common symptoms
of dehydration among football players include a dry, sticky mouth, fatigue, thirst, and
reduced urine production. In addition to water loss, sweating also leads to the depletion of
electrolytes, notably sodium and chloride [116].
Sweating also causes the loss of electrolytes, mainly sodium. During football matches,
players can lose a significant amount of sodium, ranging from 30 mmol/L to 62 mmol/L,
which translates to approximately 3.9 to 6.1 g of salt. Sweating can result in a fluid loss
of approximately 30 g per minute, which can exceed 1.8 kg per hour. Along with water,
important electrolytes for muscle contraction, such as sodium (Na), chloride (Cl), and potas-
sium (K), are also lost. The loss of sodium and chloride tends to be greater than potassium
according to various studies [117,118]. Hydration and electrolyte replenishment are related,
because hydration increases the amount of fluid that is retained after ingestion [119].
Dehydration can be detected through the evaluation of urine-specific gravity. Values
greater than 1020 g/mL indicate dehydration [116]. To estimate the amount of fluid lost
during exercise, it is also critical to weigh oneself both before and after. Preventing a loss
of more than 2% of body mass before, during, and after exercise is the aim of rehydration.
This will reduce the likelihood of exercise capacity being lost [115].
Hydration is crucial to the recovery process after exercise. Athletes should try to
replace all lost fluid and electrolytes before the next training session or game if they notice
a decrease in body mass. For every kilogram of body mass lost during exercise, the body
should rehydrate with approximately 1.5 L of fluids [115,119].

6.2.5. Pre-, During-, and Post-Exercise Nutrition

Pre-game nutrition is essential for football players to stabilize blood sugar levels,
preserve glycogen stores, and maintain hydration. Inadequate intake can lead to early
glycogen depletion, hypoglycemia, fatigue, and reduced performance [120]. Carbohydrate
intake, ideally 7–10 g/kg of body mass per day, plays a vital role in glycogen synthesis. It
is crucial to consume carbohydrate-rich meals providing at least 1.0 g/kg of body mass
3–4 h before the match [121]. While protein consumption is not critical pre-match, meals
should include low-GI, complex carbohydrate-rich foods to stabilize blood glucose levels.
Unsuitable meals high in fiber, protein, and fat should be avoided, as they take longer to
digest and are not suitable before high-intensity activity [120].
During matches, the dietary focus is on sustaining blood glucose and muscle glycogen
to prolong energy production and delay fatigue. An optimal fluid intake, easily absorbed
without discomfort, is crucial. Halftime provides an opportunity to replenish fluids and car-
bohydrates lost during the game. Isotonic sports drinks or carbohydrate supplementation
(30–60 g/h) facilitate quick digestion, hydration, and fueling to maintain performance [122].
Recovery nutrition aims to replenish glycogen stores and aid muscle repair. Whey
protein, due to its rapid absorption, is preferred post-exercise. Ingesting carbohydrates
(1.0–1.2 g/kg body mass per hour) as small snacks every 15–30 min for up to 4 h post-match
enhances glycogen replenishment, insulin secretion, and muscle recovery [123]. Combining
carbohydrates and protein enhances performance, with sprint and time trial performance
improving after intense exercise. Post-exercise meals should include high-glycemic-index
carbohydrate sources and an optimal protein intake to promote muscle protein synthesis.
A post-match meal within four hours should maintain a 3:1 carbohydrate-to-protein ratio
to prevent reduced calcium release from the muscle sarcoplasmic reticulum in glycogen-
depleted conditions [124].

7. Supplementation in Football
As per the International Olympic Committee’s definition, a dietary supplement encom-
passes any food, food component, nutrient, or non-food substance deliberately consumed
alongside the regular diet to achieve specific health or performance advantages [125].
Athletes engage in supplement use for diverse reasons, often influenced by manufac-
Nutrients 2024, 16, 1332 13 of 20

turer advertising [126]. The supplement industry is primarily profit-driven and caters
to consumer demand and preferences. Frequently, there is insufficient scientific proof
supporting the efficacy of individual substances and the tangible benefits derived from
supplementation [127].
To streamline information verification for athletes, coaches, and sports organizations,
the Australian Institute of Sport (AIS) has devised a supplement classification system
with four categories: A, B, C, and D [128]. This system categorizes supplements based on
scientific evidence and practical considerations to ascertain their safety, permissibility, and
efficacy in enhancing sports performance. Category A includes supplements with validated
effectiveness and safety, category B comprises supplements requiring further research to
establish their efficacy, category C encompasses supplements lacking evidence of efficacy,
and the final category, D, comprises substances considered unsafe due to anti-doping
concerns [128].
Footballers’ dietary plans should prioritize natural food sources over supplements,
reserving the latter for specific health or performance targets. The duration and nature of
supplementation should be overseen by a qualified dietitian or sports physician [125]. The
demands of regular training and matches can escalate the need for vitamins, macronutrients,
and micronutrients among professional footballers, crucial for supporting their body’s
metabolic functions [27]. Ensuring a sufficient intake of B vitamins and antioxidants like
vitamins A, C, and beta-carotene, along with vitamin D, iron, calcium, and magnesium, is
paramount [127,129,130].
Under unique circumstances, such as adhering to a low-energy diet for weight loss,
eliminating certain food groups, or having irregular eating patterns, there may be a risk
of inadequate vitamin and mineral intake. In such cases, supervised supplementation
under the guidance of a dietitian may be warranted to meet 100% of the recommended
daily allowances (RDAs) for all essential nutrients. Nevertheless, the primary focus should
remain on obtaining the necessary nutrients from whole foods before considering supple-
mentation [131].
The UEFA experts, in their statement, identify several substances that could offer
potential advantages for soccer players, including caffeine, creatine, ß-alanine, and nitrates,
all categorized as Group A by the AIS [27,128].
The performance-enhancing properties of caffeine are widely recognized, with re-
search confirming its positive effects on performance during intermittent, endurance, and
resistance exercises [132]. There is evidence suggesting that caffeine consumption can
have beneficial effects on outcomes in team sports, with data indicating improvements
in the crucial physical and technical performance aspects required for football. Ingesting
caffeine at a dosage of 2–6 mg/kg of body weight has been shown to enhance performance
in repeated sprints and jumps, reactive agility, jump height, and passing accuracy [73].
Presently, caffeine is under scrutiny by the World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA), and there
is the potential for caffeine to be reclassified as a banned substance [133].
Creatine supplementation stands out as one of the most extensively studied and bene-
ficial ergogenic aids for athletes. Increasing muscle creatine stores can enhance exercise
performance and facilitate training adaptation [134]. Research indicates that supplement-
ing with creatine can lead to improved performance in high-intensity exercises, thereby
enhancing overall training outcomes [135]. Moreover, creatine supplementation acceler-
ates glycogen replenishment rates, which can be advantageous for athletes undergoing
prolonged submaximal exercise or engaging in repetitive high-intensity workouts, espe-
cially concerning aerobic and anaerobic metabolism [136]. A typical outcome of creatine
supplementation is a weight gain of around 1–2 kg, primarily attributed to water reten-
tion, with no adverse health effects noted when following appropriate supplementation
protocols [137].
ß-alanine enjoys widespread popularity as an ergogenic aid, with approximately 61%
of team sport athletes incorporating it into their regimen [138,139]. Supplementation with
ß-alanine can elevate muscle carnosine levels, bolster intramuscular buffering capacity, and
Nutrients 2024, 16, 1332 14 of 20

enhance performance in intermittent high-intensity exercises, all while complying with the
regulations set forth by the World Anti-Doping Agency [139]. Its supplementation repre-
sents a viable nutritional strategy to combat fatigue and optimize performance, especially
in scenarios involving intense efforts where glycolytic pathways are prominently engaged,
leading to significant hydrogen ion accumulation [138]. Although temporary paraesthesia
may occur as a side effect of ß-alanine supplementation, it does not pose any adverse health
risks [140].
Nitrates and nitrites have conventionally been viewed as byproducts of nitric oxide
(NO) metabolism. However, recent findings propose that nitrates might act as precursors
to nitric oxide, transitioning from nitrate to nitrite and eventually to nitric oxide [141].
Nitric oxide is synthesized in the body through the oxidation of l-arginine, facilitated by
nitric oxide synthase (NOS). It plays a vital role in regulating skeletal muscle function,
enhancing exercise performance by reducing ATP expenditure for muscle contraction,
improving the efficiency of mitochondrial respiration, and boosting the blood flow to
muscles [142]. Individual optimal dosages vary, but benefits typically manifest within
2–3 h after administering a nitrate bolus containing 5–9 mmol (310–560 mg). Prolonged
periods of nitrate intake (>3 days) may also enhance performance, particularly among
well-trained athletes [141,143].

8. Conclusions
The present study examines the concept of nutrition periodization in the context of
football training, demonstrating the validity of using an individualized approach to man-
aging players’ diets. Crucial to optimizing the athletic performance and body composition
of players is adjusting the amount of energy provided, macronutrient ratios, and hydration
depending on the phase of the training macrocycle and individual athletic and health goals.
During the preparatory period, where the focus is on the development of strength and
muscle mass, increased energy and protein requirements are critical to support anabolic
processes and muscle adaptations. During the competitive period, dominated by match
loads and higher-intensity training, the need for a higher carbohydrate intake to replen-
ish muscle glycogen and support rapid recovery is emphasized. During the transition
period, which often serves a regenerative function, an adequate adjustment of energy and
macronutrient intake can counteract undesirable changes in body composition, such as fat
gain. In the context of fluids, adequate hydration is important during any training phase,
but especially during the competitive phase, where fluid losses are intensified by frequent
matches and training in high temperatures.
An analysis of the impact of nutritional periodization on the body composition of
football players indicates its fundamental importance in modulating SMM, FM, and overall
physical condition. Adapting nutritional strategies, such as meal timing, energy balance,
and macronutrient selection, allows precise control over changes in body composition,
which directly translates into athletic performance and the ability to quickly regain game
readiness.
An integral part of sports preparation should be close cooperation between coaches,
nutritionists, and athletes to continuously adapt and optimize nutrition, which is as impor-
tant as well-planned training.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, W.S.-B.; Methodology, W.S.-B.; writing—original draft

preparation, W.S.-B.; and G.Z. writing—review and editing, A.Z., M.K. and J.C.; Funding acquisition,
M.K.; Supervision, A.Z. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research received no external funding.
Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.
Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable.
Data Availability Statement: Not applicable.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflicts of interest.
Nutrients 2024, 16, 1332 15 of 20

References
1. Nicos, L.; Kartakoullis; Theophanous, A. Important Parameters of the Football Industry in Cyprus: Challenges and Opportunities.
Sport J. 2009, 12, 1543–9518.
2. Janosov, M.; Szigeti, P. FIFA World Cup 2022—The Network Edition. arXiv 2023, arXiv:2301.06506.
3. Staśkiewicz, W.; Grochowska-Niedworok, E.; Zydek, G.; Grajek, M.; Krupa-Kotara, K.; Białek-Dratwa, A.; Jaruga-S˛ekowska, S.;
Kowalski, O.; Kardas, M. The Assessment of Body Composition and Nutritional Awareness of Football Players According to Age.
Nutrients 2023, 15, 705. [CrossRef]
4. Fasold, F.; Wühr, P.; Memmert, D. Response Requirements Affect Offside Judgments in Football (Soccer). Psychol. Res. 2019, 83,
924–934. [CrossRef]
5. Hannon, M.P.; Parker, L.J.F.; Carney, D.J.; McKeown, J.; Speakman, J.R.; Hambly, C.; Drust, B.; Unnithan, V.B.; Close, G.L.; Morton,
J.P. Energy Requirements of Male Academy Soccer Players from the English Premier League. Med. Sci. Sports Exerc. 2021, 53,
200–210. [CrossRef]
6. Kreider, R.B.; Wilborn, C.D.; Taylor, L.; Campbell, B.; Almada, A.L.; Collins, R.; Cooke, M.; Earnest, C.P.; Greenwood, M.; Kalman,
D.S.; et al. ISSN Exercise & Sport Nutrition Review: Research & Recommendations. J. Int. Soc. Sports Nutr. 2010, 7, 7.
7. Petri, C.; Mascherini, G.; Pengue, L.; Galanti, G. Dietary Habits in Elite Soccer Players. Sport Sci. Health 2016, 23, 113–119.
[CrossRef]
8. Collins, J.; McCall, A.; Bilsborough, J.; Maughan, R. Football Nutrition: Time for a New Consensus? Br. J. Sports Med. 2017, 51,
1577–1578. [CrossRef]
9. Radziminski, L.; Jastrzebski, Z. Evolution of physical performance in professional soccer across four consecutive seasons. Balt. J.
Health Phys. Act. 2021, 13, 79–85. [CrossRef]
10. Lames, M.; McGarry, T. On the Search for Reliable Performance Indicators in Game Sports. Int. J. Perform. Anal. Sport 2007, 7,
62–79. [CrossRef]
11. Gardasevic, J.; Bjelica, D.; Vasiljevic, I.; Sermaxhaj, S.; Arifi, F. Differences in the Morphological Characteristics and Body
Composition of Football Players FC Trepca ‘89 and FC Prishtina in Kosovo. J. Anthropol. Sport Phys. Educ. 2018, 2, 105–109.
[CrossRef]
12. Bush, M.; Barnes, C.; Archer, D.T.; Hogg, B.; Bradley, P.S. Evolution of Match Performance Parameters for Various Playing
Positions in the English Premier League. Hum. Mov. Sci. 2015, 39, 1–11. [CrossRef]
13. Bloomfield, J.; Polman, R.; O’Donoghue, P. Physical Demands of Different Positions in FA Premier League Soccer. J. Sports Sci.
Med. 2007, 6, 63–70.
14. Stølen, T.; Chamari, K.; Castagna, C.; Wisløff, U. Physiology of Soccer. Sports Med. 2005, 35, 501–536. [CrossRef]
15. Mallo, J.; Mena, E.; Nevado, F.; Paredes, V. Physical Demands of Top-Class Soccer Friendly Matches in Relation to a Playing
Position Using Global Positioning System Technology. J. Hum. Kinet. 2015, 47, 179–188. [CrossRef]
16. Abbott, W.; Brickley, G.; Smeeton, N.J. Physical Demands of Playing Position Within English Premier League Academy Soccer.
J. Hum. Sport Exerc. 2018, 13, 285–295. [CrossRef]
17. Portes, L.A.; Canhadas, I.L.; Silva, R.L.P.; de Oliveira, N.C. Anthropometry and Fitness of Young Elite Soccer Players by Field
Position. Sport Sci. Health 2015, 11, 321–328. [CrossRef]
18. Suarez-Arrones, L.; Lara-Lopez, P.; Maldonado, R.; Torreno, N.; De Hoyo, M.; Nakamura, F.Y.; Di Salvo, V.; Mendez-Villanueva,
A. Effects of Detraining and Retraining Periods on Fat-Mass and Fat-Free Mass in Elite Male Soccer Players. PeerJ 2019, 7, e7466.
[CrossRef]
19. Hidalgo y Teran Elizondo, R.; Martín Bermudo, F.M.; Peñaloza Mendez, R.; Berná Amorós, G.; Lara Padilla, E.; Berral de la Rosa,
F.J. Nutritional Intake and Nutritional Status in Elite Mexican Teenagers Soccer Players of Different Ages. Nutr. Hosp. 2015, 32,
1735–1743.
20. Mala, L.; Maly, T.; Zahalka, F.; Hrasky, P. Body Composition of Elite Youth Soccer Players with Respect to Field Position. J. Phys.
Educ. Sport 2015, 15, 678–684.
21. Junior, E.V.S.; Cavalcanti, I.F.; Santos, C.F.; Prazeres, T.M.P.; Gomes, W.S.; Fernandes, M.S.S.; da Silva, J.F.; Gonçalves, J.G.; dos
Santos, M.A.M.; dos Santos Henrique, R. Anthropometry and Body Composition of Elite Brazilian Soccer Players According to
the Playing Position. Health Sci. J. 2021, 15, 819.
22. Cárdenas-Fernández, V.; Chinchilla-Minguet, J.L.; Castillo-Rodríguez, A. Somatotype and Body Composition in Young Soccer
Players According to the Playing Position and Sport Success. J. Strength Cond. Res. 2019, 33, 1904–1911. [CrossRef]
23. Carling, C.; Orhant, E. Variation in Body Composition in Professional Soccer Players: Interseasonal and Intraseasonal Changes
and the Effects of Exposure Time and Player Position. J. Strength Cond. Res. 2010, 24, 1332–1339. [CrossRef]
24. Ylejmani, B.; Maliqi, A.; Gontarev, S.; Haziri, S. Anthropometric Characteristics and Physical Performance of Young Elite Kosovo
Soccer Players. Int. J. Morphol. 2019, 37, 1429–1436. [CrossRef]
25. Sutton, L.; Scott, M.; Wallace, J.; Reilly, T. Body Composition of English Premier League Soccer Players: Influence of Playing
Position, International Status, and Ethnicity. J. Sports Sci. 2009, 27, 1019–1026. [CrossRef]
26. Boone, J.; Vaeyens, R.; Steyaert, A.; Vanden Bossche, L.; Bourgois, J. Physical Fitness of Elite Belgian Soccer Players by Player
Position. J. Strength Cond. Res. 2012, 26, 2051–2057. [CrossRef]
Nutrients 2024, 16, 1332 16 of 20

27. Collins, J.; Maughan, R.J.; Gleeson, M.; Bilsborough, J.; Jeukendrup, A.; Morton, J.P.; Phillips, S.M.; Armstrong, L.; Burke,
L.M.; Close, G.L.; et al. UEFA Expert Group Statement on Nutrition in Elite Football. Current Evidence to Inform Practical
Recommendations and Guide Future Research. Br. J. Sports Med. 2021, 55, 416. [CrossRef]
28. McEwan, G.P.; Drobnic, F.; Lizarraga, A.; Gomez Diaz, A.; Pons, E.; Dello Iacono, A.; Unnithan, V. Changes in Markers of Body
Composition of Professional Male Soccer Players During Pre-Season. Sports Med. Health Sci. 2020, 2, 166–171. [CrossRef]
29. Gerosa-Neto, J.; Rossi, F.E.; Buonani, C.; Campos, E.Z. Body Composition Analysis of Athletes from the Elite of Brazilian Soccer
Players. Motricidade 2014, 10, 105–110.
30. Anderson, L.; Close, G.L.; Konopinski, M.; Rydings, D.; Milsom, J.; Hambly, C.; Speakman, J.R.; Drust, B.; Morton, J.P. Case Study:
Muscle Atrophy, Hypertrophy, and Energy Expenditure of a Premier League Soccer Player During Rehabilitation from Anterior
Cruciate Ligament Injury. Int. J. Sport Nutr. Exerc. Metab. 2019, 29, 559–566. [CrossRef]
31. DeWeese, B.H.; Hornsby, G.; Stone, M.; Stone, M.H. The Training Process: Planning for Strength–Power Training in Track and
Field. Part 1: Theoretical Aspects. J. Sport Health Sci. 2015, 4, 308–317. [CrossRef]
32. Suchomel, T.J.; Nimphius, S.; Bellon, C.R.; Stone, M.H. The Importance of Muscular Strength: Training Considerations. Sports
Med. 2018, 48, 765–785. [CrossRef]
33. Bosquet, L.; Berryman, N.; Dupuy, O.; Mekary, S.; Arvisais, D.; Bherer, L.; Mujika, I. Effect of Training Cessation on Muscular
Performance: A Meta-Analysis. Scand. J. Med. Sci. Sports. 2013, 23, 140–149. [CrossRef]
34. Kopeć, A.; Nowacka, E.; Klaja, A.; Leszczyńska, T. Assessment of Selected Food Frequency Intake in Football Players. Probl. Hig.
Epidemiol. 2013, 94, 151–157.
35. Francescato, M.P.; Venuto, I.; Buoite Stella, A.; Stel, G.; Mallardi, F.; Cauci, S. Sex Differences in Hydration Status Among
Adolescent Elite Soccer Players. J. Hum. Sport Exerc. 2019, 14, 265–280. [CrossRef]
36. Bangsbo, J.; Iaia, F.M.; Krustrup, P. Metabolic Response and Fatigue in Soccer. Int. J. Sports Physiol. Perform. 2007, 2, 111–127.
[CrossRef]
37. Owen, A.L.; Lago-Peñas, C.; Dunlop, G.; Mehdi, R.; Chtara, M.; Dellal, A. Seasonal Body Composition Variation Amongst Elite
European Professional Soccer Players: An Approach of Talent Identification. J. Hum. Kinet. 2018, 62, 177–184. [CrossRef]
38. Bunc, V.; Hráský, P.; Skalska, M. Changes in Body Composition, During the Season, in Highly Trained Soccer Players. Open Sports
Sci. J. 2015, 8, 21–24. [CrossRef]
39. Mascherini, G.; Gatterer, H.; Lukaski, H.; Burtscher, M.; Galanti, G. Changes in Hydration, Body-Cell Mass and Endurance
Performance of Professional Soccer Players Through a Competitive Season. J. Sports Med. Phys. Fit. 2015, 55, 749–755.
40. Mukherjee, S.; Chia, M. Within-Season Variation in the Body Composition of Asian Youth Professional Soccer Players. Sport Sci.
2010, 3, 15–22.
41. Kostiukevych, V.; Stasiuk, V. Training Process Programming of Qualified Football Players in Higher Education Establishments.
Phys. Educ. Sport Health Cult. Mod. Soc. 2017, 2, 41–50. [CrossRef]
42. Issurin, V.B. New Horizons for the Methodology and Physiology of Training Periodization. Sports Med. 2010, 40, 189–206.
[CrossRef]
43. Wang, Y.C.; Zhang, N. Effects of plyometric training on soccer players. Exp. Ther. Med. 2016, 12, 550–554. [CrossRef]
44. Favero, T.G.; White, J. Periodization in college soccer. Strength Cond. J. 2018, 40, 33–44. [CrossRef]
45. Vega, J.M.; Gonzalez-Artetxe, A.; Aguinaco, J.A.; Los Arcos, A. Assessing the Anthropometric Profile of Spanish Elite Reserve
Soccer Players by Playing Position Over a Decade. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2020, 17, 5446. [CrossRef]
46. Anderson, L.; Orme, P.; Di Michele, R.; Close, G.L.; Morgans, R.; Drust, B.; Morton, J.P. Quantification of Training Load During
One-, Two- and Three-Game Week Schedules in Professional Soccer Players from the English Premier League: Implications for
Carbohydrate Periodization. J. Sports Sci. 2016, 34, 1250–1259. [CrossRef]
47. Ode, J.; Pivarnik, J.M.; Reeves, M.; Knous, J.L. Body Mass Index as a Predictor of Percent Fat in College Athletes and Nonathletes.
Med. Sci. Sports Exerc. 2007, 39, 403–409. [CrossRef]
48. Viktor, K.; Natalia, L.; Natalia, S.; Kateryna, P.; Vadym, S.; Oksana, S.; Olena, I. Programming of the Training Process of Qualified
Football Players in the Competitive Period of the Macrocycle. J. Phys. Educ. Sport 2019, 19, 2192–2199.
49. Buchheit, M.; Racinais, S.; Bilsborough, J.C.; Bourdon, P.C.; Voss, S.C.; Hocking, J.; Cordy, J.; Mendez-Villanueva, A.; Coutts, A.J.
Monitoring Fitness, Fatigue and Running Performance During a Pre-Season Training Camp in Elite Football Players. J. Sci. Med.
Sport 2013, 16, 550–555. [CrossRef]
50. Michaelides, M.A.; Parpa, K.M.; Zacharia, A.I. Effects of an 8-Week Pre-Seasonal Training on the Aerobic Fitness of Professional
Soccer Players. J. Strength Cond. Res. 2021, 35, 2783–2789. [CrossRef]
51. Jeong, T.S.; Reilly, T.; Morton, J.; Bae, S.W.; Drust, B. Quantification of the Physiological Loading of One Week of “Pre-Season”
and One Week of “In-Season” Training in Professional Soccer Players. J. Sports Sci. 2011, 29, 1161–1166. [CrossRef]
52. Clemente, F.M.; Seerden, G.; Linden, C.M. Quantifying the Physical Loading of Five Weeks of Pre-Season Training in Professional
Soccer Teams from Dutch and Portuguese Leagues. Physiol. Behav. 2019, 209, 112588. [CrossRef]
53. Raizel, R.; da Mata Godois, A.; Coqueiro, A.Y.; Voltarelli, F. Pre-Season Dietary Intake of Professional Soccer Players. Nutr. Health
2017, 23, 215–222. [CrossRef]
54. Devlin, B.L.; Leveritt, M.D.; Kingsley, M.; Belski, R. Dietary Intake, Body Composition, and Nutrition Knowledge of Australian
Football and Soccer Players: Implications for Sports Nutrition Professionals in Practice. Int. J. Sport Nutr. Exerc. Metab. 2017, 27,
130–138. [CrossRef]
Nutrients 2024, 16, 1332 17 of 20

55. Egan, E.; Wallace, J.; Reilly, T.; Chantler, P.; Lawler, J. Body Composition and Bone Mineral Density Changes During a Premier
League Season as Measures by Dual-Energy X-Ray Absorptiometry. Int. J. Body Compos. Res. 2006, 4, 61–66.
56. Staśkiewicz, W.; Grochowska-Niedworok, E.; Zydek, G.; Białek-Dratwa, A.; Grajek, M.; Jaruga-S˛ekowska, S.; Kowalski, O.;
Kardas, M. Changes in Body Composition During the Macrocycle of Professional Football Players in Relation to Sports Nutrition
Knowledge. Front. Nutr. 2022, 9, 981894. [CrossRef]
57. Impellizzeri, F.M.; Marcora, S.M.; Castagna, C.; Reilly, T.; Sassi, A.; Iaia, F.M.; Rampinini, E. Physiological and Performance Effects
of Generic Versus Specific Aerobic Training in Soccer Players. Int. J. Sports Med. 2006, 27, 483–492. [CrossRef]
58. Gore, C.J.; McSharry, E.; Hewitt, A.J.; Saunders, P.U. Preparation for Football Competition at Moderate to High Altitude. Scand. J.
Med. Sci. Sports. 2008, 18, 85–95. [CrossRef]
59. Oliveira, R.; Brito, J.; Martins, A.; Mendes, B.; Calvete, F.; Carriço, S.; Ferraz, R.; Marques, M.C. In-Season Training Load
Quantification of One-, Two- and Three-Game Week Schedules in a Top European Professional Soccer Team. Physiol. Behav. 2019,
15, 146–156. [CrossRef]
60. Hannon, M.P.; Coleman, N.M.; Parker, L.J.; McKeown, J.; Unnithan, V.B.; Close, G.L.; Morton, J.P. Seasonal training and match
load and micro-cycle periodization in male Premier League academy soccer players. J. Sports Sci. 2021, 39, 1838–1849. [CrossRef]
61. Bradley, P.S.; Sheldon, W.; Wooster, B.; Olsen, P.; Boanas, P.; Krustrup, P. High-Intensity Running in English FA Premier League
Soccer Matches. J. Sports Sci. 2009, 27, 159–168. [CrossRef]
62. Akenhead, R.; Nassis, G.P. Training load and player monitoring in high-level football: Current practice and perceptions. Int. J.
Sports Physiol. Perform. 2016, 11, 587–593. [CrossRef]
63. Caldwell, B.P.; Peters, D.M. Seasonal Variation in Physiological Fitness of a Semiprofessional Soccer Team. J. Strength Cond. Res.
2009, 23, 1370–1377. [CrossRef]
64. Silva, J.R.; Brito, J.; Akenhead, R.; Nassis, G.P. The Transition Period in Soccer: A Window of Opportunity. Sports Med. 2016, 46,
305–313. [CrossRef]
65. Kultu, M.; Sofi, N.; Bozkus, T. Changes in Body Compositions of Elite Level Amateur and Professional Soccer Players During the
Competitive Season. Spor Hekim. Derg. 2007, 42, 21–25.
66. Devlin, B.L.; Kingsley, M.; Leveritt, M.D.; Belski, R. Seasonal Changes in Soccer Players’ Body Composition and Dietary Intake
Practices. J. Strength Cond. Res. 2017, 31, 3319–3326. [CrossRef]
67. Reilly, T.; Ekblom, B. The Use of Recovery Methods Post-Exercise. J. Sports Sci. 2005, 23, 619–627. [CrossRef]
68. Kraemer, W.J.; French, D.N.; Paxton, N.J.; Häkkinen, K.; Volek, J.S.; Sebastianelli, W.J.; Putukian, M.; Newton, R.U.; Rubin, M.R.;
Gómez, A.L.; et al. Changes in Exercise Performance and Hormonal Concentrations Over a Big Ten Soccer Season in Starters and
Nonstarters. J. Strength Cond. Res. 2004, 18, 121–128. [PubMed]
69. Melchiorri, G.; Ronconi, M.; Triossi, T.; Viero, V.; De Sanctis, D.; Tancredi, V.; Salvati, A.; Padua, E.; Alvero Cruz, J.R. Detraining in
Young Soccer Players. J. Sports Med. Phys. Fit. 2014, 54, 27–33.
70. Tessitore, A.; Meeusen, R.; Cortis, C.; Capranica, L. Effects of Different Recovery Interventions on Anaerobic Performances
Following Pre-Season Soccer Training. J. Strength Cond. Res. 2007, 21, 745–750. [PubMed]
71. Weiler, R.; Aggio, D.; Hamer, M.; Taylor, T.; Kumar, B. Sedentary Behaviour Among Elite Professional Footballers: Health and
Performance Implications. BMJ Open Sport Exerc. Med. 2015, 1, e000023. [CrossRef]
72. Reinke, S.; Karhausen, T.; Doehner, W.; Taylor, W.; Hottenrott, K.; Duda, G.N.; Reinke, P.; Volk, H.D.; Anker, S.D. The Influence of
Recovery and Training Phases on Body Composition, Peripheral Vascular Function and Immune System of Professional Soccer
Players. PLoS ONE 2009, 4, e4910. [CrossRef]
73. Aquino, R.; Carling, C.; Maia, J.; Vieira, L.H.P.; Wilson, R.S.; Smith, N.; Puggina, E.F. Relationships between running demands in
soccer match-play, anthropometric, and physical fitness characteristics: A systematic review. Int. J. Perform. Anal. Sport 2020, 20,
534–555. [CrossRef]
74. Barnes, C.; Archer, D.T.; Hogg, B.; Bush, M.; Bradley, P.S. The Evolution of Physical and Technical Performance Parameters in the
English Premier League. Int. J. Sports Med. 2014, 35, 1095–1100. [CrossRef]
75. Montesano, P.; Di Silvestro, M.; Cipriani, G.; Mazzeo, F. Overtraining Syndrome, Stress and Nutrition in Football Amateur
Athletes. J. Hum. Sport Exerc. 2019, 14, S957–S969.
76. Archer, E.; Lavie, C.J.; Hill, J.O. The Failure to Measure Dietary Intake Engendered a Fictional Discourse on Diet-Disease Relations.
Front. Nutr. 2018, 5, 105. [CrossRef]
77. Nikolaidis, P.T.; Theodoropoulou, E. Relationship between Nutrition Knowledge and Physical Fitness in Semiprofessional Soccer
Players. Scientifica 2014, 2014, 180353. [CrossRef]
78. Bangsbo, J.; Mohr, M.; Krustrup, P. Physical and Metabolic Demands of Training and Match-Play in the Elite Football Player.
J. Sports Sci. 2006, 24, 665–674. [CrossRef]
79. Fernández-Elías, V.E.; Ortega, J.F.; Nelson, R.K.; Mora-Rodriguez, R. Relationship between Muscle Water and Glycogen Recovery
after Prolonged Exercise in the Heat in Humans. Eur. J. Appl. Physiol. 2015, 115, 1919–1926. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
80. Hawley, J.A.; Burke, L.M.; Phillips, S.M.; Spriet, L.L. Nutritional Modulation of Training-Induced Skeletal Muscle Adaptations.
J. Appl. Physiol. 2011, 110, 834–845. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
81. Methenitis, S. A Brief Review on Concurrent Training: From Laboratory to the Field. Sports 2018, 6, 127. [CrossRef]
Nutrients 2024, 16, 1332 18 of 20

82. Anderson, L.; Orme, P.; Naughton, R.J.; Close, G.L.; Milsom, J.; Rydings, D.; O’boyle, A.; Di Michele, R.; Louis, J.; Hambly, C.;
et al. Energy Intake and Expenditure of Professional Soccer Players of the English Premier League: Evidence of Carbohydrate
Periodization. Int. J. Sport Nutr. Exerc. Metab. 2017, 27, 228–238. [CrossRef]
83. Rodrigues dos Santos, J.A. Nutrition for Soccer. Rev. Port. Ciênc. Desp. 2017, 17, 75–107.
84. Saraslanidis, P.; Petridou, A.; Bogdanis, G.C.; Galanis, N.; Tsalis, G.; Kellis, S.; Mougios, V. Muscle Metabolism and Performance
Improvement after Two Training Programmes of Sprint Running Differing in Rest Interval Duration. J. Sports Sci. 2011, 29,
1167–1174. [CrossRef]
85. Barnett, C.; Carey, M.; Proietto, J.; Cerin, E.; Febbraio, M.A.; Jenkins, D. Muscle Metabolism During Sprint Exercise in Man:
Influence of Sprint Training. J. Sci. Med. Sport 2004, 7, 314–322. [CrossRef]
86. Kerksick, C.M.; Wilborn, C.D.; Roberts, M.D.; Smith-Ryan, A.; Kleiner, S.M.; Jager, R.; Collins, R.; Cooke, M.; Davis, J.N.; Galvan,
E.; et al. ISSN exercise & sports nutrition review update: Research & recommendations. J. Int. Soc. Sport Nutr. 2018, 15, 38.
87. Steffl, M.; Kinkorova, I.; Kokstejn, J.; Petr, M. Macronutrient Intake in Soccer Players—A Meta-Analysis. Nutrients 2019, 11, 1305.
[CrossRef]
88. Lawrence, G.D. Dietary Fats and Health: Dietary Recommendations in the Context of Scientific Evidence. Adv. Nutr. 2013, 4,
294–302. [CrossRef]
89. Capling, L.; Beck, K.L.; Gifford, J.A.; Slater, G.; Flood, V.; O’Connor, H. Validity of Dietary Assessment in Athletes: A Systematic
Review. Nutrients 2017, 9, 1313. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
90. Williams, C.; Rollo, I. Carbohydrate Nutrition and Team Sports Performance. Sports Med. 2015, 45, S13–S22. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
91. Phillips, S.M.; Sproule, J.; Turner, A.P. Carbohydrate Ingestion during Team Games Exercise: Current Knowledge and Areas for
Future Investigation. Sports Med. 2011, 41, 559–585. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
92. Park, H.Y.; Kim, J.; Park, M.; Chung, N.; Lim, K. The Effect of Additional Carbohydrate Supplements for 7 Days after Prolonged
Interval Exercise on Exercise Performance and Energy Metabolism during Submaximal Exercise in Team-Sports Athletes. J. Exerc.
Nutr. Biochem. 2018, 22, 29. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
93. Cole, M.; Coleman, D.A.; Hopker, J.; Wiles, J. Improved Gross Efficiency During Long Duration Submaximal Cycling Following a
Short-Term High Carbohydrate Diet. Int. J. Sports Med. 2014, 35, 265–269. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
94. EFSA Panel on Dietetic Products, Nutrition and Allergies (NDA). Scientific Opinion on Dietary Reference Values for Protein.
EFSA J. 2012, 10, 2557. [CrossRef]
95. Spriet, L.L. New Insights into the Interaction of Carbohydrate and Fat Metabolism During Exercise. Sports Med. 2014, 44, 87–96.
[CrossRef] [PubMed]
96. Betts, J.A.; Williams, C. Short-term Recovery from Prolonged Exercise: Exploring the Potential for Protein Ingestion to Accentuate
the Benefits of Carbohydrate Supplements. Sports Med. 2010, 40, 947–959. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
97. Dziedzic, C.; Higham, D. Performance Nutritional Guidelines for International Rugby Sevens Tournaments. Int. J. Sport Nutr.
Exerc. Metab. 2014, 24, 305–314. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
98. Foskett, A.; Williams, C.; Boobis, L.; Tsintzas, K. Carbohydrate Availability and Muscle Energy Metabolism during Intermittent
Running. Med. Sci. Sports Exerc. 2008, 40, 96–103. [CrossRef]
99. Burke, L.M.; van Loon, L.J.; Hawley, J.A. Postexercise Muscle Glycogen Resynthesis in Humans. J. Appl. Physiol. 2017, 122,
1055–1067. [CrossRef]
100. André, M.J.G.; Martin, M.J.; Innoncent, M.S.; Georges, M.V.; Bernard, P.T.; Alphonse, M.A.S.S.A.M.B.A.; Robert, M.J. The Effects
of Aerobic Capacity Level on Biochemical Changes in Response to Anaerobic Exercise and during Post-exercise Recovery in
Football Players. J. Adv. Sport Phys. Educ. 2020, 3, 160–168. [CrossRef]
101. Poulios, A.; Fatouros, I.G.; Mohr, M.; Draganidis, D.; Deli, C.K.; Papanikolaou, K.; Jamurtas, A.Z. Post-game High Protein Intake
May Improve Recovery of Football-specific Performance during a Congested Game Fixture: Results from the PRO-FOOTBALL
Study. Nutrients 2018, 10, 494. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
102. Ispirlidis, I.; Fatouros, I.G.; Jamurtas, A.Z.; Nikolaidis, M.G.; Michailidis, I.; Douroudos, I.; Margonis, K.; Chatzinikolaou, A.;
Kalistratos, E.; Katrabasas, I.; et al. Time course of changes in inflammatory and performance responses following a soccer game.
Clin. J. Sports Med. 2008, 18, 428–431. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
103. Morton, R.W.; Murphy, K.T.; McKellar, S.R.; Schoenfeld, B.J.; Henselmans, M.; Helms, E.; Aragon, A.A.; Devries, M.C.; Banfield,
L.; Krieger, J.W.; et al. A Systematic Review, Meta-Analysis and Meta-Regression of the Effect of Protein Supplementation on
Resistance Training-Induced Gains in Muscle Mass and Strength in Healthy Adults. Br. J. Sports Med. 2018, 52, 376–384. [CrossRef]
[PubMed]
104. Phillips, S.M.; Van Loon, L.J. Dietary Protein for Athletes: From Requirements to Optimum Adaptation. J. Sports Sci. 2011, 29,
37–46. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
105. Phillips, S.M. The Impact of Protein Quality on the Promotion of Resistance Exercise-Induced Changes in Muscle Mass. Nutr.
Metab. 2016, 13, 64. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
106. Wall, B.T.; Morton, J.P.; van Loon, L.J. Strategies to Maintain Skeletal Muscle Mass in the Injured Athlete: Nutritional Considera-
tions and Exercise Mimetics. Eur. J. Sport Sci. 2015, 15, 53–62. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
107. Thomas, D.T.; Erdman, K.A.; Burke, L.M. American College of Sports Medicine Joint Position Statement. Nutrition and Athletic
Performance. Med. Sci. Sport Exerr. 2016, 48, 543–568.
Nutrients 2024, 16, 1332 19 of 20

108. Jenner, S.L.; Buckley, G.L.; Belski, R.; Devlin, B.L.; Forsyth, A.K. Dietary Intakes of Professional and Semi-Professional Team Sport
Athletes Do Not Meet Sport Nutrition Recommendations—A Systematic Literature Review. Nutrients 2019, 11, 1160. [CrossRef]
109. Essman, M.; Christifano, D.; Sullivan, D.K.; Chalise, P.; Carbuhn, A. Assessing omega-3 intake in sport: The brief food frequency
questionnaire and the omega-3 index in collegiate women soccer players. J. Athl. Train. 2022, 57, 1079–1084. [CrossRef]
110. Philpott, J.D.; Witard, O.C.; Galloway, S.D. Applications of omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid supplementation for sport
performance. Res. Sports Med. 2019, 27, 219–237. [CrossRef]
111. Calder, P.C. Omega-3 fatty acids and inflammatory processes: From molecules to man. Biochem. Soc. Trans. 2017, 45, 1105–1115.
[CrossRef] [PubMed]
112. Anderson, L.; Naughton, R.J.; Close, G.L.; Di Michele, R.; Morgans, R.; Drust, B.; Morton, J.P. Daily Distribution of Macronutrient
Intakes of Professional Soccer Players from the English Premier League. Int. J. Sport Nutr. Exerc. Metab. 2017, 27, 491–498.
[CrossRef] [PubMed]
113. Stellingwerff, T.; Spriet, L.L.; Watt, M.J.; Nicholas, E.K.; Hargreaves, M.; Hawley, J.A.; Burke, L.M. Decreased PDH Activation and
Glycogenolysis During Exercise Following Fat Adaptation with Carbohydrate Restoration. Am. J. Physiol. Endocrinol. Metab. 2006,
290, E380–E388. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
114. Burke, L.M.; Ross, M.L.; Garvican-Lewis, L.A.; Welvaert, M.; Heikura, I.A.; Forbes, S.G.; Mirtschin, J.G.; Cato, L.E.; Strobel, N.;
Sharma, A.P.; et al. Low Carbohydrate, High Fat Diet Impairs Exercise Economy and Negates the Performance Benefit from
Intensified Training in Elite Race Walkers. J. Physiol. 2017, 595, 2785–2807. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
115. Laitano, O.; Runco, J.L.; Baker, L. Hydration Science and Strategies in Football. Sports Sci. Exch. 2014, 27, 1–7.
116. Sawka, M.N.; Burke, L.M.; Eichner, E.R.; Maughan, R.J.; Montain, S.J.; Stachenfeld, N.S. American College of Sports Medicine
Position Stand. Exercise and Fluid Replacement. Med. Sci. Sports Exer. 2007, 39, 377–390.
117. Cebi, M. The effect of sports drinks and water consumption on electrolyte levels of football players. Stud. Ethno-Med. 2015, 9,
197–201. [CrossRef]
118. Edwards, A.M.; Mann, M.E.; Marfell-Jones, M.J.; Rankin, D.M.; Noakes, T.D.; Shillington, D.P. Influence of moderate dehydration
on soccer performance: Physiological responses to 45 min of outdoor match-play and the immediate subsequent performance of
sport-specific and mental concentration tests. Br. J. Sports Med. 2007, 41, 385–391. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
119. Shirreffs, S.M.; Sawka, N. Fluid and Electrolyte Needs for Training, Competition, and Recovery. J. Sports Sci. 2011, 29, S39–S46.
[CrossRef]
120. North, M.; Kelly, A.L.; Ranchordas, M.K.; Cole, M. Nutritional considerations in high performance youth soccer: A systematic
review. J. Sci. Sport Exerc. 2022, 4, 195–212. [CrossRef]
121. Wenger, A. Importance of nutrition in football: The coach’s perspective. Br. J. Sports Med. 2021, 55, 409. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
122. Hulton, A.T.; Malone, J.J.; Clarke, N.D.; MacLaren, D.P. Energy requirements and nutritional strategies for male soccer players: A
review and suggestions for practice. Nutrients 2022, 14, 657. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
123. Riyahi Malayeri, S.; Saei, M. Changes in Insulin resistance and serum levels of resistin after 10 weeks high intensity interval
training in overweight and obese men. Sport Physiol. Manag. Investig. 2019, 10, 31–42.
124. Tarmast, D. Sports Nutrition in Soccer: A short overview of dietary considerations for players. J. Sports Physiol. Athl. Cond. 2023,
9, 1.
125. Maughan, R.J. Dietary supplements and the high-performance athlete. Int. J. Sport Nutr. Exerc. Metab. 2018, 28, 101. [CrossRef]
[PubMed]
126. Peternelj, T.T.; Coombes, J.S. Antioxidant supplementation during exercise training: Beneficial or detrimental? Sports Med. 2011,
41, 1043–1069. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
127. Garthe, I.; Maughan, R.J. Athletes and supplements: Prevalence and perspectives. Int. J. Sport Nutr. Exerc. Metab. 2018, 28,
126–138. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
128. Australian Institute of Sport Position Statement. Supplements and Sports Foods in High Performance Sports; The Australian Institute
of Sport: Bruce, Australia, 2021; 9p.
129. Eskici, G. The importance of vitamins for soccer players. Int. J. Vitam. Nutr. Res. 2016, 85, 225–244. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
130. Owens, D.J.; Allison, R.; Close, G.L. Vitamin D and the athlete: Current perspectives and new challenges. Sports Med. 2018, 48,
3–16. [CrossRef]
131. Oliveira, C.C.; Ferreira, D.; Caetano, C.; Granja, D.; Pinto, R.; Mendes, B.; Sousa, M. Nutrition and supplementation in soccer.
Sports 2017, 5, 28. [CrossRef]
132. Adikari, A.M.G.C.P.; Appukutty, M.; Kuan, G. Effects of daily probiotics supplementation on anxiety induced physiological
parameters among competitive football players. Nutrients 2020, 12, 1920. [CrossRef]
133. Chia, J.S.; Barrett, L.A.; Chow, J.Y.; Burns, S.F. Effects of caffeine supplementation on performance in ball games. Sports Med. 2017,
47, 2453–2471. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
134. Jagim, A.R.; Stecker, R.A.; Harty, P.S.; Erickson, J.L.; Kerksick, C.M. Safety of Creatine Supplementation in Active Adolescents and
Youth: A Brief Review. Front. Nutr. 2018, 5, 115. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
135. Kreider, R.B.; Kalman, D.S.; Antonio, J.; Ziegenfuss, T.N.; Wildman, R.; Collins, R.; Candow, D.G.; Kleiner, S.M.; Almada, A.L.;
Lopez, H.L. International Society of Sports Nutrition position stand: Safety and efficacy of creatine supplementation in exercise,
sport, and medicine. Sports Nutr. Rev. J. 2017, 14, 18. [CrossRef]
136. Mujika, I.; Burke, L.M. Nutrition in team sports. Ann. Nutr. Metab. 2010, 57, 26–35. [CrossRef]
Nutrients 2024, 16, 1332 20 of 20

137. Mielgo-Ayuso, J.; Calleja-Gonzalez, J.; Marqués-Jiménez, D.; Caballero-García, A.; Córdova, A.; Fernández-Lázaro, D. Effects
of creatine supplementation on athletic performance in soccer players: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Nutrients 2019,
11, 757. [CrossRef]
138. Brisola, G.M.; Zagatto, A.M. Ergogenic Effects of β-Alanine Supplementation on Different Sports Modalities: Strong Evidence or
Only Incipient Findings? J. Strength Cond. Res. 2019, 33, 253–282. [CrossRef]
139. Kelly, V.G.; Leveritt, M.D.; Brennan, C.T.; Slater, G.J.; Jenkins, D.G. Prevalence, knowledge and attitudes relating to β-alanine use
among professional footballers. J. Sci. Med. Sport 2017, 20, 12–16. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
140. Nyakayiru, J.; Jonvik, K.L.; Trommelen, J.; Pinckaers, P.J.M.; Senden, J.M.; van Loon, L.J.C.; Verdijk, L.B. Beetroot juice sup-
plementation improves high-intensity intermittent type exercise performance in trained soccer players. Nutrients 2017, 9, 314.
[CrossRef]
141. Peeling, P.; Binnie, M.J.; Goods, P.S.; Sim, M.; Burke, L.M. Evidence-based supplements for the enhancement of athletic
performance. Int. J. Sport Nutr. Exerc. Metab. 2018, 28, 178–187. [CrossRef]
142. Domínguez, R.; Maté-Muñoz, J.L.; Cuenca, E.; García-Fernández, P.; Mata-Ordoñez, F.; Lozano-Estevan, M.C.; Veiga-Herreros, P.;
da Silva, S.F.; Garnacho-Castaño, M.V. Effects of beet-root juice supplementation on intermittent high-intensity exercise efforts.
J. Int. Soc. Sports Nutr. 2018, 15, 2. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
143. Jones, A.M. Dietary nitrate supplementation and exercise performance. Sports Med. 2014, 44, 35–45. [CrossRef] [PubMed]

Disclaimer/Publisher’s Note: The statements, opinions and data contained in all publications are solely those of the individual
author(s) and contributor(s) and not of MDPI and/or the editor(s). MDPI and/or the editor(s) disclaim responsibility for any injury to
people or property resulting from any ideas, methods, instructions or products referred to in the content.