TRANSPORTATION

Transportation- It is the movement of materials from one part to another i.e. from region of their availability
to the region of their use.
Functions-
1. Food transported from one point (region) to another.
2. O₂ and CO₂ gases get transported to respiratory system through transportation.
3. Waste products formed in kidney get transported by this system.
4. Plants absorb water from soil with the help of their roots, which is transported by this system.
5. Hormones are formed in particular regions from where they are transported to the areas of their
functioning.

Modes of transport-
1. In lower organisms mostly transportation occurs through diffusion.
2. A long distance transport system occurs in higher organisms.
3. Plants have vascular tissue (Xylem and phloem) for this function.
4. Animals have circulatory system.

Transportation in human Beings- It is carried out by the circulatory system. It is made up of:
1. Organ- Heart
2. Tubes- Blood Vessels (Artery, Vein, Capillaries)
3. Fluid- Blood and lymph

Transport system with heart and blood- Blood vascular system.

Transport system with tubes, nodes and lymph- Lymphatic system.

BLOOD (pH- 7.4)

1. It is fluid connective tissue, reddish in color, circulates in the body.
2. It supplies nutrients and O₂ to all the living cells.
3. It takes away waste products as well as CO₂.
4. An adult human has 5-6 liters of blood.

Components of Blood
(a) Plasma - Constitutes 55% of blood
- It is pale yellow in colour
- Contains: 92% of water and 8% Solutes (Protein- Fibrinogen, Nutrients- Glucose and vitamins,
Excretory products- Urea, Uric Acid, Inorganic salts ,Other Substances- metabolic gases (O₂ and CO₂),
hormones, cholesterol, heparin which does not allow blood to coagulate)
(b) Blood Cells/ Blood Corpuscles (also called formed elements)
- Contains 45% of blood
1. Erythrocyte (Red Blood Cells/RBC)
Biconcave disc shaped, Nucleus disintegrates early, Mitochondria, ER and ribosomes present, contains (Hb)
Haemoglobin which provides reddish colour to blood.
Life span- 120 days.
New RBCs formed in bone marrow.
Older RBCs are destroyed in spleen and liver. Spleen is called graveyard of RBC. Also known as blood bank of
body as it stores large number of fresh RBC for meeting any emergency.
Hemoglobin content in normal value.
Males (adult)- 14-15 mg/100 ml
Female (adult)- 12- 13 mg/ 100 ml
Infants- 11 mg/ 100 ml , Children- 11.5 mg / 100 ml
Adolescents/ youth- 12-13 mg/ 100 ml
2. Leucocytes (White blood cells /WBC)
Colorless, Nucleated, Life span- 12 hours to several days. Mostly phagocytes or immunocytes.
Phagocytes- Ingest Germs
Immunocytes- Secrete anti bodies against foreign bodies.
Types of WBC:
(a) Granulocyte- large size granules, Nucleus lobulated.
(i) Basophil: Doesn’t allow blood to clot.
(ii) Eosinophil: disease fighting WBC
(iii)Neutrophils: Phagocytosis
(b) Agranulocyte- Devoid of granules, Nucleus without lobes.
(i) Monocytes: Called as phagocytes as they ingest germs and the process is known as phagocytosis.
(ii) Lymphocytes : Called Immunocytes because they secrete antibodies against foreign bodies.
3.Platelets
Colourless non nucleated cell fragments. Life span- 7 to 10 days. Helps in blood clotting.
Functions of Blood:
1. Transport of Nutrients, Oxygen, Carbon – dioxide, Waste materials, Hormones.
2. Regulation of body temperature.

Blood Groups : A, B, AB, O. ((+) means presence of Rh factor, (-) means absence of Rh factor).
O- is universal donor and AB + is universal recipient.
Blood Vessels:
Blood flows inside tubes/ blood vessels for transport of materials. Blood vessels are of 3 types:
1. Artery
2. Vein
3. Capillaries
Artery Vein
1. It carries blood from heart to an organ It brings blood from an organ towards heart
2. Blood flow is rapid Slow
3. Blood flows with jerks It flows smoothly
4. Valves are absent Valves are present to prevent backflow of blood
5. Wall is thick and elastic It is thin and little elastic

6. Lumen narrow Lumen wide

7. Carries oxygenated blood from heart to all body Carries deoxygenated blood from all cells back
cells (except pulmonary artery) to the heart (except pulmonary vein)
8.It is deep seated It is superficial on surface
9. Blood flows under pressure There is little pressure
10.Do not collapse Can collapse

Blood Capillaries:
1. They are very narrow blood vessels having single layered wall
(have pores for exchange of material).
2. It forms network inside body organs.
3. Movement of blood is slow to provide time for exchange of
materials.
4. WBC can come out of capillaries for fighting infections, this
phenomenon is called diapedesis.

An artery divides and redivides to form finer branches called

arterioles. Each arteriole gives rise to a bunch of capillaries that
reach every part of the organ. The capillaries reunite to produce
very fine blood vessels called venules.Venules join to form a vein.
HEART
• LOCATION:
• It is a conical muscular structure that brings about circulation of blood.
• Narrow pointed apex is tilted towards left.
• It is reddish and with a size of fist. (300 gm in male and 250 gm in female).
• It lies in thoracic cavity in between 2 lungs.
• Heart is covered by a fluid filled membranous sac called pericardium which helps in friction less
movement and provide protection from shock.

• STRUCTURE:
• It has 4 chambers to prevent mixing of oxygenated and deoxygenated blood.
• Upper two chambers are smaller and thin walled called auricles or atria.
• Lower two chambers are larger and thick walled called ventricles.
• The left ventricle is larger and more thick walled.
• The inter auricular septum separates the 2 auricles.
• The inter ventricular septum separates the 2 ventricles.
• Right auricle opens  Right ventricle through an aperture guided by tricuspid valve.
• Left auricle opens  Left ventricle through an aperture guarded by bicuspid valve.
• Both valves are supported by fine fibers.
• Right ventricle opens into pulmonary artery. Opening is guarded by semilunar pulmonary valve.
• Left ventricle opens into aorta having semilunar aortic valve.
CIRCULATION
• Deoxygenated blood from whole body enters into right auricle through superior and inferior vena
cava. (Right auricle expands).
• Right atrium passes the blood to right ventricle by contraction.
• On contraction, right ventricle passes the deoxygenated blood into pulmonary artery.
• The blood is then given to lungs for oxygenation.
• Oxygenated blood is brought back into left atrium through pulmonary vein, left atrium contracts
and the blood is poured into left ventricle. From here blood enters into aorta and sends the
oxygenated blood to different body parts.
• Both the auricles get filled up simultaneously by (expansion) called diastole.
• They contract together to pour blood into ventricles called systole.
• Then ventricles undergo systole to pass blood to pulmonary artery and aorta.
• The oxygen rich blood from the lungs come to the thin walled upper chamber of the heart on the
left, the left atrium.
• The left Atrium relaxes when it is collecting this blood.
• It then contracts, while the next chamber the left ventricle relaxes, so that the blood is transferred
to it.
• When the muscular left ventricle contracts the blood is pumped out to the body.
• The deoxygenated blood comes from the body to the upper chamber, the right Atrium, as it
relaxes.
• As the right Atrium contracts the corresponding lower chamber, the right ventricle dilates.
• This transfers blood to the right ventricle which in turn pump it to the lungs for oxidation.
• Since ventricles have to pump blood into various organs they have thicker muscular walls
than the Atria. Valves ensure that blood does not flow backward when the atria or ventricle
contract.
 • Cardiac Cycle: A cardiac cycle consists of one filling and emptying of the chambers of the heart
(0.8 seconds), it consists of auricular systole, ventricular systole and and joint diastole. Backward
flow of blood is prevented by valves.
• Heart Beat: Rhythmic expansion and contraction of heart is called heart beat. Expansion-
diastole, contraction- systole. The heart beat is 70-72 beats per min. in adult male and 80 beats
per min. in adult female. Heart beat is listened with the help of a stethoscope.
SOUND:
• LUB: Low pitched sound of longer duration (produced on simultaneous closure of bicuspid and
tricuspid valve).
• DUB: High pitched sound of shorter duration (produced on simultaneous closure of aortic and
pulmonary valve).
• Pulse: Repeated throbs felt in artery (radial artery) over the wrist due to forceful pumping of
blood. It is equal to heart beat.

• Blood pressure
• The force that blood exerts against the wall of a vessels is called blood pressure. This pressure is
much greater in arteries than in veins. Pressure exerted by forceful flow of blood on the elastic
walls of arteries (brachial artery).
• Measured in mm of Hg by an instrument called sphygmomanometer.
• The pressure of blood inside the artery during ventricular systole(contraction) is called systolic
pressure and pressure in arteries during ventricular diastole is called diastolic pressure.
• The normal systolic pressure is about 120 mm Hg and diastolic pressure is 80 mmHg. Blood
pressure is measured with an instrument called sphygmomanometer.
• High blood pressure is also called hypertension is caused by the constriction of arterioles which
result in increased resistance to blood flow. It can lead to the rupture of an artery and internal
bleeding.

• Blood Pressure Measurement:

Instrument has an inflatable cuff, a compressible rubber bulb, a screw and a connected mercury
manometer. Stethoscope is required.
• Wrapping of rubber cuff above elbow.
• Air is pumped in by repeated pressing of bulb till manometer shows high pressure.
• Diaphragm of stethoscope is pressed against brachial artery.
• Air is released slowly.
• First sound of blood flowing into brachial artery give systolic pressure.
• With further release of air, a stage comes when sound disappears, it is diastole pressure.
• Systolic Pressure (normal 120 mm Hg) is always higher than diastolic (normal 80 mg Hg)
• pressure. Normal range of BP is 120/80
• Hypertension or High blood pressure (say 150/90 mm Hg) caused by thickening of walls of
arteries. Due to increased resistance to blood flow the blood vessel may get ruptured and cause
internal bleeding.

Oxygen enters the blood in the lungs

• The separation of the right side and the left side of the heart is useful to keep oxygenated and
deoxygenated blood from mixing.
• Such separation allows a highly efficient supply of oxygen to the body. This is useful in animals
that have high energy needs such as a birds and mammals which constantly use energy to
maintain their body temperature.
• In some animals like amphibians or many reptiles, the body temperature depends on the
temperature in the environment. the energy needs are lesser as the body temperature varies
with the temperature of the environment. Their heart is 3 chambered and mixing of blood occurs
in them. Such animals have a three chambered heart and tolerate some mixing of the oxygenated
and deoxygenated blood.
• Fishes on the other hand have only two chambers in their hearts.
• The blood is pumped to the gills, is oxygenated there and passes directly to the rest of the body.
• Thus blood goes only once through the heart in the fish which is known as single circulation.
• On the other hand it goes through the heart twice during each cycle in other vertebrates. This is
known as double circulation.

Advantages of double circulation: Ensures quick and efficient supply of oxygen.

Lymph
• Lymph or tissue fluid is another type of fluid involved in transportation.
• Through the pores present in the wall of capillaries some amount of plasma protein and blood
cells escape into intercellular space in the tissue to form the tissue fluid or lymph.
• It is similar to the plasma of blood but colourless and contains less proteins.
• Lymph drains into lymphatic capillaries from the intercellular space which join to form large
lymph vessel that finally opens into larger vein.
• Lymph carries digested and absorbed fat from intestine and drain excess fluid from extracellular
space back into the blood.
CONDUCTING TISSUES (XYLEM AND PHLOEM)

Transportation in plants
• The plants take in simple compounds such as CO₂ and photosynthesise energy which is stored in
the leaves.
• Other raw materials like nitrogen, phosphorus and other minerals are absorbed from the soil by
roots.
• If the distance between leaves and roots is small, energy and raw material can easily diffuse to all
part of the plant body.
• But if this distance becomes large, diffusion processes will not be sufficient to provide raw
materials in leaves and energy in the roots.
• A proper system of transportation is therefore essential.
• Plants do not move and plant bodies have a large proportion of dead cells in many tissues.
• As a result plant have low energy needs and can use relative slow transport system.
• The distance over which transport systems have to operate however can be very large in plant
such as very tall trees.

Transport of water
• The roots cells in contact with the soil actively take up ions.
 • This create a difference in the concentration of these ions between root and the soil.
• Water therefore moves into the root from the soil to eliminate the difference.
• This means that there is a steady movement of water into root xylem creating a column of water
that is steadily pushed upward .
• However this pressure by itself not enough to move water over great heights .
• When the plant has an adequate supply of water, the water is lost through the stomata in the
form of a vapour. This is known as a transpiration. For transpiration water is replaced
continuously by the xylem vessels in the leaves.
• This loss of water through leaves creates a suction which pulls water from the xylem cells of
roots. Also known as transpirational pull/suction pressure/suction pull.
• In xylem tissue, vessels and tracheids are the actual conducting elements.
• The effect of root pressure in transport of water is more important at night.
• During the day when stomata are open, the transpiration pulls become a major driving force in
the movement of the water in the xylem.

TRANSPIRATIONAL PULL/COHESION-ADHESION THEORY:

• With the help of root pressure water and minerals (sap) moves from roots to stem. Ultimately
the sap has to reach to top of the plants i.e to leaves.
• Stem does not have enough pressure to move water to great heights and water is required by the
leaves continuously for transpiration.
• This creates a pull known as suction pull/transpiration pull which does not allow the water
column to break. Here the force of pulling is produced in xylem vessels which help in upward
movement of water.
• The mechanism was given by Dixon and Jolly.
• As per them the force for ascent of sap lies in aerial parts. Here mesophyll and other cells lose
water to outside through transpiration which produces a negative pressure. Hence the suction
pressure increases.
• Water column does not break due to two forces:
(a) Cohesion force among the water molecules
(b) Adhesion force between water molecules and walls of xylem channels.

Types of transpiration:

(a) Stomatal transpiration – Transpiration that occurs through stomata. Occurs in the presence of
sunlight as the stomata open in the presence of sunlight. Maximum transpiration (80-90%)
occurs by this method.
(b) Cuticular transpiration – Cuticle is waxy coating on leaf surface. Account for 5-10% transpiration
(c) Lenticular transpiration – Lenticels are small pores present on the surface of stem. It also
account for 5-10% transpiration.

Guttation – The loss of excess water as liquid drops from the margins of the leaves.
Importance of Transpiration –
• Transpiration help in the absorption and upward movement of water and minerals dissolved in it
from root to the leaves.
• It also help in temperature regulation.

Transport of food and other substances

• The transport of soluble products (food) of photosynthesis from source to sink is called
translocation. It may be in upward direction, downward direction or in both
• It occurs in the part of the vascular tissue known as a phloem. Actual conducting elements are
sieve tube cells .
• The force required for translocation is produced by companion cells which lie adjacent to sieve
tube cells.
• The phloem transports sucrose, amino acids, organic acids, hormones and other substances to
the storage organ of roots, fruits and seeds and to growing organs.
• The translocation of the food and other substances take place in the sieve tube with the help of
adjacent companion cells both in upward and downward directions
• Unlike transport in xylem which is accomplished by simple physical forces, the translocation in
the phloem is achieved by utilising energy in the form of ATP.
• After entering the sieve tube, nutrients being in high concentration exerts an osmotic pressure
which causes entry of water in this region.
• A high turgor pressure develops which forces the nutrients to pass towards the region having low
turgor pressure (from source to sink).
• This is called Mass Flow Hypothesis. Put forwarded by Munch.