Systems Engineering and Missio

SYSTEMS ENGINEERING AND MISSION DESIGN OF A LUNAR SOUTH POLE ROVER MISSION:
A NOVEL APPROACH TO THE MULTIDISCIPLINARY DESIGN PROBLEM WITHIN A SPACECRAFT
SYSTEMS ENGINEERING PARADIGM
by
Michael Edward Luna
A Dissertation Presented to the

FACULTY OF THE USC VITERBI SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY
(ASTRONAUTICS)
December 2016
Copyright 2016 Michael Edward Luna

ProQuest Number: 10801384

All rights reserved

INFORMATION TO ALL USERS
The quality of this reproduction is dependent upon the quality of the copy submitted.

In the unlikely event that the author did not send a complete manuscript
and there are missing pages, these will be noted. Also, if material had to be removed,
a note will indicate the deletion.

ProQuest 10801384

Published by ProQuest LLC (2018 ). Copyright of the Dissertation is held by the Author.

All rights reserved.
This work is protected against unauthorized copying under Title 17, United States Code
Microform Edition © ProQuest LLC.

ProQuest LLC.
789 East Eisenhower Parkway
P.O. Box 1346
Ann Arbor, MI 48106 - 1346
DEDICATION
I would like to dedicate this research to my parents.
ii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I would like to thank my parents and siblings for encouraging me throughout my PhD
studies. Their words and advice provided much needed support in the final stages of my
research. I would also like to thank Dr. Theodore Sweetser of the Jet Propulsion Laboratory, who
agreed to support my research endeavors as a co-advisor several years ago. He has been a
constant source of advice and feedback on my research, guiding me toward a comprehensive
project in the very beginning, helping me to view the research from a system’s perspective, and
having been willing to meet weekly to discuss my progress and latest results. I would also like to
thank Professor Azad Madni, who I had a brief conversation with that helped me to frame the
research as a systems problem. I am also thankful to all of my Committee members: Professors
Joseph Kunc, Mike Gruntman, Theodore Sweetser, and Najmedin Meshkati.
iii
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Dedication ........................................................................................................................................ ii
Acknowledgements......................................................................................................................... iii
List of Tables .................................................................................................................................. vii
List of Figures .................................................................................................................................. xi
Abstract .......................................................................................................................................... xv
1 Introduction ............................................................................................................................. 1
2 Research Problem .................................................................................................................... 5
3 State of the Art......................................................................................................................... 7
3.1 Lunar Science Missions ........................................................................................ 7

3.1.1 Scientific Evidence of Lunar Polar Water-Ice .................................................. 7
3.1.2 Lunar Polar Volatiles Science .......................................................................... 9
3.1.3 Robotic Lunar Exploration and Planned Missions ........................................ 13
3.1.4 Current Lunar Polar Mission Concepts ......................................................... 17
3.2 System Design Approaches ................................................................................ 19
3.2.1 System Engineering & Design ....................................................................... 19
3.2.2 Example Design Tools ................................................................................... 22
3.3 Science Instruments ........................................................................................... 25
3.4 Subsystem Technologies .................................................................................... 36
3.4.1 Telecommunications..................................................................................... 36
3.4.2 CDS ................................................................................................................ 45
3.4.3 ADCS.............................................................................................................. 46
3.4.4 Propulsion ..................................................................................................... 62
3.4.5 Thermal ......................................................................................................... 63
3.4.6 Structures...................................................................................................... 64
3.4.7 Power ............................................................................................................ 64
4 Technical Approach................................................................................................................ 70
4.1 Overview ............................................................................................................ 70
iv
4.2 Mission Science Objectives ................................................................................ 72
4.3 Requirements ..................................................................................................... 74
4.3.1 Mission Requirements .................................................................................. 75
4.3.2 Design Tool Requirements ............................................................................ 76
4.4 Systems Engineering .......................................................................................... 77
4.5 Design Tool Development .................................................................................. 80
4.5.1 Programming Language Selection ................................................................ 80
4.5.2 Serial vs. Parallel Subsystem Design ............................................................. 82
4.5.3 Trade Studies ................................................................................................ 84
4.6 Science Payload.................................................................................................. 85
4.7 Landing Site Selection ........................................................................................ 94
5 Methods and Tools .............................................................................................................. 100
5.1 Overall Mission and System Design Process .................................................... 100

5.1.1 Trajectory Definition ................................................................................... 101
5.1.2 Definition of System Parameters ................................................................ 107
5.1.3 Generation of System Configuration Inputs ............................................... 128
5.2 Mission and Spacecraft Sizing Tool (MASS) ..................................................... 138
5.2.1 Mission Design Module .............................................................................. 141
5.2.2 System Design Module ............................................................................... 143
5.2.3 Spacecraft Design Module .......................................................................... 145
5.3 Subsystem Design Modules ............................................................................. 150
5.3.1 Telecommunications Design Module ......................................................... 150
5.3.2 CDS Design Module..................................................................................... 160
5.3.3 ADCS Design Module .................................................................................. 170
5.3.4 Propulsion Design Module.......................................................................... 205
5.3.5 Thermal Design Module.............................................................................. 216
5.3.6 Structures Design Module .......................................................................... 222
5.3.7 Power Design Module................................................................................. 241
5.3.8 Lunar Descent & Landing Design Module................................................... 258
5.4 Generating Design Data ................................................................................... 276
5.4.1 Selecting Configurations to Run ................................................................. 277
5.4.2 Design Runs................................................................................................. 281
v
6 Analysis of Results................................................................................................................ 283
6.1 Configuration Design Feasibility ...................................................................... 283

6.2 Feasible Design Configurations ........................................................................ 285
6.2.1 Design Results ............................................................................................. 285
6.2.2 Selected Designs ......................................................................................... 304
6.2.3 Launch Vehicle ............................................................................................ 318
6.3 Infeasible Design Configurations ..................................................................... 320
7 Conclusions .......................................................................................................................... 328
8 Future Work ......................................................................................................................... 334
8.1 Design Approach .............................................................................................. 334

8.2 Lunar Polar Volatiles Mission ........................................................................... 337
9 Bibliography ......................................................................................................................... 339
10 Appendices........................................................................................................................... 345
Appendix A: Characteristics of the Moon ................................................................... 345

Appendix A1: Lunar Orbital Characteristics ............................................................ 345
Appendix A2: Lunar Surface Environment .............................................................. 348
Appendix B: Subsystems ............................................................................................. 353
Appendix B1: Telecommunications ........................................................................ 353
Appendix B2: Power................................................................................................ 359
vi
LIST OF TABLES
Table 3-1. Descent Imagers on Planetary Landers/Probes ............................................................ 27
Table 3-2. Surface Imagers/Cameras on Planetary Landers .......................................................... 27
Table 3-3. Microscopic Imagers on Planetary Landers .................................................................. 28
Table 3-4. Ground penetrating radar on Planetary Landers .......................................................... 28
Table 3-5. IR spectrometers on Planetary Missions ...................................................................... 28
Table 3-6. Mass spectrometers on Planetary Missions ................................................................. 29
Table 3-7. Neutron spectrometers on Planetary Missions ............................................................ 30
Table 3-8. Robotic arms on Planetary Missions ............................................................................. 30
Table 3-9. Sample Acquisition & Processing instruments on Planetary Missions ......................... 32
Table 3-10. DSN Near-Earth Frequency Capability ........................................................................ 39
Table 3-11. DSN Deep Space Frequency Capability ....................................................................... 39
Table 3-12. Summary of Attitude Control Methods ...................................................................... 54
Table 3-13. Spacecraft Power System Technology Options .......................................................... 66
Table 3-14. Power system options considered in this research .................................................... 69
Table 4-1. Lunar Polar Vehicle Science Objectives (42) ................................................................. 73
Table 4-2. Requirements for Lunar Polar Volatiles Mission and Spacecraft.................................. 75
Table 4-3. Requirements for Spacecraft Design Tool .................................................................... 76
Table 4-4. Comparison of C, C++, MATLAB Attributes ................................................................... 80
Table 4-5. Science Traceability Matrix (Science Objective 1) ........................................................ 87
Table 4-8. Science Traceability Matrix (Science Objectives 4 and 5) ............................................. 90
Table 4-9. Science Instrument Mass and Power Summary ........................................................... 91
Table 4-10. Example Science Modes.............................................................................................. 92
Table 4-11. Comparison of JHUAPL LPVE mission instruments vs. this research .......................... 93
vii
Table 4-12. Candidate Lunar South Pole Landing Site Characteristics .......................................... 97
Table 5-1. GMAT Satellite Key Parameters .................................................................................. 102
Table 5-2. Solved GMAT LEO conditions, TLI/LOI Delta-V components, and time of flight ........ 105
Table 5-3. “Mission & System” sheet in Mission and Spacecraft Definition (MASD) tool........... 110
Table 5-4. “Trajectory” input sheet in Mission and Spacecraft Definition (MASD) tool ............. 112
Table 5-5. “Ground System” input sheet in Mission and Spacecraft Definition (MASD) tool ..... 113
Table 5-6. Payload inputs sheet in Mission and Spacecraft Definition (MASD) tool ................... 114
Table 5-7. “CDS” inputs sheet in Mission and Spacecraft Definition (MASD) tool ...................... 116
Table 5-8. “Telecom” inputs sheet in Mission and Spacecraft Definition (MASD) tool............... 118
Table 5-9. ADCS inputs sheet in Mission and Spacecraft Definition (MASD) tool ....................... 120
Table 5-10. Propulsion inputs sheet (part 1) in Mission and Spacecraft Definition (MASD) tool 123
Table 5-11. Propulsion inputs sheet (part 2) in Mission and Spacecraft Definition (MASD) tool 123
Table 5-12. Thermal inputs sheet in Mission and Spacecraft Definition (MASD) tool ................ 125
Table 5-13. Structures subsystem inputs sheet in Mission and Spacecraft Definition (MASD)
tool ............................................................................................................................................... 127
Table 5-14. Power inputs sheet in Mission and Spacecraft Definition (MASD) tool ................... 128
Table 5-15. Subsystem “Trade” Parameters ................................................................................ 133
Table 5-16. Example set of first 9 System Configuration combinations ...................................... 138
Table 5-17. Transponder Database .............................................................................................. 153
Table 5-18. Antenna Database..................................................................................................... 154
Table 5-19. RF Amplifier Mass/Power/Efficiency Database ........................................................ 155
Table 5-20. Estimates of CDS Hardware Mass, Power, and Volume based on complexity level 165
Table 5-21. Modern Spacecraft Attitude Control Methods ......................................................... 174
Table 5-22. Star Tracker Database ............................................................................................... 177
Table 5-23. Sun Sensor Database................................................................................................. 178
Table 5-24. IMU/IRU Database .................................................................................................... 178
Table 5-25. Reaction Wheel Database Subset ............................................................................. 191
viii
Table 5-26. RCS Thruster Pairs to Rotate About S/C Body Axes .................................................. 195
Table 5-27. RCS Thruster Database Subset (5 -100 N thrust) ...................................................... 197
Table 5-28. Propulsion Engine Database Subset ......................................................................... 208
Table 5-29. Historical Rover mass and power data ..................................................................... 224
Table 5-30. Historical Rover dimensional data ............................................................................ 224
Table 5-31. Secondary Battery Database ..................................................................................... 243
Table 5-32. Solar Cell Database ................................................................................................... 246
Table 5-33. Power Path Efficiencies by Power Control Method .................................................. 250
Table 5-34. Solar array specific power options ............................................................................ 250
Table 5-35. Radioisotope Power System Database ..................................................................... 251
Table 5-36. Available Bi-propellant Engines for Lander Propulsion System ................................ 279
Table 5-37. Filtering System Configurations into Runnable Set .................................................. 280
Table 6-1. System Configuration Design Feasibility Results ........................................................ 284
Table 6-2. Feasible design total launch masses (min and max) for each Rover power
configuration................................................................................................................................ 288
Table 6-3. Feasible design Rover total mass summary ................................................................ 290
Table 6-4. Minimum mass solar-powered Rover mass breakdown (config ID = 342) ................. 306
Table 6-5. Minimum mass RPS-powered Rover mass breakdown (config ID = 6102) ................. 306
Table 6-6. Minimum mass Fuel cell-powered Rover mass breakdown (config ID = 6822).......... 306
Table 6-7. Rover subsystem characteristics of minimum total launch mass solar-powered
Rover configuration 342 .............................................................................................................. 307
Table 6-8. Lander subsystem characteristics of minimum total launch mass solar-powered
Rover configuration 342 .............................................................................................................. 307
Table 6-9. Rover subsystem characteristics of minimum total launch mass RPS-powered
Rover configuration 6102 ............................................................................................................ 309
Table 6-10. Lander subsystem characteristics of minimum total launch mass RPS-powered
Table 6-11. Rover subsystem characteristics of minimum total launch mass fuel cell-powered
ix
Table 6-12. Lander subsystem characteristics of minimum total launch mass fuel cell-
powered Rover configuration 6822 ............................................................................................. 312
Table 6-13. Comparison of Selected System Configurations ....................................................... 314
Table 6-14. Comparison of 3 Selected Configurations and Other Lunar Polar Mission
Concepts ...................................................................................................................................... 317
Table 6-15. Descent & Landing design for system configuration 342 ......................................... 318
Table 6-16. Descent & Landing design for system configuration 6102 ....................................... 318
Table 6-17. Descent & Landing design for system configuration 6822 ....................................... 318
Table 10-1. Fuel Cell Types (56) ................................................................................................... 362
x
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 3-1. Left: Chang’e 3 lander on the lunar surface. Right: Yutu rover on the lunar
surface. Source: CASC/China Ministry of Defense ......................................................................... 15
Figure 3-2. NASA’s prototype Resource Prospector rover searching for a sample at the
Johnson Space Center rock yard (August 2015). Source: NASA .................................................... 17
Figure 3-3. Generic Telecommunications Subsystem Block Diagram ............................................ 40
Figure 3-4. Classes of Rocket Propulsion Techniques. Source: (34) .............................................. 62
Figure 3-5. Components of a Space Power System (41) ................................................................ 65
Figure 4-1. “Vee” Systems Engineering Process Model ................................................................. 78
Figure 4-2. Lunar South Pole craters and temperature map from LRO Diviner thermal
mapper data (NASA) ...................................................................................................................... 95
Figure 4-3. LRO LEND maps of epithermal neutron flux at North and South lunar poles (47) ...... 96
Figure 4-4. Epithermal neutron flux map at Cabeus crater from LRO LEND data (48) .................. 98
Figure 4-5. Epithermal neutron flux map at Shoemaker crater from LRO LEND data (47) ........... 98
Figure 5-1. Overall Mission and System Design Process .............................................................. 101
Figure 5-2. Solved GMAT lunar transfer trajectory (Earth inertial view) ..................................... 106
Figure 5-3. Solved GMAT low lunar orbit (Moon inertial view) ................................................... 107
Figure 5-4. Overall Process to Define System Design Parameters and Create System
Configurations in MASD tool........................................................................................................ 108
Figure 5-5. Trajectory and Ground Systems design parameter organization in MATLAB input
files ............................................................................................................................................... 130
Figure 5-6. Payload and subsystem design parameter organization in MATLAB input files ....... 132
Figure 5-7. Overall Architecture of the Mission and Spacecraft Sizing (MASS) Tool ................... 139
Figure 5-8. Algorithm for System Design Module........................................................................ 144
Figure 5-9. Algorithm for Spacecraft Design Module .................................................................. 147
Figure 5-10. Modeling of Subsystem Design Module Inputs and Outputs .................................. 149
Figure 5-11. Telecom Design Module Top-level Architecture ..................................................... 151
Figure 5-12. Algorithm for designing DTE architecture ............................................................... 153
xi
Figure 5-13. Array of Uplink Margins ........................................................................................... 155
Figure 5-14. Array of Downlink Margins ...................................................................................... 156
Figure 5-15. Algorithm for designing the Relay architecture ...................................................... 159
Figure 5-16. CDS Design Module Top-Level Architecture ............................................................ 161
Figure 5-17. ADCS Design Module Top-level Architecture .......................................................... 171
Figure 5-18. Modeled ADCS Slew Profile ..................................................................................... 182
Figure 5-19. Pyramid configuration for 4 reaction wheels (51) ................................................... 186
Figure 5-20. Tetrahedron configuration for 4 reaction wheels (51) ............................................ 187
Figure 5-21. RCS Thruster Configuration (16 thrusters, 2 strings of 8) ........................................ 195
Figure 5-22. RCS Pressurization Systems ..................................................................................... 202
Figure 5-23. Propulsion Design Module Top-Level Architecture ................................................. 206
Figure 5-24. Chemical propulsion module sizing algorithm ........................................................ 211
Figure 5-25. Thermal Design Module Top-Level Architecture ..................................................... 216
Figure 5-26. Rover Structures Design Module Top-Level Architecture ....................................... 222
Figure 5-27. Historical rover mobility system mass vs. remaining rover mass............................ 225
Figure 5-28. Historical rover wheel diameter vs. total rover mass.............................................. 225
Figure 5-29. Historical rover wheel width vs. total rover mass ................................................... 226
Figure 5-30. Historical rover width vs. total rover mass .............................................................. 227
Figure 5-31. Historical rover length vs. total rover mass ............................................................. 227
Figure 5-32. Historical rover height vs. total rover mass ............................................................. 228
Figure 5-33. Lander Structures Design Module Top-level Architecture ...................................... 229
Figure 5-34. Modeled RCS tank support structure ...................................................................... 231
Figure 5-35. Lander top deck support beams .............................................................................. 234
Figure 5-36. Engine mounting structure (shown in gray) ............................................................ 237
Figure 5-37. 3-member landing leg structure .............................................................................. 239
Figure 5-38. Power Design Module Top-level Architecture......................................................... 241
Figure 5-39. Descent & Landing phases ....................................................................................... 258
xii
Figure 5-40. Descent & Landing Algorithm .................................................................................. 262
Figure 5-41. Geometry of the Lunar Braking Burn 1 De-orbit and Descent Problem (58) .......... 270
Figure 6-1. Feasible design total launch mass vs. combination run order .................................. 285
Figure 6-2. Feasible design total launch mass vs. final landed mass (by engine family) ............. 286
Figure 6-3. Feasible design total launch mass vs. final landed mass (by Prop tank material
type) ............................................................................................................................................. 287
Figure 6-4. Feasible design total launch mass vs. final landed mass (by Rover power source) .. 288
Figure 6-5. Feasible design total loaded propellant mass vs. total launch mass (by engine
family) .......................................................................................................................................... 289
Figure 6-6. Feasible design propellant mass fraction vs. total launch mass (by engine family) .. 290
Figure 6-7. Feasible design total propellant mass vs. total Rover mass ...................................... 291
Figure 6-8. Feasible design solved h0 required vs. final landed mass (by engine family) ........... 292
Figure 6-9. Feasible design solved # D&L engines required vs. combination run order ............. 293
Figure 6-10. Feasible design solved Descent & Landing total duration vs. final landed mass
(by engine family) ........................................................................................................................ 294
Figure 6-11. Feasible design solved Descent & Landing sub-phase durations vs final landed
mass ............................................................................................................................................. 295
Figure 6-12. Zoom of Feasible design solved Descent & Landing FF, BB2, Approach, and
Terminal Descent durations vs. final landed mass ...................................................................... 295
Figure 6-13. Feasible design solved Descent & Landing required propellant mass breakdown
vs final landed mass ..................................................................................................................... 296
Figure 6-14. Zoom of Feasible design solved Descent & Landing required propellant mass
breakdown vs. final landed mass ................................................................................................. 297
Figure 6-15. Feasible design total configuration run time vs. total launch mass ........................ 298
Figure 6-16. Feasible design total # convergence iterations vs. total launch mass ..................... 299
Figure 6-17. Feasible design average iteration run time vs. total launch mass........................... 300
Figure 6-18. Feasible design rover average subsystem run time vs. combination run order ..... 301
Figure 6-19. Feasible design lander average subsystem run time vs. combination run order .... 302
Figure 6-20. Feasible design average Descent & Landing module run time vs. combination
order ............................................................................................................................................ 303
xiii
Figure 6-21. Feasible design average Descent & Landing module run time vs. final landed
mass (grouped by engine family) ................................................................................................. 304
Figure 6-22. Feasible Rover Design Subsystem Mass Comparison .............................................. 305
Figure 6-23. Feasible Lander Design Subsystem Mass Comparison ............................................ 305
Figure 6-24. MASS GUI for feasible system configuration 342 .................................................... 315
Figure 6-25. MASS GUI for feasible system configuration 6102 .................................................. 315
Figure 6-26. MASS GUI for feasible system configuration 6822 .................................................. 316
Figure 6-27. Atlas V payload mass vs. Apogee altitude ............................................................... 320
Figure 6-28. Infeasible design total launch mass vs combination run order ............................... 321
Figure 6-29. Infeasible designs solved h0 vs. total launch mass .................................................. 322
Figure 6-30. Infeasible design # engines vs. combination run order ........................................... 322
Figure 6-31. Infeasible design total configuration run time vs. combination run order ............. 323
Figure 6-32. Infeasible design total configuration run time vs. total launch mass...................... 324
Figure 6-33. Infeasible design total # convergence iterations (until infeasibility) vs. total
launch mass ................................................................................................................................. 324
Figure 6-34. MASS GUI for infeasible system configuration 5967 ............................................... 325
Figure 6-36. Infeasible design total launch mass vs. final landed mass (by engine family)......... 326
Figure 6-37. Infeasible design total launch mass vs. final landed mass (by Prop tank material
family) .......................................................................................................................................... 327
Figure 6-38. Infeasible design total launch mass vs. final landed mass (by Rover power
source) ......................................................................................................................................... 327
Figure 10-1. Moon Orbital and Equatorial Inclination (69).......................................................... 346
Figure 10-2. Lunar Libration in Latitude (70) ............................................................................... 347
Figure 10-3. Lunar Libration in Longitude (70) ............................................................................ 348
Figure 10-4. Physical diurnal libration of Moon as a result of Earth’s rotation (70) ................... 348
Figure 10-5. Example H2/O2 fuel cell voltage polarization curve ................................................. 374
Figure 10-6. Example H2/O2 fuel cell system mass vs. current density........................................ 375
xiv
ABSTRACT
Recent lunar missions have provided evidence of the presence of hydrogen and other
volatiles at both lunar poles. This evidence has led to several questions regarding the form of
the hydrogen (potentially as water-ice), its distribution, and its origin. In addition, the presence
of volatiles at the lunar poles provides a potential source of oxygen and water for future crewed
lunar missions, as well as propellant for future lunar launches and orbiting lunar fuel depots. To
answer the scientific questions and evaluate the potential for resource utilization, scientists
have suggested that in-situ exploration of the lunar poles is a next logical step. Several space
agencies, including NASA, the Russian Space Agency, and the Indian Space Research
Organization (ISRO), are developing missions to explore a sunlit region at one of the lunar poles.
Several lunar polar volatiles concept studies have also been conducted within the past several
years by industry, academia, and government agencies. While informative, these studies and
planned missions have only considered limited options in term of the design trade space for a
lunar polar volatiles mission (e.g. sunlight-only operation in some cases, as well as use of specific
heritage hardware and subsystem technology options). As such, a more thorough evaluation of
the trade space for a lunar polar volatiles mission is needed. To achieve this, a MATLAB-based
tool was developed to design multiple candidate lunar polar volatiles system concepts based on
traded subsystem technologies. Such a tool also encounters the multidisciplinary design
problem, in which the design of the whole system is determined by the design of the inter-
dependent subsystems. Thus, this research aimed to accomplish two goals: to develop an
automated design tool approach to generate multiple candidate designs of a space mission, and
to use this tool to generate numerous designs of a lunar polar volatiles mission. Overall, this
xv
research has demonstrated that it is possible to develop an automated multidisciplinary design
tool, using a sequential-iterative approach, that produces feasible (converged mass) designs. In
addition, the design results show that feasible low-mass designs exist for 3 lunar polar volatiles
mission concepts: a solar-powered rover, a radioisotope-powered rover, and a fuel cell-powered
rover. These 3 concepts represent viable options to explore either a permanently-shadowed
region or a sunlit region at the lunar South Pole for volatiles, a key step for both future robotic
and human exploration of the Moon.
xvi
1 INTRODUCTION
Remote sensing of the Moon by spacecraft on missions such as the U.S. Air Force’s
Clementine and NASA’s Lunar Prospector has provided evidence of hydrogen deposits within
permanently-shadowed regions near the lunar poles. Although the exact form of these
hydrogen deposits is currently unknown, many scientists suspect that they exist in the form of
water-ice. Several spacecraft, such as NASA’s LRO, Deep Impact, and Cassini, as well as India’s
Chandrayaan-1 lunar orbiter have identified global distributions of near-surface water (or
hydroxyl) on the Moon. NASA’s LCROSS impactor mission recently detected many volatiles,
including water vapor, within one lunar South Pole crater. In addition, detailed study of Apollo
lunar mare basalt samples has revealed the presence of hydrogen-bearing minerals suggesting
early lunar magma had water content similar to Earth’s mantle. Overall, the evidence for water-
ice at the lunar poles, as well as global hydration, is mounting, thereby leading planetary
scientists to pose intriguing questions regarding the origin of this water.
The National Research Council (NRC) recently addressed research into lunar polar
volatiles as a top priority in its 2011 Planetary Science Decadal Survey. According to this report,
the study of lunar polar volatiles is an essential component in understanding the formation and
evolution of terrestrial planetary bodies and habitable worlds. For example, the presence of
lunar polar volatiles such as water-ice would provide crucial information on the early asteroid
and cometary bombardment period of the inner solar system and the formation of the Earth-
Moon system, including the origin of life on Earth. In essence, obtaining an inventory of the
volatile compounds at the lunar poles would provide key insights into the sources, and
1
prevalence within the early inner solar system, of water and chemicals that are the basis of life
as we know it.
The scientific data returned from these recent lunar missions have raised several
questions regarding the processes behind the origin and deposition of water and other volatiles
on the Moon globally and at the poles. While various mechanisms have been theorized to
explain the lunar polar hydrogen deposits, no firm answers have been found. These questions
reveal a gap in scientific knowledge of the Moon that directly address larger scientific questions.
Although recent robotic remote sensing missions have investigated volatile deposits at
the lunar poles, the NRC report clearly states that “the form, extent, and origin of such deposits
are not fully understood” (1). As a result, key questions exist regarding the “compositions,
distributions, and sources” of lunar polar volatile deposits. While lunar remote sensing and
impact missions can identify regions with hydrogen-rich compounds and other potential
volatiles, in-situ missions are necessary to ascertain the chemical and isotopic compositions of
these volatiles. According to scientists at the 42nd Lunar and Planetary Science Conference in
2011, in-situ exploration is considered the “next logical scientific step” in confirming the species
of lunar volatiles and hydrogen-bearing compounds and how they are distributed within the
regolith.
One possible way to address the NRC’s lunar polar volatiles science questions is to
deploy a semi-autonomous robotic rover at either lunar pole. Such a science rover would have
the benefit of operating its science instruments at multiple locations within a suitable polar area
and could obtain samples at depth within the lunar regolith—directly addressing the NRC’s lunar
polar volatiles science objectives. The robotic science mission would also be historic and
inspirational, as no spacecraft have ever been landed at either lunar pole.
2
In addition to answering science questions, the identification and confirmation of water-
ice at the lunar poles would reveal a critical resource for future crewed lunar exploration: lunar
water-ice could be extracted as purified drinking water for human crews, and chemically
processed into rocket propellants (liquid oxygen and liquid hydrogen) for future lunar surface
launches and potential fuel depots (re-fueling stations for spacecraft). As such, it is clear that
there is both a current scientific and future exploration need for in-situ robotic lunar science
missions.
The design of such a lunar polar volatiles rover mission is subject to many trades and
options, which could be overwhelming and costly to design using traditional team-based
concurrent engineering approaches. In addition, the tool to achieve these designs itself runs into
the multi-disciplinary problem (MDP), in which the design of the overall system depends on the
design of the inter-related subsystems. Thus, the design tool must be able to address the MDP
as well as provide an automated way to design numerous different system configurations and
perform subsystem trades. To enable the design of multiple unique system (lander and rover)
configurations, a tool named the Mission and Spacecraft Sizing (MASS) tool was developed. The
MASS tool can design a multitude of system configurations for a given instrument payload suite,
trajectory and general design parameter inputs. The multiple unique system configurations are
defined in a separate Excel-based Mission and Spacecraft Definition (MASD) tool. The core
engine of the MASS tool is a spacecraft design module that designs each subsystem of each
system element in series. This design process is repeated for multiple iterations until the total
design mass converges (or not).
Using the MASD tool, thousands of unique system configurations were generated.
However, the total estimated time (between 20 to 41 days, depending on the average
3
convergence time per design) to run these thousands of configurations presented a research
limitation. To avoid these time-intensive runs, the system configurations were filtered down to a
few hundred options that could be run in a few hours. These options were obtained by
bounding the key performance parameters of the major subsystem design options (for example,
lowest and highest efficiency solar cells, rather than all available options). The design results
were analyzed to identify 3 candidate system designs: a solar-powered rover mission, a
radioisotope-powered rover mission, and a fuel cell-powered rover mission. The minimum total
launch mass designs for these 3 options were selected.
In terms of future work, the results of this research would provide the planetary science
community with multiple candidate conceptual designs, based on a more expansive technical
approach than was previously conducted, for a rover mission to explore the lunar South Pole for
volatiles and water-ice. These conceptual designs can be starting points for more detailed design
of the mission, as well as providing design data for simulation of subsystems and evaluation of
their performance. The Excel/MATLAB design tools, as a central element of the system
engineering approach in this research, also represent a unique, integrated way to perform a
conceptual design of a system of spacecraft and such a method could be adopted for other
spacecraft designs. In this regard, the subsystem technology databases used in this research
could be expanded to include more options as new technologies develop. The subsystem design
modules could also be enhanced with more accurate or detailed models for higher-fidelity
design studies. Lastly, it is hoped that the results of this research may promote development of
a mission to explore lunar polar volatiles and water-ice to commercial space companies and/or
government space agencies, highlighting it as an endeavor both scientifically interesting and
technically feasible in the near future.
4
2 RESEARCH PROBLEM
Evidence provided by recent lunar missions suggests the presence of hydrogen-rich
volatiles, possibly including water-ice, at certain locations at the lunar poles. These recent
missions, however, have not been able to conclusively determine whether there is indeed
widespread water-ice present at the lunar poles. In other words, there is a gap in scientific
knowledge in this area.
In addition, while there have been several recent conceptual studies of a lunar polar
volatiles rover mission, these studies have been limited in terms of proposed technologies and
consideration of alternative subsystem designs. Current approaches to a lunar polar volatiles
rover mission, as published by industry, academic institutes, and government agencies, have not
incorporated extensive systems engineering or trade space studies, having imposed instead
severe design and operational constraints: e.g. sun-light only operation at the lunar poles, direct
ballistic-only trajectories, specific heritage hardware, and limited exploration of alternative
subsystem designs. Thus, there is a gap in the evaluation of a wider range of designs for such a
rover mission.
A solution to the scientific knowledge gap is to design, build, launch, and operate a
suitable spacecraft (such as a landed rover) to conduct in-situ prospecting for lunar polar
volatiles. In this regard, to go beyond the traditional point designs that have been proposed for
such a mission, a method must be devised to generate numerous candidate rover mission
designs. Identifying a reasonable design method in itself presents another problem, which is the
process of designing the overall mission, spacecraft, and subsystems. Thus, the research
problem identified here is two-fold:
5
1. To evaluate numerous candidate designs for a lunar polar volatiles rover mission, and
2. To develop a spacecraft design tool to generate these numerous candidate designs.
In the effort to design a lunar polar volatiles rover mission, the development of the
spacecraft design tool encounters what is known as the multi-disciplinary design problem
(MDP). In this problem, the design of an overall system depends on the design of the system’s
component elements (or subsystems), where the design of one subsystem typically affects the
design of the other subsystems (2). To be able to design multiple candidate designs for the rover
mission, a tool must be developed that takes a reasonable approach to addressing the MDP. In
the case of the rover mission, both a lander and rover must be designed, and this includes
designing their respective subsystems, which are all inter-dependent.
The central goal of the research presented here is then to advance the state of the art in
concept development of a lunar polar volatiles rover mission by applying a more thorough
systems approach than has heretofore been conducted by industry, government or academia.
To achieve this goal, the current research aims to perform system and subsystem trade studies
and total spacecraft system design to identify multiple candidate system designs that meet the
fundamental set of science requirements. In general, this research serves as a unique and new
addition to the body of knowledge of spacecraft design (for a mission with a scientific need) by
demonstrating a more thorough evaluation of the design trade space and selecting candidate
designs based on that evaluation.
6
3 STATE OF THE ART
In this section, the state of the art in lunar polar volatiles science, the spacecraft system
design process, and spacecraft subsystem technologies is discussed. This provides background
information on which a technical approach and solution to the research problem described
earlier can be identified.
3.1 LUNAR SCIENCE MISSIONS
3.1.1 Scientific Evidence of Lunar Polar Water-Ice
In 1961, California Institute of Technology researchers Kenneth Watson, Bruce Murray,
and Harrison Brown first proposed the existence of water ice and other volatiles trapped within
the permanently shadowed regions (PSR) at the lunar poles (3). Although the crewed Apollo
lunar missions (from 1969 to 1972) brought back samples of lunar rocks and regolith, they were
all found deplete of water, except for possible contaminants. As such, the prospect of lunar
water ice lingered until 1991, when ground-based radar observations provided initial evidence
for hydrogen deposits at the poles of Mercury. This discovery bolstered expectations of finding
similar deposits in the polar regions of the Moon. Later ground-based observations by the
Arecibo radio observatory in Puerto Rico in 1997 and 2003, however, did not reveal any
significant areas at the lunar poles within the upper meter of regolith having the signature of
water-ice (4).
Additional evidence arrived in 1994, however, when the U.S. Department of Defense’s
(DoD) Clementine lunar robotic spacecraft, using its bi-static radar instrument, measured radar
backscatter signals with circular polarization ratios (CPR) greater than 1.0 at the lunar South
7
Pole. In 1996, a Science magazine article suggested that the high CPR was representative of ice
crystals. This evidence was considered inconclusive, however, as high CPR can also result from
rough, rocky surfaces. Despite this, more evidence of water-ice came again in 1999, when
NASA’s Lunar Prospector spacecraft detected high concentrations of hydrogen near the lunar
poles.
In 2009, the journal Science reported that four spacecraft1 had detected the signature of
trace amounts of water or hydroxyl (OH-) globally in the upper few millimeters of the lunar
surface, particularly near the poles. In October of 2009, NASA’s LCROSS (Lunar Crater
Observation & Sensing Satellite) spacecraft, a secondary payload launched with the Lunar
Reconnaissance Orbiter (LRO) in June of 2009, jettisoned its Centaur upper stage to impact the
partially-shadowed lunar South Pole crater Cabeus A. This impact generated a plume that was
observed by the LCROSS shepherding spacecraft (which shortly thereafter also impacted the
Moon), LRO and several Earth-based observatories. Both LRO and LCROSS instruments detected
that up to 20% of the material ejected by the impact were volatiles, including 100 kg of water in
the impact crater and ejecta blanket (5) (6). In 2010 the Indian Chandrayaan-1 lunar spacecraft’s
mini-SAR (synthetic aperture radar) instrument found evidence for up to 600 million metric tons
of water at the lunar North Pole.
Although measurements from the aforementioned robotic spacecraft indicate the
presence of hydrogen deposits in the form of water-ice at the lunar poles, the evidence is not
yet final. It is clear that orbital missions to the Moon have not been able to determine the exact
1
NASA’s Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter, Cassini and Deep Impact spacecraft, and India’s Chandrayaan-1
lunar orbiter
8
form of the widespread hydrogen deposits. While the LCROSS mission did find evidence for
water from the Cabeus crater impact, it is not the equivalent of analyzing samples on site. In
addition, it is known that the lunar polar hydrogen deposits exist within permanently-shadowed
craters (and also in some polar sunlit regions), which have yet to be investigated by any landed
robotic vehicles.
3.1.2 Lunar Polar Volatiles Science
Additional details on the scientific basis to suspect the presence of volatiles at the lunar
poles is presented in this section.
Early analysis of lunar samples suggested the Moon was totally dry. Water was detected
in lunar glass beads but it was thought initially to be the result of terrestrial contamination.
However, terrestrial contamination would have shown increased ppm (parts per million) of H2O
outward from the center of the glass beads. Instead, the water content was shown to increase
toward the center of the glass beads.
The permanently-shadowed regions (PSRs) on the Moon are regions where water-ice
may be present on the surface. These PSRs, also known as cold traps, are expected to be
surround by a permafrost layer of water-ice on average up to 10 cm depth. The PSRs, or cold
traps, are characterized by little or no sunlight and, as a result, low temperature. Temperature is
the key variable regarding the survivability of water captured at the lunar poles, as temperature
controls the sublimation rate. According to data from the LRO’s lunar radiometer experiment,
the annual average temperature of lunar polar cold traps is < 100 K, although there are some
cold traps that have a minimum temperature as low as 20 K (7).
9
Recent laser reflectivity results from LRO’s Lunar Orbiter Laser Altimeter (LOLA) are also
in line with the water-ice interpretation. The LOLA instrument is a low power transmitter that
emits laser light for only a few nanoseconds. The laser light reflects off the lunar surface and is
received by the LOLA instrument. Using the LOLA instrument, scientists have reported
anomalously high reflectivity in the Shackleton crater floor at the lunar South Pole. This crater is
an interesting site, because it receives very little direct sunlight and as such remains a cold trap
throughout much of the year. In addition, past orbital and Earth-based radar mapping and
orbital imaging campaigns have shown conflicting evidence regarding volatiles at Shackleton
crater. One alternative explanation of the high LOLA laser reflectivity results within Shackleton
crater is space weathering. This is the alteration of chemicals from micro-meteoroid
bombardment and solar wind sputtering. These processes result in vapor depositing of iron
grains on the crater rims. As a result, mass wasting (shedding material) can result in the
appearance of un-weathered material, which seems to have a bright reflectivity signature.
However, recent results indicate that the increased reflectivity observed in the PSRs appears to
be independent of mass wasting and space weathering. This leaves two remaining hypotheses:
either the PSR surface are less susceptible to space weathering (resulting in high reflectivity), or
there are volatiles within these PSRs (8).
Another key line of evidence for water-ice at the lunar poles comes from neutron
detectors aboard orbital missions (see Lunar Prospector and LRO). Neutron detectors make use
of neutron scattering, in which neutrons from some source (cosmic rays in the case of planetary
science applications) scatter off a surface. The high-speed neutrons lose energy as they collide
with atomic nuclei—the lighter the element, the more energy the neutron loses. Since hydrogen
is the lightest element (consisting of a single proton), it is very effective at slowing down
10
neutrons. Thus, if a surface is composed of hydrogen-rich material, then a neutron spectrometer
can detect that as a larger number of slow-moving neutrons, or as a reduction in the detected
amount of high-energy neutrons (9).
LRO’s LEND instrument (Lunar Epithermal Neutron Detector), in observations over 4
years from July 2009 to July 2013, of the lunar South Pole has shown low neutron count rates in
several prominent craters such as Faustini, Haworth, and Shoemaker. Low neutron count rates
indicate the presence of hydrogen. It has also been observed that the global lunar hydrogen
concentration increases as a function of lunar latitude (> ± 65 degrees). In addition, the polar
facing slopes appear to have higher hydrogen concentration than equator facing slopes.
Scientists currently estimate that ~1.5% of the polar deposits are water-ice by mass. Based on
this, the expected deposits of water ice must be at least 1 m below the lunar surface. This
minimum depth represents the sensitivity level of epithermal neutrons, which penetrate
regolith deeper than fast neutrons (10).
Radar imaging of the lunar poles represents another good tool for detecting lunar
volatiles. Radar is capable of “seeing in the dark” and can observe the PSRs. Since water-ice has
unique radar properties, radar can be used to detect the presence of water-ice within the PSRs.
Radars are active instruments that provide their own energy source to illuminate the surface
being observed. Radar instruments make use of the reflected beam’s circular polarization ratio
(CPR), defined as 𝜇 = 𝑆/𝑂, where S represents polarization the same as the transmitted beam,
and C is the opposite polarization. In general, a rough surface causes multiple bounce
backscattering and shows moderate CPR from 0.5 to 1. In the case of ice, however, an
interesting property is that there is no backscatter. Instead, there is forward scattering off
surface material voids, which preserves polarization. In the intervening surface material matrix,
11
the polarization adds coherently so that the resulting CPR > 1. CPR greater than 1 has been
observed on the moons of Jupiter, one reason why they are called the “icy moons”.
The first observations of the lunar poles in radar were taken by ground-based radar
observatories. Since the polar regions of the Moon have an increasing number of radar-
shadowed regions, orbital radar is really needed to image these regions. Two prominent lunar
orbital missions that included radar instruments are India’s Chandrayaan-1 (operated from
November 2008 to August 2009) and NASA’s LRO. The Chandrayaan-1 spacecraft carried an
onboard miniature synthetic aperture radar (min-SAR) that imaged almost 90 % of the lunar
poles. The LRO spacecraft had a more sophisticated radar named min-RF, which obtained full
coverage of the lunar poles at S-band, including the first radar views of the lunar far side.
High CPR signals (typically associated with water-ice) can be misleading, however. High
CPR can also be explained by extremely rough, blocky surfaces that cause corner reflections
which change the CPR. For example, a surface feature in Arizona shows high CPR (as observed
by the AIRSAR mission), but this feature does not have water-ice. To overcome this limitation in
standard radars, a bi-static radar instrument can be used to distinguish between radar returns
caused by thick ice deposits vs. those caused by rocky surfaces. Previous bi-static radar
measurements have come from the Clementine mission in April 1994 (these results were
controversial), and both the Chandrayaan-1 and LRO missions (11).
In general, low radar return results suggest that there are no near-surface, thick
deposits of ice in Cabeus crater (the impact site of the LCROSS mission). Any water there must
therefore be interspersed in the regolith in small grains less than 10 cm in size. At the lunar
North Pole, radar observations have indicated that there are many anomalous craters that are
good candidates for water-ice.
12
Given the previous indications of water-ice at the lunar poles, NASA launched the
LCROSS spacecraft (co-manifested with LRO) to impact the Moon in September 2009. In this
mission, both the Centaur upper stage and the LCROSS spacecraft impacted the Moon. The
impact site, the Cabeus A crater, was selected because it is in persistent shadow, is extremely
cold (with an average temperature around 70 K), has significantly low-neutron count (one of the
strongest signals of hydrogen at the lunar South Pole), and was expected to be 20-40% ice-rich
by area. The Centaur impact produced a 20-30m crater. The LCROSS spacecraft observed this
impact, and later itself impacted the Moon about 3 km from the Centaur impact site. LCROSS
observed a strengthening cloud of dust and water (ice and vapor), suggesting a persistent water
cloud. The water detection suggests water ice grains > 1 µm in size that are relatively pure (ice-
to-dust ratio). This data suggests that there is a persistent surface source of water, such as
sublimation from exposed ice (12).
Scientists theorize that the water at the lunar poles may have come from several
sources: asteroids, Jupiter-family comets and Halley-type comets, micrometeoroids, outgassing
from the Moon’s interior, and the solar wind (13). Recent models of water deposition from
these various sources at the lunar poles, however, cannot account for the observed distribution
of elemental hydrogen and OH/H2O.
3.1.3 Robotic Lunar Exploration and Planned Missions
Having identified a gap in the scientific knowledge of lunar polar water-ice (i.e. the
questions on lunar polar volatiles posed by the National Research Council in its Decadal Survey),
and the possibility of filling that gap with a robotic mission, a literature survey was performed to
explore suitable enabling technologies and initial concepts (14). First, a historical survey of lunar
13
missions was done to provide a context for the lunar science that has been performed, so as not
to duplicate the effort of any prior mission. This survey revealed that of all robotic missions to
the Moon, only 12 were landers: 5 Soviet Luna landers and 7 American Surveyor landers that all
landed in mid-latitude regions on the lunar near side between 1965 and 1968. Of the 6 Soviet
lunar sample return missions attempted from 1969 to 1976, only 3 were successful and they
only retrieved samples from the lunar equatorial regions. For rovers, only 2 were landed in mid-
latitude regions of the Moon by the Soviet Union in 1970 (Lunokhod 1) and 1973 (Lunokhod 2).
Apart from these landed missions, the only one designed specifically to explore the lunar South
Pole was LCROSS (2009), and this was an impactor rather than a landed vehicle. Thus, this
survey reveals that no robotic missions have been landed at either lunar pole.
Next, future lunar missions currently in the planning and development stages were
investigated. The Indian Space Research Organization (ISRO) plans to launch the Chandrayaan-2
mission, consisting of an orbiter, lander, and 20 kg solar-powered mini-rover, to the Moon by
2018 (15). This rover, whose mission life is just 14-15 days, is designed only to explore sun-lit
areas near a shadowed South Pole crater, as LRO data suggest the presence of some near-
surface ice in sun-lit polar areas.
On December 14, 2013, the China National Space Agency (CNSA) successfully landed the
Chang’e 3 vehicle at Sinus Iridum (44 degrees N latitude) on the lunar near side. This landed
mission represented the first time since 1976 (the Soviet Union’s Luna 24 sample return lander)
that a robotic craft was safely landed on the Moon. The Chang’e 3 mission consisted of a lander
and 140 kg six-wheeled rover named Yutu (“Jade Rabbit”) that was powered by solar arrays. The
rover ceased mobile operations in early 2014 as a result of a mechanical failure. The lander
employed a hazard detection system to image the lunar surface prior to landing to identify
14
landing hazards. The CNSA also plans to launch a sample return mission to the Moon in 2017 to
obtain 1-2 kg of lunar material.
Figure 3-1. Left: Chang’e 3 lander on the lunar surface. Right: Yutu rover on the lunar surface. Source:
CASC/China Ministry of Defense
In 2013, NASA launched the LADEE (Lunar Atmosphere and Dust Environment Explorer)
orbiter to the Moon. NASA is also planning to participate in the international lunar network (ILN)
in 2018, which is to be a geophysical network of landers in cooperation with other spacefaring
nations.
The Russian Space Agency (RSA) is planning several robotic lunar missions. The Luna-
Glob 1 mission, repeatedly delayed but now to be launched between 2017 at the earliest to
2019, consists of an orbiter and lunar North Pole lander (Luna-25). The Luna-Resurs lander
(Luna-27) was to be provided by Russia on the Indian Chandrayaan-2 mission; however, the
failure of the Fobos-Grunt spacecraft in 2011 resulted in Russian withdrawing from the mission
due to an inability to provide the lander within the proposed timeline. Additional planned
Russian lunar missions include the Luna-Grunt orbiter, lander, and a 400 kg rover capable of in-
situ soil analysis, followed by another Luna-Grunt lunar sample return mission. Ultimately,
Russia is planning the Luna-Poligon (Lunar Range) fully operational robotic base after 2025 (to
be completed by 2037) for resource prospecting and lunar mining (16).
15
The University of Surrey in the UK has proposed two lunar missions: the Moonraker
lander to date basalts on the near side, and the MoonLITE orbiter equipped with 4 penetrators
for a 1-year mission (17). The Google Lunar X-Prize is also sponsoring an international
competition to award $30 million to the first private team to land a rover on the Moon, traverse
500 m, and transmit high-definition video, images, and data (18). Currently, 16 privately-funded
teams are registered in the competition.
NASA’s Human Exploration and Operations Mission Directorate (HEOMD) is also
planning a lunar rover mission known as Resource Prospector (formerly known as RESOLVE, or
Regolith & Environmental Science, and Oxygen & Lunar Volatile Extraction). Currently in
formulation, if approved this mission could launch in the early 2020s. This proposed mission
represents an attempt to close one of NASA’s identified “strategic knowledge gaps” regarding
potential future human exploration destinations, particularly the ability to live off of local
resources. The 243 kg solar-powered rover is planned to operate for 10 days on the lunar
surface at the lunar South Pole’s Cabeus A crater. Carrying a 72 kg science instrumentation
package that includes a drill (to obtain 5 samples at up to 1m depth), an in-situ resource
utilization (ISRU) high-temperature chemical reactor unit (to heat samples up to 150 C to extract
volatiles, or up to 900 C to extract oxygen and water production by means of hydrogen
reduction), a gas chromatograph and mass spectrometer (to test volatiles produced by the
reactor), neutron spectrometer (to detect sub-surface hydrogen), and near-IR spectrometer (to
detect surface volatiles). One of the goals of this proposed mission is to prospect for lunar
water, extract it, process it and store it. A limited number of alternative designs were
considered, characterized by the active surface spacecraft and the lunar sites visited: a lander to
one site; a “hopper” lander capable to visiting multiple sites; a rover powered by batteries only,
16
solar arrays only, solar arrays + batteries, or a radioisotope power system; and lastly, a lander
and rover both equipped with science instruments. The solar array + batteries rover option was
ultimately selected for additional study, given its ability to explore the boundary between a
sunlit and shadowed region (19).
Figure 3-2. NASA’s prototype Resource Prospector rover searching for a sample at the Johnson Space Center
rock yard (August 2015). Source: NASA
Thus, of all the robotic lunar missions currently in development, only 3 are planned for
the lunar poles: the lunar South Pole mini-rover aboard the Indian Chandrayaan-2 mission, the
Russian Luna-Glob 1 lunar North Pole lander, and NASA’s not-yet-approved Resource Prospector
rover mission. However, all 3 are planned for sunlit regions, which may not harbor the highest
concentrations of potential water-ice deposits.
3.1.4 Current Lunar Polar Mission Concepts
Lastly, proposed lunar mission concepts were researched to determine whether any
landers or rovers are being studied by any organization to operate in permanently shadowed
craters at either lunar pole. In 2005, Ball Aerospace performed a concept study for a lander with
a 50-100 kg science payload to land at Shackleton crater at the lunar South Pole. The Ball team
17
came up with two point designs: one using a dual-mode2 bi-propellant propulsion system, and
another (selected as the final design) using a solid rocket motor (SRM) for a direct landing from
trans-lunar cruise. The lander design was also constrained for sunlight only operation; single-
string Ball heritage hardware; and a standard ballistic trajectory (borrowed from the Surveyor 1
mission).
In 2011, the Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory (JHUAPL) performed a
concept study on behalf of the NRC’s Planetary Science Decadal Survey for a lunar polar volatiles
explorer. The JHUAPL team designed a lander/rover to land in a permanently shadowed region
using an SRM for direct descent from the cruise trajectory. The design team compared two
power-driven point design options: an Advanced Stirling Radioisotope Generator (ASRG)
powered rover versus a batteries-only rover. The lander/rover design had the following
constraints: landing in a permanently shadowed region under Earthshine, cruising to the Moon
on a standard 5-day ballistic trajectory, and employing a DoD-heritage main propulsion system.
The European Space Agency (ESA) recently performed a Phase B1 study in 2012 to
deliver a lander to a crater rim or mountain peak at the lunar South Pole in 2018. Constraints for
this mission concept study included: continuous sunlight due to the limited availability of
radioisotope heater units or RTGs in Europe; heritage hardware from the ESA ATV (automated
transfer vehicle for the International Space Station, ISS); direct-to-Earth (DTE) communications
for 14 days (followed by radio darkness during the lunar night); and a ballistic trajectory from a
high Earth orbit (20). The project, however, was put on hold in 2012.
2
Used for attitude control as well as orbital maneuvers
18
Overall, a literature survey of planned and studied missions has shown three important
results: 1) recent lunar missions (particularly orbiters) have not definitively proven the existence
of lunar polar water-ice; 2) no robotic vehicles have been landed at the lunar South Pole to
study its volatile resources; and 3) recent lunar polar volatiles mission concept studies are
limited by very restrictive operational constraints (e.g. sunlight-only operation, direct ballistic
trajectories, specific heritage hardware) and subsystem design options explored. Thus, a more
thorough system engineering effort at the conceptual stage is needed to establish science needs
and mission requirements, to evaluate feasible concepts by trading suitable subsystem
technologies, and to identify a feasible mission concept.
3.2 SYSTEM DESIGN APPROACHES
3.2.1 System Engineering & Design
The early formulation phase represents a key step in the project life cycle of a space
mission or any system. In this regard, applying a thorough systems engineering process at the
early concept level phase is a primary enabler of mission success, since it 1) promotes the
discovery of critical design issues early in the life-cycle that might affect the development or
operation of the system, and 2) reduces the risk of costly design changes being required later
on. In general, systems engineering is a formal process by which engineers can decompose and
allocate requirements to elements of the system, define its physical characteristics and
configuration, perform trade studies of alternative design options, and identify design drivers.
All of these activities enable the systems engineer to identify viable designs that meet the
customer requirements and stakeholder needs.
19
There are various systems engineering processes, such as water-fall (a sequential
development process), spiral (a risk-driven iterative process), and the standard “Vee” process
(which consists of the Decomposition & Definition branch, and the Integration & Verification
branch). Another related approach is the NASA Systems Engineering Engine process, which
consists of three parallel processes: System Design Processes, Product Realization Processes,
and Technical Management Processes. The System Design Processes consists of Requirements
Definition and Technical Solution Definition processes, which are similar to the “Vee” Process’s
Decomposition & Definition Branch. The selection of a suitable systems engineering process
typically depends on the application or type of system involved. In addition to the systems
engineering process, which is useful for managing the technical design, development, and
operation of the system itself, is the design methodology. A methodology consists of guidelines
or techniques for solving a particular problem. Three general design methodologies available to
design engineers are sequential, centralized, and concurrent.
The sequential methodology is a classical approach in which each technical
domain/discipline specialist performs their design work in isolation one at a time, and
communicates their design to the next specialist in series. This can result in design
inconsistencies due to a given specialist using incorrect assumptions, and so this method usually
requires several iterations to converge on a design, resulting in a very lengthy process on the
order of several months. This is incompatible with the current drive toward reduced product
development times. The centralized approach operates by having all the technical domain
specialists provide their design data to a central team of system engineers, who manage the
design, analyze it and ensure consistency by means of enhanced communication. Then there is
the concurrent engineering method. First implemented in the aeronautics industry, concurrent
20
engineering is an approach in which all the technical domain specialists begin working on the
system design in parallel, using interconnected design tools in a common design environment in
real-time. In this approach, the specialists can directly communicate with each other and
exchange data using modern information technology methods. Iteration is still needed for the
design to converge, since some of the specialists may be using assumptions out of synch with
the rest of the design. The concurrent engineering approach dramatically reduces the time
needed to produce a product from several months to several weeks.
For space systems, the preferred method to produce a set of architectures or feasible
designs is concurrent engineering. Some notable examples of concurrent engineering centers
include TeamX at the Jet Propulsion Laboratory, the Integrated Design Center (IDC) at NASA’s
Goddard Spaceflight Center, and the European Space Agency’s Concurrent Design Facility (CDF)
at the European Space Research and Technology Centre (ESTEC) in the Netherlands. Team X, for
example, can achieve a space mission concept design in as little as one 3-hour design session.
More sessions, however, are usually required depending on the trade space exploration desired
or the complexity of the mission. Some challenges of the current implementations of concurrent
engineering include efficient communication between engineers due to many simultaneous
conversations, synchronization of the baseline design among the various subsystem engineers,
consistency in design documentation, and efficient capture of design decisions and risks. In
addition, due to cost constraints, there is usually insufficient time to thoroughly explore the
design trade space in the available concurrent engineering design sessions, resulting in a need to
properly select the relevant trades before or during a typical study.
For deep space science missions, in particular, the variety of destinations and
uniqueness of the science objectives renders it time-consuming and costly to explore many
21
alternative concept designs, even under the concurrent engineering paradigm. Thus, there
remains a design challenge in executing an effective trade space evaluation.
3.2.2 Example Design Tools
Some tools have been developed in an attempt to address the problem of effective
trade space evaluation. In general, existing tools to explore the spacecraft design trade space
have relied on studying slight variations of existing spacecraft designs, i.e. heritage spacecraft,
or require a baseline design of some sort. The tool referenced in (21), for example, requires a
space mission design team (such as TeamX) to arrive at a baseline point design specified at the
component level before being able to run multiple trade studies. Perhaps up to 80% of the total
cost of large aerospace projects depends on decisions made during the early project design
phase. As a project develops and matures, it becomes increasingly difficult to make design
changes to improve the design or enact cost-saving measures. This indicates a need to provide a
thorough exploration of the design trade space.
For deep space missions, given the wide range of destinations and uniqueness of each
potential mission, it is time-consuming (as therefore costly) to produce a set of alternative
designs. Typically, to avoid this cost, mission designers have employed their design intuition and
judgment in making design decisions for the mission. However, the result can be final design
concepts that differ significantly from the originally envisioned concept. Thus, as implied earlier
in this research, there is in general a need within the spacecraft design process to “rapidly”
develop the mission concept’s trade space. Each of the alternative design options must be
evaluated at the subsystem level.
22
The approach described in (21) is to combine team-generated point designs with model-
driven parametric designs to rapidly explore the trade space. To explore the trade space, an
Excel-based Systems Trade Model (STM) tool was developed. In this approach, a preliminary
baseline design concept (down to the subsystem level) for a particular science mission is first
generated by a spacecraft design team (such as JPL’s Team X). In Team X, which uses the
concurrent engineering approach, a design team of between 5 to 30 engineers with varying
flight experience meets to turn an overall sketch of the mission (including trajectory and science
payload requirements) into a final design concept. Each subsystem engineer produces their own
design to meet the stated requirements, and the systems engineer collects the resultant
subsystem inputs (mass, power, data rates, etc.), to produce a general snapshot of the design.
This interaction is iterated on numerous times within a given design session (usually 3 hours
each). The overall design process can take up to 3 or 4 design sessions to produce a feasible
design. Given the time-critical nature of this concurrent engineering process, there is often little
time to evaluate all design possibilities. The result is that only a limited set of design trades are
explored, or that these trades must be identified in advance. Once a baseline design is
generated, the STM tool itself can be populated. The tool maintains key system and subsystem
design relationships to generate an array of trade space options.
Another recent method, as outlined in (22), involves the use of a “declarative modeling”
approach. In this approach, which requires its own modeling language, the use of interval math
arithmetic is applied to the satellite design problem, where each design parameter has an upper
and lower bound. The union of all intervals of all variables in the system composes a complete
trade space. In this approach, rules and constraints are applied to enforce the mathematical
relationships between parameters and then shrinks the interval until a point solution is found.
23
The platform on which the declarative modeling approach was tested is known as SPiDR,
or System Platform for Integrated Design in Real-Time. This tool is a procedural web-based
design portal for real-time system level, component-based satellite design. The platform has
evolved into a graphical user interface environment for rapid modeling of spacecraft.
The SPiDR platform uses a procedural and unidirectional, water-fall method for
subsystem sizing. Some early procedural approach options considered were: 1) an iterative
approach to achieve design convergence, and 2) following some scheme that sets the flow of
the design. A problem with the first approach is the possibility of the snowball effect, where the
design mass grows and does not converge. A problem with the second approach is that it
prioritizes the design of some subsystems above others. To avoid these problems, the interval
math-based declarative approach was investigated in a later version of the SPiDR platform. A
potential drawback of the declarative approach is that the modeling language is not intuitive.
Elegant code can be produced but may be problematic for an average engineer to use. An
attempt to alleviate this problem was made with the use of a graphical user interface (GUI) to
help build the design program. This GUI interface still itself has a challenge in that a lengthy
process is required for manual input specification. In addition, another potential challenge is the
ability to capture increasing levels of design fidelity and detail in a rule and constraint network.
In addition to the above system design tools, there are also some standalone tools to
conduct architecture-level studies and trade space evaluations. For example, the EXAMINE
(Exploration Architecture Model for In-space and Earth-to-orbit tool), developed by NASA’s
Langley Research Center, is an Excel-based tool that allows a user to graphically define a space
system architecture by manually defining waypoints and specifying vehicles at each one (23).
The tool operates on the specified architecture by use of sophisticated vehicle sizing algorithms.
24
However, it is limited by the need for extensive user input to define each architecture, which
renders the approach not conducive to rapid, automated exploration of the trade space.
Another approach that has been investigated is the use of the Object Process Network modeling
language applied to Moon-Mars architecture generation. The limitation of this method is that
vehicles are specified by destination and travel on predetermined paths (24).
Overall, the above architecture-level and system-level design methodologies and tools
reveal challenges in the generation of point designs and limitations in the evaluation of the
trade space of alternative design options. The rapid concurrent engineering methods are
challenged with consistency in communication, synchronization, and documentation of the
baseline design among the various engineering disciplines, and limited to exploration of a
handful of down-selected trade options. Several of the discussed design tools are also
challenged with the amount of manual specification of user inputs, limited by the need for
baseline or heritage designs, or are not intuitive in terms of the programming language.
3.3 SCIENCE INSTRUMENTS
A unique set of science instruments is required to properly detect and characterize the
volatiles (including potential water-ice) at the lunar poles. As an aid in identifying the proper set
of science instrumentation (to estimate mass and power requirements), a survey of instruments
flown or planned on landers, rovers, or other probes was conducted. In general, the instruments
flown on past in-situ missions or planned on future missions can be categorized as follows:
 Descent Imagers
 Surface Imagers and Cameras
 Ground penetrating radars
25
 Spectrometers
o Infrared (IR) spectrometers: A technique that measures the infrared spectrum of
a given sample material (solid, liquid, or gas) to observe the absorption lines as a
way to identify the chemical constituents.
o Mass spectrometers: a technique that ionizes chemical species within a sample
and analyzes dispersions of ions within an electromagnetic field, measuring the
elemental mass-to-charge ratio (m/z).
o Mossbauer spectrometers: a technique in which a gamma-ray beam bombards a
sample and a detector measures the intensity of the beam transmitted through
the sample. The resulting spectra can be used to deduce the chemical
composition of the sample.
o Neutron spectrometers: A technique in which the energy of neutrons scattering
off a sample of material are measured. In planetary science applications, these
neutrons typically come from cosmic rays.
o Raman spectrometers: Uses Raman scattering of laser light to measure
molecular vibrations of a sample of material, useful in identifying the chemical
constituents.
 Atmospheric/meteorology packages
 Robotic arms
 Sampling acquisition and processing devices
The following tables summarize the characteristics of different types of instruments
flown or proposed on landers, rovers, and atmospheric probes to the other planets.
26
Table 3-1. Descent Imagers on Planetary Landers/Probes
Mission Instrument Acronym Mass (kg) Power (W) Instrument Type Purpose
Camera to provide geographic context of landing
site during descent. Data-handling problem lead
Phoenix Mars Descent Imager MARDI 0.453 3 Descent Camera to non-use of the camera.
Hugyens Probe Descent Imager/Spectral Radiometer DISR 11.7 13 Descent Camera

Color camera to take images during 2min period
beteween heatshield separation and touchdown.
Will help determine vehicle landing location and
MSL Mars Descent Imager MARDI 0.6 10 Descent Camera geologic context.
Bottom-mounted camera to image terran as
lander descends. Will take 10 images, first 10 sec
after parachute deploys & before heat shield
MPL Mars Descent Imager MARDI 0.42 2 Descent Camera jettison (at 8km alt), and last at 6m alt.
First, descent imagers, as shown in Table 3-1 above, have flown on 3 Mars missions: the
Phoenix lander, Mars Science Laboratory (MSL), and the ill-fated Mars Polar Lander (MPL), and
on the Huygens probe that investigated Titan as part of the Cassini-Huygens mission. The Mars
mission descent imagers have been less than 1 kg in mass and required up to 10 W of power.
The Huygens probe descent imager was much more massive, as it also included a spectral
radiometer.
Table 3-2. Surface Imagers/Cameras on Planetary Landers
MER Panoramic Camera Pancam 0.34 3 Surface Camera Panoramic multispectral imaging
Camera to provide hi-res stereo panoramic
images of Martian landscape, from optical thru IR
wavelengths. Camera head and mechanical design
derived froom Imager for Mars Pathfinder and
Phoenix Surface Stereo Imager SSI 5.37 51.2 Surface Camera MPL SSI.
Visual & multi-spectral imaging of landscape

mounted on mast 2m above ground. Uses Bayer
Pattern Filter CCD to obtain natural color images
(w/ need for three images thru red, green, blue
MSL Mast Camera Mastcam 2 13 Surface Camera filters)
Part of MVACS (Mars Volatiles and Climate
Surveyor) instrument package. Mast-mounted
multi-spectral imager to provide stereo
panoramic & close-up imaging. Same imager as
MPL Stereo Surface Imager SSI 5.85 n/a Surface Camera Mars Pathfinder.
Panoramic Camera (Wide-angle camera + High Consists of a wide angle camera and a high
ExoMars resolution camera) WAC + HRC 1.56 n/a Surface Camera resolution camera.
Surface imagers (or surface cameras mounted on masts) have flown on 4 Mars missions:
both Mars Exploration Rovers (MER), Phoenix, MSL, and MPL. Of the landers, the lightest mass
27
was the Mast Camera on MSL, at 2 kg and consuming 13 W of power. An even lighter panoramic
camera is planned on the European ExoMars rover (25).
Table 3-3. Microscopic Imagers on Planetary Landers
MER Microscopic Imager MI 0.21 2.15 Microscopic Imager Visible microscopic imaging of target rocks
*Laser spectrometer: uses powerful laser pulses

on small targets w/in 7m of rover, which ablates
atoms in an excited state, emitting light.
Spectrograph identifies elemental composition of
Chemistry & Camera: ChemCam targets.
*Laser-Induced Breakdown Spectrometer *LIBS *Laser Spectrometer *Microimager: Context imaging for laser
MSL *Remote micro-imager *RMI n/a 3 *Microscopic Imager spectrometer
Focusable color imager on robotic arm turret.

MSL Mars Hand Lens Imager MAHLI 0.63 n/a Microscopic Imager Includes 2 white light LEDs for nighttime imaging
Microscopic imagers to study surface samples have also been flown. These imagers have
been very light (less than 1 kg) and required less than 3 W of power.
Table 3-4. Ground penetrating radar on Planetary Landers
Ground-penetrating
Future Mission Ground Penetrating Radar 0.5 3 radar Identify radar stratigraphy at a depth of 10-20m
Ground-penetrating
ExoMars Ground Penetrating Radar WISDOM 1.38 n/a radar Shallow ground-penetrating radar
A ground penetrating radar is useful for collecting subsurface stratigraphy data. Such an
instrument is planned for the European Space Agency’s ExoMars rover. It is expected to have a
mass of about 1.38 kg (25).
Table 3-5. IR spectrometers on Planetary Missions
MER Miniature Thermal Emission Spectrometer mini-TES 2.4 5.6 IR Spectrometer Infrared emission spectrometry
ExoMars Infrared imaging Spectrometer MicrOmega IR 0.96 n/a IR Spectrometer
Mars Multispectral Imager for Subsurface Located on drill to obtain IR images down
ExoMars Studies MaMiss 0.65 n/a IR Spectrometer borehole.
28
An infrared spectrometer has flown on the both MERs (at 2.4 kg) and is planned on the
ExoMars rover (at 0.65 kg) (25) (26).
In terms of mass spectrometers, several have flown on past or current Mars missions
(MPL, Phoenix, and MSL). The thermal evolved gas analyzer mass spectrometer (TEGA)
instrument on Phoenix was 5.7 kg and required 100 W of power, higher in mass than the one
flown on MPL (at 3.4 kg). Both examples represent a large reduction in mass compared to the
atmospheric probes on the Galileo mission (12.3 kg) and the Huygens probe (17.2 kg). The
ExoMars mission is planning a Mars Organic Mass Analyzer (MOMA) instrument at a mass of 6.1
kg.
Table 3-6. Mass spectrometers on Planetary Missions
Has 8 small ovens to heat samples. Magnetic

Thermal Evolved Gas Analyzer mass sector mass spectrometer analyzes composition
Phoenix spectrometer TEGA 5.7 100 Mass Spectrometer and isotopic ratios of volatile gases.
Galileo Probe Neutral mass spectrometer NMS 12.3 29.3 Mass Spectrometer
Hugyens Probe Gas chromatograph mass spectrometer GCMS 17.2 28 Mass Spectrometer
Addresses past and present habitability of Mars by

detecting organic (carbon-based) compounds,
chemical state of light elements, isotopic tracers.
Supported by Sample Manipulation System (SMS)
and Chemical Separation and Processing
Laboratory (CSPL). Atmosphere sampled by CSPL
valve. Solid material sampled by transferring
Sample Analysis at Mars: SAM sieved material to sample cup (74 available)
*Quadrupole Mass Spectrometer *QMS inserted into SAM oven. GC uses He to separate
*Gas Chromatograph *GC organic compounds into molecular components
MSL *Tunable Laser Spectrometer *TLS 40 600 Mass Spectrometer for QMS and GC
Device to measure abundances of water ice, CO2,
O2, H2O in samples collected by robotic arm.
Consists of a tunable diode laser spectrometer,
amperometric electrochemical cell, differential
Thermal Evolved Gas Analyzer mass scanning calorimeter, 8 sample ovens, 8 reference
MPL spectrometer TEGA 3.4 n/a Mass Spectrometer ovens.
ExoMars Mars Organic Mass Analyzer MOMA 6.1 n/a Mass Spectrometer
29
A neutron spectrometer has flown on only one rover mission: MSL (at 4.68 kg and 13W
power). Neutron spectrometers have flown on orbital missions to the Moon (and other planets).
Two lunar mission examples are the neutron spectrometer on the Lunar Prospector (at 3.9 kg,
2.5 W) and the Lunar Exploration Neutron Detector (LEND) on NASA’s LRO (developed by the
Russian Space Research Institute, IKI).
Table 3-7. Neutron spectrometers on Planetary Missions
Active/passive neutron spectrometer measuring H-

and OH-bearing compounds in upper 1-m of
surface w/ surface resolution of 1m. Can be used
during rover traverses and while rover is parked.
Consists of a detector/electronics module and a
pulsed neutron generator (PNG). The detector is
filled with 3He. The source of neutrons in PNG is a
vacuum neutron tube containing tritium-enriched
target and deuterium ion source. Deutrons are
accelerated toward tritium-enriched target,
MSL Dynamic Albedo of Neutrons DAN 4.68 13 Neutron Spectrometer generating neutrons.
Instrument designed to detect water ice on Moon

to levels less than 0.01 %. Also detects solar wind
implanted hydrogen. Consists of two canisters
containing He-3 and an energy counter, to count
neutrons colliding with helium. One canister is
wrapped in cadmium (to screen out thermal, or
low-energy, neutrons), the other in tin. Thermal
neutrons are cosmic ray generated neutrons that
have lost energy due to collisions with hydrogen
atoms. Differences in counts between the two
canisters signify thermal neutrons, which indicates
Lunar Prospector Neutron spectrometer NS 3.9 2.5 Neutron Spectrometer hydrogen.
LRO Lunar Exploration Neutron Detector LEND n/a n/a Neutron Spectrometer
Table 3-8. Robotic arms on Planetary Missions
Digs trenches, scoops up soil and water ice

samples, and delivers samples to TEGA and MECA
Phoenix Robotic Arm w/ scoop RA 9.6 33 Robotic Arm instruments
Part of MVACS (Mars Volatiles and Climate
Surveyor) instrument package. 2-m long with
elbow joint and scoop at the end. Has a small
camera attached above the scoop, an elbow temp
sensor, a soil temperature probe at the arm end.
Acquires surface samples and digs trenches. The
camera provides close-up images of surface,
MPL Robotic Arm RA 6.12 n/a Robotic Arm scooped samples, and trench.
Robotic arms on recent landers and rovers have functioned primarily to position science
instruments near interesting rock and soil targets for spectroscopy and imaging, as well as to
30
provide sample acquisition. Within the past 20 years, robotic arms have flown on the Phoenix
and MPL lander missions to Mars, as well as the two MERs and MSL. The robotic arm mass on
Phoenix was 9.6 kg, whereas on MPL it was 6.12 kg. The robotic arm, also known as the
Instrument Deployment Device (IDD) on the two MERs housed 4 science instruments: the
Microscopic Imager (MI), Rock Abrasion Tool (RAT), Alpha Particle X-Ray Spectrometer (APXS),
and the Mossbauer Spectrometer (MB). The combined mass of these instruments on the robotic
arm turret is ~2 kg.
In terms of sample acquisition, processing and analysis, only two flown missions have
included such an instrument (see Table 3-9 below): MSL and ESA’s Rosetta comet mission. The
MSL rover’s Sample Acquisition, Processing, and Handling subsystem, at a mass of ~70 kg,
consists of a robotic arm with a turret at the end housing 5 devices: 2 science instruments—the
Alpha Proton X-ray Spectrometer (APXS), and the Mars Hand Lens Imager (MAHLI)—and 3
sample acquisition and preparation tools—the Power Acquisition Drill System (PADS), Dust
Removal Tool (DRT), and Collection and Handling for Interior Martian Rock Analysis (CHIMRA).
The turret structure has a mass of 30 kg. The Rosetta mission’s Philae lander has a Sample Drill
and Distribution System (SD2), which can penetrate 20-30 cm to obtain a 3mm x 6mm sample
from comet Churyumov-Gerasimenko. The SD2 instrument has a mass of 5 kg and requires 15W
of power (27).
31
Table 3-9. Sample Acquisition & Processing instruments on Planetary Missions
Acquires and processes rock and soil samples and

delivers to SAM and CheMin instruments. Consists
of robotic arm, turret on the end of the arm
housing drill, brush, scoop, sample processing
device, mech & electrical interfaces. Places APXS
and MAHLI on selected targets. The remaining
three devices on the turret are associated with
sample acquisition and sample preparation
function: the Powder Acquisition Drill System
(PADS), Dust Removal Tool (DRT), and the
Sample Acquisition, Processing, and Handling Sample Acquisition, Collection and Handling for Interior Martian Rock
MSL subsystem SA/SPaH 70 n/a Processing & Transfer Analysis (CHIMRA).
Sample Acquisition, Based on Honeybee LunarVader drill to drill down

LunarVader Sample Acquisition Drill 10 100 Processing & Transfer to 1m in lunar regolith.
The rotary-percussive drill is mounted on a 3-DOF
robotic arm that rotates the drill bit end of the
drill above the particular sample analysis
instrument. A brush is mounted near the drill bit.
The drill is rotated so the brush acts against the
drill flutes, causing the cuttings to fall into the
LunarVader Sample Transfer Mechanism 3 12 Sample Transfer sample cup or inlet port.
1 m rotary-percussive drill on a mission to return
Sample Acquisition, to Phoenix or Viking 2 landing site. Drill to acquire
Mars Icebreaker Sample Acquisition and Transfer Drill 10 70 Processing & Transfer and analyze icy samples.
2.5 m rotary-percussive drill on a mission to
Sample Acquisition, return to Phoenix or Viking 2 landing site. Drill to
Mars Icebreaker Sample Acquisition and Transfer Drill 10 120 Processing & Transfer acquire and analyze icy samples.
1 m rotary-percussive drill on a mission to return
Sample Acquisition, to Phoenix or Viking 2 landing site. Drill to acquire
Mars Icebreaker Sample Acquisition and Transfer Drill 10 100 Processing & Transfer and analyze icy samples.
To sample possible organic material to a depth of
2m, where degradation from UV (up to 1mm
depth), oxidant reaction (up to 1m depth), and
Sample Acquisition, ionizing radiation (up to 1.5m depth) is not
ExoMars Robotic Drill 12 70 Processing & Transfer prevalent. Sample size is 10mm x 30 mm.
Penetrates 20-30 cm to obtain a 3mm x 6mm
Sample Acquisition, sample in 2014 on Rosetta comet Churyumov-
Rosetta Sample Drill and Distribution System SD2 5 15 Processing & Transfer Gerasimenko lander.
In terms of planned or future missions, ESA is expected to house a robotic drill on the
ExoMars rover. This drill can sample possible organic material up to 2m depth on Mars. The
instrument mass is expected to be 12 kg with power consumption of 70 W. Honeybee Robotics,
headquartered in New York, NY, has proposed two drills to operate on the Moon and Mars. The
Sample Acquisition Drill on the proposed LunarVader mission is designed to drill down to 1m
depth on the Moon (28). It is planned to have a mass of 10 kg and requires up to 100 W of
power (29). Honeybee has also proposed several variants of a Mars subsurface drill on their
proposed Mars Icebreaker mission. The rotary-percussive drill variants can obtain samples
between 1 to 2.5m depth, have mass of 10 kg each, and require between 70 to 120 W power.
32
Note that all the planned sample acquisition and handling technologies are currently at low
technology readiness level3 (TRL), and so would require additional technology development to
be flight qualified.
For the proposed lunar polar volatiles mission, a robotic drill may be required to obtain
samples at depth. The robotic drill is envisioned to be a rotary-percussive drill, similar to those
previously mentioned. This is a type of drill that rotates about the drill axis—the “rotary”
motion—as well as hammers into the surface—the “percussive” motion.
The drill is expected to house a small thermal sensor near the drill bit, to monitor
temperatures as the drill digs into the regolith. The drill should be expected to operate at
temperatures < 100 K within the permanently-shadowed craters. This just requires using
actuators that can survive at those temperatures or suitably placing heaters near the actuators.
Honeybee’s lunar robotic drill is expected to drill down to 1 m in 1 hour using 100 W of
power and 100 N of weight-on-bit (WOB). Various losses and inefficiencies are expected that will
increase the power requirements into the drill actuators. Assuming losses up to 30%, the main
actuators will require 150 W or more. Since this power level must be sustained for at most 1
hour, an energy level of 150W-hr is required. Thus, the onboard battery should be sized for this
larger energy requirement.
Although the Honeybee drill is expected to drill down to 1 m within an hour, the drill
operations may actually be somewhat slower. For example, to collect samples at various depths,
the drill could be operated in a “biting” mode. In this scenario, the drill is advanced a small
3
TRL is a NASA method of estimating the maturity of critical technology elements of a project.
33
distance into the lunar regolith, followed by drill pull-out, sample collection and transfer. This is
repeated several times until the ultimate drilling depth is reached.
In terms of sample format, a system that acquires a powder during drill is preferred over
one that obtains a solid core. The extra complexity of a solid core processing system renders the
solid core acquisition option less attractive. There are several downsides to solid core sampling
option. One downside is that, after acquisition is initiated, the core must be broken off at some
point. Another drawback is that the solid core must then be crushed into a fine material. Existing
rock crushers are assumed to be highly inefficient; it is not known how well lunar regolith from a
permanently-shadowed crater could be crushed given that scientists cannot reliably model the
consistency or hardness of the material. In addition, an onboard mass spectrometer would likely
require a powdered sample—as typically is found in soil-type material. As a result, it might be
better to obtain a sample already in powdered form while drilling. This can be achieved by using
the drill cuttings as the sample material.
As the drill progresses, the cuttings will adhere to the drill flutes. Cuttings at a particular
depth can be collected within a tube near the drill bit. A sample possibly containing water ice
can be collected by assessing the hardness of the material as its being drilled. That is, ice-bound
material will be harder to drill.
Once the robotic drill acquires drill cuttings on the auger flutes, a mechanism is needed
to transfer them to the sample analysis instruments. One of two options could be emplaced for
this:
 The first option involves mounting the drill on a 3 degree-of-freedom (DOF) robotic arm.
The arm rotates the drill from a stowed position on the rover, to a drill-ready position.
The arm then drills and acquires cuttings on the drill flutes, captured within a sample
34
holding tube near the drill bit. The arm then rotates to a sample transfer position above
the inlet port of a sample analysis instrument on the deck of the rover. A metal brush
near the drill-bit end of the drill can then brush off the drill cuttings from the flutes into
the inlet port. The drill is rotated and then advanced along the drill axis so that the
brush encounters the cuttings. The cuttings then fall into the inlet port.
 The second option involves a drill rigidly attached in a vertical position relative to the
rover deck. The cuttings are first obtained on the drill flutes, say in a drill-some-small-
depth and pull out procedure. If the sample cuttings are in the form of a fine powder, a
pneumatic system can be used to pump the sample through a flexible tube. The exit end
of the tube, using a boom or arm, can then be positioned above the appropriate sample
analysis instrument inlet port.
For the purposes of this research, the first option is chosen, as it is currently being
designed by Honeybee Robotics on one of many test robotic drills. Such a sample transfer
mechanism, as planned by Honeybee, is expected to have a mass of 3-5 kg, in addition to the
drill mass itself, and require 10-12 W of power during sample transfer. The full drill system,
including sample transfer, is assumed to require a mass of ~12 kg (per the researcher’s visit to
Honeybee Robotics in Pasadena, CA in Spring 2012).
While the drill is operating, data would be collected at a rate of 4 Hz on all drill
actuators, temperature near the drill bit, and weight-on-bit. The drill will also require a “Z-
stage”, which is a mechanism that moves the drill head up and down along the drill axis,
providing a 4th degree of freedom.
35
3.4 SUBSYSTEM TECHNOLOGIES
The following sections describe general background information on various spacecraft
subsystems, and in some cases the latest available and planned technologies for spacecraft
subsystems. In general, this information provided a basis on which to architect the subsystem
sizing tools in order to generate system designs for the lunar polar volatiles mission discussed in
this research.
3.4.1 Telecommunications
The telecommunications subsystem consists of hardware onboard the spacecraft that
provides a communications interface between the spacecraft and the ground. Using this
subsystem, data from the onboard payload (usually science instruments) and spacecraft
engineering and housekeeping data are formatted and transmitted to ground station operators
and other users. In addition, spacecraft commands can be transmitted from the ground station
to the telecommunications subsystem onboard the spacecraft. These commands then get
disseminated to the desired spacecraft subsystem or payload to provide control of activities
(30). Primary functions of this subsystem are:
 Carrier Tracking:
o 2-way coherent: The downlink signal is transmitted at a frequency offset by a
fixed, pre-determined ratio from the uplink carrier signal using the receiver’s
voltage-controlled oscillator
o 2-way non-coherent: The lock onto the uplink signal is lost. As such, the
downlink signal is thereafter controlled by the master oscillator, so that the
transmit frequency is independent of the uplink signal.
36
o 1-way links: only uplink or downlink
 Command Reception and Processing: receive uplink signal direct-from-Earth or from
relay satellite, process it into commands, and route the command(s) to the desired
subsystem
 Spacecraft and Science Telemetry Processing and Transmission: downlink payload and
spacecraft engineering and housekeeping (E&H) data direct-to-Earth or to relay
spacecraft. The E&H data is received from the Command and Data Subsystem (CDS)
either as real-time subsystem data streams or stored data in memory, and then
modulated onto a downlink carrier signal.
 Ranging: The spacecraft re-transmits a ranging signal received from the ground either
coherently or non-coherently. This turnaround provides tracking data to ground
navigators so they can determine the spacecraft’s range (position) and range rate (line-
of-sight velocity). A 2-way coherent return signal permits the ground to measure the
signal’s Doppler shift, and hence, the range rate from the ground station to the
spacecraft.
 General subsystem operations: Aside from transmission/reception of data, this
subsystem must also process received commands, provide engineering telemetry on its
own health & safety to CDS, provide antenna pointing (auto-tracking for mechanically
steerable antennas or electronically steerable beams), and provide fault detection and
recovery in case of a fault in its own or other subsystem (e.g. autonomously transition to
the omni-directional antenna if antenna pointing capability is lost due to loss of attitude
control).
37
The telecommunications subsystem must be designed to meet requirements,
constraints, and regulations. The requirements are mission-specific specifications as to how the
subsystem must function and what capabilities it must have. Constraints are typically on
subsystem mass, power, and volume given limits on the design of the spacecraft; launch vehicle
vibrational severity; electromagnetic interference levels; and cost. Finally, institutional
regulations must be met to avoid frequency conflicts and ensure that received radiated power
levels at the ground are within limitations.
3.4.1.1 Communications Architecture
In order to transmit and receive data between the spacecraft and ground stations, a
suitable communications architecture must be selected. The communications architecture
consists of a network of spacecraft and ground stations, connected by communications links.
For the purposes of this research, the communications architecture can be defined by the
functions that must be provided. Three general communications architecture functions are (30):
1. Tracking, Telemetry and Command
2. Data Collection
3. Data Relay
These functions can be provided either through a point-to-point architecture or a
broadcast architecture. In the point-to-point network, data is transmitted between the ground
and spacecraft, or between the ground and a relay satellite and the relay satellite and the
spacecraft, via single, direct links. In the broadcast network, data is transmitted between the
spacecraft and multiple ground stations located at different positions.
38
For the purposes of this research, given that the complete spacecraft stack travels from
low Earth orbit to the Moon, and that the rover lands and solely operates on the lunar surface, a
point-to-point architecture can be chosen. To simplify the telecommunications architecture and
subsystem design, it is desired to utilize NASA’s Deep Space Network (DSN) of ground stations.
This imposes specific restrictions on available communications frequencies and supportable
data rates for uplink and downlink, as shown in Table 3-10 and Table 3-11 (31) (30) (32). In these
table, the frequencies allocated by the International Telecommunications Union (ITU) for DSN
uplink and downlink, for both near-Earth and deep-space applications are shown. Typical
frequency bands for deep space missions are S-band, X-band and Ka-band. NASA deep space
missions thus far have used downlink/uplink frequencies up to 32 and 34 GHz (Ka-band). Note
that the cut-off distance from the Earth for use of the Deep Space table is 2 million kilometers
and beyond (33) (30) (34).
Table 3-10. DSN Near-Earth Frequency Capability
Parameter Unit S-band X-band Ka-band

Uplink Lower Freq GHz 2.025 7.19 n/a
Uplink Upper Freq GHz 2.11 7.235 n/a
Downlink Lower Freq GHz 2.2 8.45 n/a
Downlink Upper Freq GHz 2.29 8.5 n/a
Uplink Lower Data Rate bps 1 1 n/a
Uplink Upper Data Rate bps 2000 2000 n/a
Downlink Lower Data Rate bps 8 8 n/a
Downlink Upper Data Rate bps 6.60E+06 6.60E+06 n/a
Table 3-11. DSN Deep Space Frequency Capability

Uplink Lower Freq GHz 2.11 7.145 34.2
Uplink Upper Freq GHz 2.12 7.19 34.7
Downlink Lower Freq GHz 2.29 8.4 31.8
Downlink Upper Freq GHz 2.3 8.45 32.3
39
Uplink Lower Data Rate bps 1 1 1
Uplink Upper Data Rate bps 2000 2000 2000
Downlink Lower Data Rate bps 8 8 8
Downlink Upper Data Rate bps 6.60E+06 6.60E+06 1.00E+07
3.4.1.2 Subsystem Components
A block diagram of a generic spacecraft telecommunications subsystem is shown in
below in Figure 3-3 (30). This example system includes two transponders for redundancy and
two antennas. The basic components of the system are: a transponder, low-pass filters, band-
reject filters, RF switches (separate receive and transmit units), diplexer to a given antenna, and
the antenna.
Transmitter Low- Band

Transmit RF Diplexer Antenna A
pass Reject
switch
Filter Filter
Receiver
Transponder A
Low-
Receive RF
pass
switch
Filter
Low- Band
pass Reject Diplexer Antenna B
Transmitter
Filter Filter
Receiver
Low-
Transponder B pass
Filter
Figure 3-3. Generic Telecommunications Subsystem Block Diagram
In a representative downlink, a transponder receives data simultaneously from two
digital bit streams: 1) payload data, either from data storage or real-time data, and 2) spacecraft
engineering and housekeeping data from all subsystems. The transponder then modulates the
two streams onto subcarriers, followed by modulation into the main carrier signal. The
40
composite signal exits the transponder and passes through a low-pass filter, which reduces
interference from other frequency sources. The low-pass filter, when processing a transmitter
signal, reduces high frequency content and intermodulation coming from the receiver. The low-
pass filter, when processing a received signal, reduces high frequency content above the
diplexer stop-band. The signal then passes through a band reject filter, which reduces erroneous
signals coming from the transmitter at the receiver’s center frequency. This is done in order to
help the diplexer isolate the receiver from the transmitter. Next, the signal is routed to an RF
transfer switch, which selects the primary transmitter and antenna. The diplexer allows the
same antenna to be used for both transmitting and receiving.
In a representative uplink to the spacecraft, one of the antennas receives a composite
uplink signal from the ground. The signal travels to the diplexer, which sends it to the receiver
RF switch. This switch selects the receiving antenna and receiver within the active transponder.
The signal next goes to a low-pass filter and then onto the receiver in the selected transponder.
The receiver demodulates the signal and sends commands on to the Command and Data
Subsystem (CDS).
The following sections describe the key telecommunications hardware components in
more detail.
3.4.1.3 Antenna
The primary function of the antenna is to receive an incident signal or transmit a signal
to another receiver on the ground or onboard another spacecraft. A real antenna neither
receives nor transmits radiation with equal sensitivity in all directions—that is, a truly isotropic
antenna does not exist. Plotting the radiation intensity of a given antenna in a polar plot reveals
41
its radiation pattern. For a highly directional antenna, this pattern shows that most of the
radiation is emitted within a main beam, while lower levels of radiation emerge in the side
lobes. The half-power beam-width of a directional antenna can then be defined as the angle of
the main beam within which the antenna gain is within 50% (3 decibels) of the peak gain.
The 3 dB beam-width for an aperture-type antenna is related to the signal wavelength
(or frequency) and antenna diameter according to the following rule of thumb:
70𝜆 21 Equation 3-1

𝜃= =
𝐷 𝑓𝐺𝐻𝑧 𝐷
where 𝜆 is the wavelength and 𝐷is the antenna diameter. In the second form of the formula,
𝑓𝐺𝐻𝑧 is the signal frequency in GHz and the diameter is in meters. Other beam-width formulas
exist for other types of antennas.
Since a directional antenna focuses most of the signal power in a specific direction, the
radiation is amplified by a power gain. This is defined as the ratio of the actual power flux
density to that from a lossless isotropic antenna, or, alternatively, the ratio of the effective
aperture area to that of an isotropic antenna, as shown in the following formula.
𝐴𝑒 4𝜋𝐴𝑒 4𝜋𝜂𝐴 Equation 3-2

𝐺= = 2 = 2
𝜆2 𝜆 𝜆
4𝜋
where 𝜂 = 𝐴𝑒 /𝐴 is the aperture efficiency, 𝐴 is the physical antenna area, and 𝜆 is the signal
wavelength.
The ground coverage area determines the required beam-width, which in turn
determines the required antenna size. The antenna size in turn contributes to the antenna gain.
In a typical spacecraft telecommunications design, the antenna gain and beam-width are traded.
42
There are several types of antennas, as described below (35):
 Horn antennas: A low-gain, wide beam antenna, typically used at frequencies above 4
GHz. The antenna is either a section of a rectangular or circular waveguide that flares
out at the end to the required aperture size. The beam is conical.
 Biconical Horn: Similar to a horn antenna except that the beam is toroidal. This is useful
for spinning spacecraft, to provide omnidirectional coverage.
 Helical antennas: Below frequencies of 4 GHz, helical antennas provide a low-mass
solution. They consist of conducting wires wound about a pole in the form of a helix.
The beam is conical.
 Reflector antennas: For narrow-beam, high gain requirements, the reflector antenna is
the satisfactory solution. In this configuration, a horn illuminates a paraboloid reflector.
The beam is conical. There are three basic arrangements for the horn feed:
1. Front-fed, in which a waveguide is routed to the focus of the paraboloid. This is
a simple, lightweight structure. However, the aperture blockage raises the side-
lobe levels and the feed is exposed to the environment
2. Offset feed, in which half a paraboloid is used and the feed is located along the
paraboloid axis and is mounted rigidly on a spacecraft surface. Low aperture
blockage reduces side-lobe interference and increases antenna efficiency.
3. Cassegrain, most commonly used on ground stations, in which a sub-reflector is
placed along the axis of the paraboloid and reflects the signal to the feed
equipment, which is located behind the main reflector. Since the sub-reflector
blocks part of the aperture, this reflector type is not usually used onboard
spacecraft.
43
2. Phased-array antennas: the aperture consists of many separate radiating elements
arranged in an array, which is mounted on a convenient spacecraft surface. Each
individual element has weak directive properties, but the combination produces a
narrow beam due to constructive and destructive interference. The collective beam can
be steered electronically over a large angular range. This antenna type, however has
high complexity, cost and mass.
3.4.1.4 Transponder
The transponder itself is an electronics box that consists of many components (35). For a
received uplink signal, a low-noise amplifier (LNA) amplifies a weak signal to levels that can be
processed digitally without degradation induced by electronic circuit noise. The down-converter
reduces the signal to a lower, intermediate frequency (IF). The IF processor divides the down-
converter output into multiple channels and then uses a switching matrix to route the channels
to their respective destinations. On the downlink path, the up-converter amplifies the IF signals
to the higher frequency at which they will be transmitted. In both down- and up-converters,
filtering is often necessary to reject unwanted frequencies produced in the process.
Finally, there is the high-power amplifier (HPA), or transmitter, which increase the signal
power to the desired level for radiation to space. This transmitter must perform the power
increase efficiently, to reduce the load on the spacecraft power subsystem. There are two ways
to amplify the signal to be radiated: using either a traveling wave-tube amplifier (TWTA) or a
solid state power amplifier (SSPA).
The TWTA operates by having an electron beam interact with an electromagnetic signal
that travels along a guiding structure. Both the beam and signal must travel at similar velocities.
44
To reduce the signal speeds, the guiding structure is typically a wire helix. Currently, TWTAs are
the only choice for high-power, high-frequency applications. TWTAs with helix tubes can output
up to 200W power output, with efficiencies of 55 to 60%. The primary disadvantage of the
TWTA, however, is the high-voltage (several kilovolts) which must be supplied. Typically, 28V is
supplied to the transponder, with DC-to-DC converters providing the required voltage changes.
In addition, TWTAs suffer from degradation as a result of a reduction in cathode emission.
The SSPA, is essentially a power transistor that outputs up to 2W at Ka-band (24-40 GHz)
and 60W at L-band (1-2 GHz). The advantage is that the SSPA is lower mass, lower cost, and
higher reliability than a TWTA, eliminating the need for a complex voltage supply. The main
disadvantage, however, is the low power efficiency, typically 25 to 30%.
Other components of the transponder may include the local oscillator, which provides a
continuous sine wave to the down- and up-converters. It is usually good practice to include a
single, master oscillator.
3.4.2 CDS
The Command and Data Subsystem (CDS) provides processing of commands, spacecraft
and payload telemetry, and houses the spacecraft’s central computing processor. For command
processing, the CDS receives commands from the ground, decodes them, and distributes them
to the proper subsystem or payload. For telemetry processing, the CDS packages the telemetry
streams into a format useful for transmitting back to the ground, and monitors telemetry for
performance and fault conditions.
The mass and power of the CDS hardware can be determined by assessing the
complexity of the spacecraft (30). That is, the more functions the spacecraft as a whole has to
45
perform, the more complex the CDS design. Since the CDS hardware on most modern spacecraft
are based on designs with flight heritage, this complexity-based sizing approach can be
employed in this research. See Section 5.3.2 for more detail on the architecture of the CDS
design tool developed in this research.
3.4.3 ADCS
The attitude determination and control subsystem (ADCS) of a spacecraft places the
spacecraft body axes in a desired orientation (or attitude) under the influence of external and
internal disturbance torques. This requires onboard sensors to determine the attitude, and
actuators to impart control torques to change or maintain the attitude. The ADCS provides
attitude control that enables other spacecraft subsystems to perform their functions, such as
communications, propulsion, solar array pointing for power generation, etc.
In general, ADCS provides two functions (36): 1) attitude determination, defined as
estimation of the orientation of one or more spacecraft axes in inertial space; and 2) attitude
control, which consists of attitude stabilization (maintaining the spacecraft attitude) and
attitude maneuvering (re-orienting, or slewing, the spacecraft from one attitude to another).
The first function requires attitude sensors to provide attitude measurements. The second
function requires a control method (either passive or active) to provide a torque that either
maintains the attitude or slews the spacecraft. Passive attitude control requires no control
actuators (environmental torques are typically used to achieve control), whereas active attitude
control does require actuator hardware. The control method can sometimes include both active
and passive techniques.
46
The spacecraft must achieve certain attitudes to perform critical functions—i.e. pointing
key instruments to particular targets within some allowable pointing accuracy. The pointing
accuracy requirement is defined as the total pointing error between the achieved instrument
pointing direction4 and the actual or true pointing direction. Pointing accuracy can be divided
into two derived requirements: pointing knowledge accuracy and pointing control accuracy.
Pointing knowledge accuracy is defined as the maximum allowable error of the
estimated pointing direction from the true pointing direction. That is, pointing knowledge
accuracy is a requirement on how well the spacecraft’s attitude must be known with respect to
an absolute reference frame. It is a requirement on attitude determination.
Pointing control accuracy is defined as the maximum allowable error between the
achieved pointing direction and the commanded pointing direction (as estimated by the attitude
determination function). In other words, pointing control accuracy is how well the spacecraft’s
attitude must be controlled. It is a requirement on the attitude stabilization aspect of attitude
control. There are various sources of error that contribute to pointing knowledge error and
pointing control error, such as instrument mounting misalignments and thermal effects on
instrument boresight axis alignment (30).
There are typically two other requirements on attitude stabilization. The first is pointing
stability, which is defined as a limit on low-frequency spacecraft attitude drift while pointed at a
target, and is typically expressed as a rate (deg/hr). The second is jitter, which is defined as a
limit on high-frequency attitude motion while the spacecraft is pointed at a target, and is also
4
Defined as a vector in some convenient reference frame such as spacecraft body frame or instrument
frame
47
expressed as a rate or frequency. Jitter beyond the capability, or bandwidth, of the spacecraft’s
controller can lead to blurring of instrument data (e.g. images). The jitter requirement is
intended to avoid this blurring.
In addition to providing the attitude determination and control functions, the ADCS
must also be designed to meet both mission-level and subsystem-level requirements. Mission-
level requirements on ADCS derive from the mission profile (orbit, degree of autonomy,
lifetime) and science profile (instrument payloads). The design of the ADCS is also coupled to
requirements and design aspects of other spacecraft subsystems (thermal, propulsion, power,
communications, and structures) (30).
3.4.3.1 Sensors
In order to control the spacecraft’s attitude, the spacecraft must first be able to
measure and estimate its attitude. Typically, a suite of sensors is used to measure attitude and
the measurements are provided to an attitude estimation algorithm, such as a Kalman filter, in
onboard software that combines the measurements into an attitude estimate. Attitude
determination sensors come in two categories (35):
 Reference sensors: this type of sensor measures the direction of a fixed object such as
the Earth, Sun or star, or a planet’s magnetic field direction. The measurement rate is at
low frequency. Examples of reference sensors include: star scanners, star trackers, star
mappers, sun sensors, Earth horizon sensors, and magnetometers.
 Inertial sensors: this type of sensor continuously measures attitude changes or angular
velocity of the spacecraft. Gyroscopes provide these measurements in one or two axes
at high frequency. A rate gyro is an inexpensive sensor that provides very low noise
48
measurements of the spacecraft angular velocity about its output axis. A rate-
integrating gyro (RIG) provides the integral of the angular velocity over some time
period. The RIG is most commonly used on spacecraft since it provides high accuracy
measurements with low drift. Three mutually orthogonal gyros can be combined into an
inertial reference unit (IRU). When 3 accelerometers are included for position and
velocity measurements, the package then becomes an inertial measurement unit (IMU).
Most spacecraft attitude control laws use measurements of the spacecraft angular
velocity, so such sensors are typically required.
The inherent bias in an inertial rate sensor is a constant offset in the rate measurement.
When the measured rates are integrated using spacecraft kinematics, the predicted attitude can
drift. The attitude estimates must therefore by corrected using measurements from reference
sensors. Typically, both reference sensors and inertial sensors are used to provide attitude
measurements to an Extended Kalman Filter, which outputs an optimal estimate of the
spacecraft attitude.
The reference sensor can be used to acquire the spacecraft’s initial attitude once in orbit
and also to provide periodic attitude updates. This requires that the reference object can be
measured by the reference sensor: e.g. the Sun, Earth or stars are within the sensor’s field of
view. During periods of eclipse or occultation, the inertial sensor provides the attitude
measurements; however, the accuracy of the attitude estimate will degrade until the reference
sensor measurement is next available. During nominal operations, both types of sensors are
providing measurements: the reference sensor with a reference attitude at some update rate
and the inertial sensor with the changes in attitude in between the attitude updates. In between
attitude updates, the attitude estimation error grows as a result of random drifts in the inertial
49
sensor. A Kalman filter can be used to minimize the attitude estimation error, and hence the
attitude knowledge error. In general, to provide the necessary pointing accuracy in a given
attitude control mode, high accuracy is required of the reference sensors and low drift rate (or
bias) is required of the inertial sensors.
3.4.3.1.1 Sun Sensors
A sun sensor is a detector that is sensitive to visible light from the Sun. There are three
types: an analog sun sensor, a sun presence detector, and the digital sun sensor. The sensor
field of view can range from several square arc-minutes to 128x128 degrees (37). Multiple sun
sensors with an unobstructed view are usually required to achieve the desired coverage.
The analog sensor is basically a solar cell with a current output proportional to the
cosine of the angle between the sensor normal vector and the incident solar radiation. A
minimum of three analog sun sensors are required to determine a measured sun vector (38).
The sun presence detector simply indicates when the Sun is within the sensor’s field of view.
The digital sensor provides an encoded, discrete output that depends on the Sun angle,
and is more accurate than the analog sensor. In the two-axis configuration, the digital sun
sensor can provide a sun vector measurement in sensor frame, which can be converted to body
frame given knowledge of the sun sensor frame orientation with respect to the body frame.
Digital sun sensors may also be limited by a maximum spacecraft rate and are sometimes used
for spinning spacecraft (39).
3.4.3.1.2 Star Sensors
A star sensor is a device that measures the position of a star within the star sensor
frame and compares those coordinates with known stars from a star catalogue onboard the
50
spacecraft. Star sensors provide the most accuracy in measuring the spacecraft attitude (capable
of achieving better than 1 arc-second accuracy). Since the star sensor relies on viewing,
identifying, and tracking one or more stars, complex techniques to do so are required. The
onboard software requirements are also extensive. Interference from bright sources, such as the
Sun, Earth, and Moon, can affect performance. Occultation can also interfere with the ability to
track stars. A star sensor usually consists of a Sun shade, an optical system, the detector, and an
electronics box. The Sun shade is very important, since it blocks out stray light from the Sun and
other sources (40).
Star sensors were once massive, required lots of power, and were very costly. Recent
advancements in CCD5 (charge-coupled device) and APS (active pixel sensor) technologies have
reduced the mass, size, and power consumption of star sensors.
There are 3 classes of star sensors, described below (35):
 Star scanners: These sensors operate on a spinning spacecraft, which provides a
method to scan the sky. The spacecraft attitude is determined by comparing the
observed stars to those in the star directory.
 Star trackers: These sensors operate on a 3-axis stabilized spacecraft. A single star in
the field of view can be used to determine the spacecraft attitude coarsely. Usually
more than a single star tracker is required to achieve the desired knowledge
accuracy.
5
This consists of an array of photo-sensitive elements that are digitally scanned and whose output is
passed onto a microprocessor.
51
 Star mappers: These sensors also operate on a 3-axis stabilized spacecraft. The field
of view of a star mapper is typically large enough to include several stars. From this
field of stars, the spacecraft attitude about the sensor’s optical axis can be
determined.
3.4.3.1.3 Gyroscopes
As previously mentioned, gyroscopes are categorized as inertial sensors, typically
included in inertial measurement units (IMUs). There are several types of gyroscopes:
mechanical (spinning-wheel) gyroscopes, ring laser gyros (RLGs), hemispherical resonator gyros
(HRGs), and fiber optic gyros (FOGs) (35). The operating principle behind each type of gyro is
described below.
 The mechanical gyro employs a spinning wheel mounted on a gimbal. The wheel’s spin
axis changes direction in response to spacecraft angular motion. The spinning wheel, or
rotor, has a constant magnitude angular momentum vector that is parallel to the gyro’s
spin axis. Any spacecraft motion about the input axis causes the gimbal that supports
the spin axis to precess about the output axis. When only one gimbal supports the spin
axis, the device is a single-degree of freedom gyro. A two-degree of freedom gyro uses a
second gimbal to support the spin axis.
 The RLG utilizes a laser whose light is split through a small triangular ceramic glass
prism. Rotating the prism about an axis normal to the triangle results in a longer path
length than the oppositely reflected beam. The interference between the two beams
can be used to measure angular rate.
52
 The HRG detects the response of a mechanical resonator (fused silica or quartz shell) to
the Coriolis force. When the shell resonates, a standing wave is generated on the
surface. Rotation about the sensitive axis cause the nodes of the wave to precess at a
rate proportional to the angular velocity. The Cassini spacecraft is equipped with such a
set of gyros. NOTE: Inexpensive piezoelectric vibratory gyros (PVGs) based on similar
operating principles are also being developed using micro-fabrication techniques. The
PVG functions by using piezoelectric transducers to actuate a small steel bar with
triangular cross-section. The response to Coriolis effects can be detected, thereby
serving as a measure of the angular rate. Currently the performance of PVGs is
inadequate for spacecraft.
 The FOG feeds a laser beam into both ends of a long fiber optic coil. Rotation of the coil
about its axis causes counter-rotating beams to traverse different distances. The phase
difference at the detector is a measure of angular rate.
3.4.3.2 Attitude Control Methods
To re-orient or maintain the spacecraft’s attitude requires an attitude control method
(also called an attitude control technique). Several methods have been developed, each with a
known pointing control accuracy capability. Pointing control accuracy represents the difference
between the commanded pointing direction and the true desired pointing direction. The
fineness of pointing control usually determines the attitude control method. For example, if a
specific mission requires coarse pointing control, one control method might be suitable,
whereas another might be more useful for fine pointing.
53
Attitude control methods can be organized into two categories: passive and active.
Passive techniques do not require control torque actuators to stabilize the spacecraft attitude.
Typically, an environmental torque can be used to provide this function. This type of attitude
control is simple and cost effective. Examples include gravity gradient, magnetic stabilization,
and spin-stabilization. Active control methods, however, are more complex and expensive,
requiring actuators to impart control torque and controller logic to command the actuators
given feedback estimates of the spacecraft attitude. Examples are dual-spin stabilization, bias
momentum stabilization, and zero momentum stabilization. Passive and active control methods
can sometimes be combined to provide full 3-axis attitude control (for example, gravity gradient
with pitch momentum bias to provide stiffness in yaw).
The following table summarizes the characteristics of passive and active attitude control
methods, along with the actuators (30). The attitude control methods are described in more
detail in the following sections.
Table 3-12. Summary of Attitude Control Methods
Control Control Actuator Wheel Pointing Typical # Axes

Method Method Desaturation Constraint Control Controlled
Type Actuators Accuracy
(deg)
Passive Gravity None n/a Nadir- >5 2
Gradient pointed
Passive Magnetic Permanent n/a Planet >5 2
magnets north-south
pointed
Passive Spin- None n/a Inertially 0.1 to 1 1
stabilization (except for pointed
mechanism
to spin up)
Active Dual-spin None n/a Inertially 0.1 to 1 1
stabilization (except for pointed
mechanism spun
to spin up) section;
54
Control Control Actuator Wheel Pointing Typical # Axes
Method Method Desaturation Constraint Control Controlled
Type Actuators Accuracy
(deg)
instruments
on de-spun
platform
constrained
by
geometry
Active Pitch Momentum Thrusters or Nadir- 0.1 to 1 1
Momentum wheel Magnetic pointed w/
Bias Torque Rods pitch wheel
normal to
orbit plane
Active Mass Thrusters n/a None 0.1 to 5 3
Expulsion
Active Zero Reaction Thrusters or None 0.001 to 3
Momentum Wheels Magnetic 1
Torque Rods
Active Zero Control Thrusters or None 0.001 to 3
Momentum Moment Magnetic 1
Gyro Torque Rods
Although several control methods are available to the spacecraft for this mission, some
can be ruled out from the beginning. The mission does not require operations in a nadir-pointed
orientation, so gravity gradient control is not needed. In general, an inertially fixed axis is not
required in normal operations and so spin and dual spin-stabilization control are also not
needed. An exception can be made for the use of a solid rocket motor for large Delta-V
maneuvers, such as lunar orbit insertion. In that case, spin-stabilization is typically employed to
keep the thrust vector aligned with the desired Delta-V direction. Since the pitch momentum
bias control method is typically used with gravity gradient control, this control method is not
considered in the trade space. Thus, of all the control methods discussed here, only the mass
55
expulsion (thrusters) and zero momentum (reaction wheels with thrusters) control methods are
considered for the mission in this research.
3.4.3.3 Attitude Control Actuators
There are two types of attitude control actuators: reaction actuators and momentum
exchange devices. Reaction actuators generate torques external to the spacecraft and as such
can change the spacecraft angular momentum vector. Examples include thrusters and magnetic
torque rods (typically used for desaturation of momentum exchange devices). Momentum
exchange devices, in contrast, generate torques internal to the spacecraft and as such do not
change the net angular momentum vector. Examples are reaction wheels, momentum wheels,
and control moment gyros (38). Each of these actuators is described in more detail in the
following sections.
Since only mass expulsion and zero momentum control are considered for this mission,
as discussed in the previous section, the only applicable actuators are thrusters and reaction
wheels. Reaction wheels can be used for fine pointing control and reaction control thrusters can
be used to coarser pointing control.
3.4.3.3.1 Thrusters
Thrusters are reaction actuators that generate torque by expelling mass. They typically
use chemical propellants, in either bi-propellant or mono-propellant systems, to generate thrust
that imparts torque to the spacecraft. They are used for attitude control, nutation control in
spinning spacecraft, spin rate control, and angular momentum dumping from momentum
wheels, reaction wheels, or control moment gyros. The desired torque is obtained by suitably
56
selecting the thrust and location of thrusters. Two thrusters with the same momentum arm and
thrust can be positioned to provide a pure couple about a desired axis.
In general, a reaction control system requires a minimum of 6 suitably-placed thrusters.
If the thrusters are angled such that they each produce a force along more than one axis, then a
minimum of four thrusters can sometimes be configured. In each of those cases, however, the
thrusters produce both translation and rotation. If pure rotation is required, then typically 8
thrusters can be configured in a single string. If both pure rotation and redundancy are required,
two strings can be designed for a total of 16 thrusters.
Thrusters operate by pulsing on and off, which generates a constant torque for the
pulse duration. Control algorithms that employ thrusters typically use pulse width modulation
(PWM), in which a suitable pulse duration is commanded so that the average torque imparted
during the pulse is equal to the commanded control torque. A limitation on this is minimum
impulse bit (MIB), which is the impulse imparted during the minimum achievable thruster pulse
(the shortest time that the thruster can be commanded on and then off). To avoid excess
propellant usage, the attitude control algorithm can use a dead-zone, which is a region in which
no thruster firings are allowed. That is, when the commanded control torque is below a specific
level, or when the rate error and attitude error fall within the dead-zone, the thrusters are
commanded closed. As such, only coarse pointing accuracy can be achieved by attitude control
thrusters (38).
57
3.4.3.3.2 Magnetic Torque Rods
Magnetic torque rods are reaction-type devices that pass current through wire coils to
generate magnetic dipole moments. The coil dipole moment ⃑𝒎

⃑⃑ interacts with a planet’s
magnetic field ⃑𝑩
⃑ to generate a torque on the spacecraft according to the following equation.
⃑𝑻 = 𝒎 ⃑⃑
⃑⃑⃑ ×𝑩 Equation 3-3
Note that the resulting torque is perpendicular to the instantaneous planet magnetic
field, so that torque rods alone cannot generate a torque about any arbitrary body axis. In
addition, torque rods have limited control authority, since the magnetic torque generated is
small under weak planetary magnetic fields (such as the Earth’s). For these reasons, magnetic
torque rods are typically not used alone for attitude control. They are usually accompanied by
reaction wheels. Torque rods can also be used to unload momentum built up in the reaction
wheels. Torque rods are also accompanied by magnetometers, which measure the local
magnetic field. Since torque rods, when active, generate a magnetic field, they cannot be
operated while magnetometer measurements are being taken.
Since the mission being researched here does not require a spacecraft that operates in
low Earth orbit, magnetic torque rods are not considered in the trade space.
3.4.3.3.3 Reaction Wheels
A reaction wheel is a momentum exchange device. Mechanically, it is a high-inertia
rotor whose spin (in either direction) is controlled by a torque motor. Spinning the wheel in one
direction about its spin axis applies a torque to the spacecraft. As a result of conservation of
angular momentum, the spacecraft platform responds to the torque (the change in angular
momentum) by turning about the wheel spin-axis in the opposite direction. In essence, angular
58
momentum is exchanged between the wheel and the spacecraft. Typically, three reaction
wheels are mounted with their axes not coplanar (e.g. an orthogonal arrangement) so that a
torque can be generated about any desired platform body axis. A fourth wheel, not orthogonal
to the others, can be supplied to provide redundancy (38). Since varying torque, up to the
motor’s capability, can be commanded to reaction wheels, fine pointing can be achieved.
In a zero disturbance torque environment, the spacecraft’s total angular momentum
remains constant. However, spacecraft typically experience external disturbance torques, which
change the spacecraft angular momentum. When reaction wheels are employed, they change
speed to absorb the change in angular momentum. Since the wheels have a maximum angular
momentum storage capability (a maximum spin rate), the angular momentum buildup must be
removed by reaction type actuators, such as thrusters or magnetic torque rods. These actuators
de-saturate the wheels by allowing them to reduce their wheel speeds. Normally wheel speed
changes would impart a torque on the spacecraft, causing it to turn about the torque axis.
However, these de-saturation actuators apply reaction torque that absorbs the change in
angular momentum induced by the wheel speed change. As a result, the spacecraft attitude can
be maintained while also dumping the accumulated momentum.
The simplest configuration for reaction wheel attitude control consists of three
orthogonal wheels, with each wheel’s spin axis parallel to a spacecraft body axis. This
configuration permits the independent sizing of each wheel. While three wheels at a minimum
can control the spacecraft’s attitude, if one fails then control is lost. To avoid this and increase
the system’s reliability, a fourth wheel can be added. The spin axis of this fourth wheel can be
oriented off of the three spacecraft axes to reduce the torque required by that wheel (41). A
59
more general 4-wheel orientation can also be considered: for example, the four wheels can be
mounted in a tetrahedron configuration.
For a 4-wheel configuration, a steering law is needed to distribute momentum between
the wheels. The steering law is a function of the mounting angles of the wheels. At any given
time, the momentum stored in the wheels can be mapped into the total angular momentum in
spacecraft body coordinates according to the following equation (41).
⃑𝒉𝑡𝑜𝑡,𝑏 = 𝐴[ℎ𝑤1 ℎ𝑤2 ℎ𝑤3 ℎ𝑤4 ]𝑇 Equation 3-4
where 𝐴 is the mounting transformation matrix into spacecraft body frame and ℎ𝑤𝑖 = 𝐼𝑤𝑖 𝜔𝑤𝑖 is
the angular momentum of each wheel about its spin axis.
The same relationship can also be used to transform the four wheel torques into
spacecraft body torques.
⃑𝑻𝑐,𝑏 = 𝐴[𝑇𝑤1 𝑇𝑤2 𝑇𝑤3 𝑇𝑤4 ]𝑇 Equation 3-5
Given a commanded control torque in body frame, the corresponding torques to each
wheel can be derived using the pseudo-inverse as:
[𝑇𝑤1 𝑇𝑤2 𝑇𝑤3 𝑇𝑤4 ]𝑇 = 𝐴𝑅 ⃑𝑻𝑐,𝑏 Equation 3-6
where 𝐴𝑅 = 𝐴𝑇 (𝐴𝐴𝑇 )−1 is the Moore-Penrose pseudo-inverse of A. This pseudo-inverse gives
the same result as minimizing the Hamiltonian 𝐻 = ∑4𝑖=1 𝑇𝑤𝑖

2
of the wheel torques.
Angular momentum can also be minimized. That is, instead of commanding wheel
torques directly, wheel angular momentum can be commanded. The problem then is
minimization of 𝐻 = ∑4𝑖=1 ℎ𝑤𝑖

2
.
Note that minimizing the wheel torque commands also minimizes the power
consumption, as the torque is proportional to motor current, and power is proportional to the
square of the current.
60
3.4.3.3.4 Momentum Wheels
A momentum wheel is a similar to a reaction wheel except that it has a large non-zero
nominal speed. The wheel spin provides a nearly constant angular momentum that provides
gyroscopic stiffness to the spacecraft in two axes. That is, the angular momentum allows the
spacecraft to resist external torques about those axes and keeps the spacecraft axis inertially
fixed that is parallel to the wheel spin axis. Applying motor torque to change the wheel speed
allows pointing control about the third axis (the spin axis). The wheel momentum accumulated
as a result of external torques must be periodically removed, using thrusters or torque rods.
As an example, a momentum wheel with its spin axis aligned with the orbit normal (the
spacecraft pitch axis in the standard orbit reference frame) can resist disturbances about the roll
and yaw axes, and can control the attitude about the pitch axis. Such a system is called pitch
momentum bias, and can be coupled with gravity gradient to control all three axes and keep the
spacecraft nadir pointed.
Since there is no long-term need for an inertially fixed spacecraft axis in the lunar
mission being researched, use of a momentum wheel is not considered in the attitude control
trade space.
3.4.3.3.5 Control Moment Gyros
If very high spacecraft turn rates are required, a control moment gyro (CMG) can be
employed. A control momentum gyro is a single or double-gimbaled wheel that spins at a
constant spin rate. High output torque about a desired axis can be generated by gimbaling the
spin axis. While useful for agile attitude maneuvers, they require complex control laws, have
61
high mass and are very costly. For these reasons and overall simplicity, CMGs are not
considered in the trade space of control actuators for the mission in this research.
3.4.4 Propulsion
The propulsion system onboard a spacecraft provides thrust to alter the spacecraft’s
orbit or trajectory. In general, rocket propulsion systems can be classified as depicted in Figure
3-4 below (35).
Rocket
Propulsion
Thermal Electric Nuclear
Radioisotope
Chemical Nuclear Solar Laser Electrothermal
(resistojet, arcjet)
Explosion
Solid Electromagnetic
(Pulsed Plasma)
Liquid (mono- Electrostatic (Ion,

prop, bi-prop) Hall Effect)
Figure 3-4. Classes of Rocket Propulsion Techniques. Source: (35)
There are 3 general categories: Thermal, Electric and Nuclear. The thermal classification
can itself be categorized into Chemical, Nuclear Thermal, Solar Thermal, and Laser Thermal
propulsion. Most modern spacecraft have employed chemical propulsion for both orbit control
and attitude control. Electric propulsion has been used for attitude and orbit control on many
commercial satellites. Only recently has electric propulsion been employed for low-thrust
62
trajectory control for missions beyond low Earth orbit, e.g. NASA’s Deep Space 1 and Dawn
missions (1998 and 2007 launches), and ESA’s SMART-1 lunar orbiter (launched in 2003).
In chemical propulsion, a fuel and oxidizer are combusted in a chemical reaction. The
hot products of this combustion are expanded through a convergent-divergent nozzle at high
velocity. The momentum exchange caused by the discharge of these combustion products
exerts a propulsive force on the attached vehicle, which causes translation. Standard chemical
propulsion can be classified based on the phase of the propellant used: solid, liquid, and even
hybrid (not shown).
Since all landers sent to the Moon and Mars to date have used chemical propulsion, and
the propulsion system mass accounts for a large part of the overall spacecraft mass, chemical
propulsion was the focus of the Propulsion system sizing in this research. Initial research was
conducted into sizing an electric propulsion system for a low-thrust trajectory to the Moon;
however, the design tool capability was not fully tested in this research.
Given the use of a chemical propulsion system for trajectory control and lunar descent
and landing, a database of commercially available mono-propellant and bi-propellant engines
was assembled. See Section 0 for more details on this database. In general, mono-propellant
and bi-propellant engines are advantageous because they can provide high thrust, are
throttleable, and re-startable. Hybrid engines were not considered as they have typically been
employed in launch vehicles rather than spacecraft.
3.4.5 Thermal
Since the architecture of the Thermal subsystem design tool involves use of a simple
rule of thumb for mass estimation and a radiator-sizing procedure (see Section 5.3.5 for details),
63
no detailed component selection was performed. As such, the thermal subsystem design is an
area for future work to select thermal components for the rover and lander to survive in the
cold environment of the lunar South Pole. In general, typical components for a thermal
subsystem include passive elements (such as radiators for heat dissipation, multi-layered
insulation (MLI), and thermal louvers) and active elements (such as electric heaters to maintain
electronics temperatures and propellant tanks within operating temperature limits, heat pipes,
and radioisotope heater units, RHUs).
3.4.6 Structures
The Structures system on a spacecraft provides the basis of the spacecraft configuration,
and is typically sized with minimum mass to support expected loads during launch and
spaceflight. No trades were identified in the Structures subsystem for the rover and lander in
this research. However, the rover was sized based on historical data, and the lander structure
mass was estimated considering the acceleration loads (see Section 5.3.6 for details).
3.4.7 Power
The power subsystem for a spacecraft contains the following basic components: primary
energy source, energy conversion mechanism, power regulation and control, rechargeable
energy storage, and power distribution and protection, and power load. This subsystem
organization is depicted in the following diagram (42):
64
Power
Energy Distribution
Regulation &
Conversion & Protection
Control
Primary Rechargeable
Energy Energy Power Loads
Source Storage
Figure 3-5. Components of a Space Power System (42)
Options for these power subsystem components are listed below:
 Primary Energy Source
o Solar radiation: Useful for missions within inner solar system where solar flux is
high
o Radioisotope: radioactive decay of specific elements
o Nuclear reactors: fission (splitting atoms) or fusion (technology not invented
yet)
o Chemical: energy from a chemical reaction
 Energy Conversion
o Photovoltaic: photons impinging upon semi-conductor materials generate
electricity from sunlight
o Thermoelectric: electricity generated from a heat source, which produces a
temperature difference between two semiconductor materials, thereby
generating an electric potential
65
o Dynamic alternator: also known as a thermodynamic energy converter; an
energy source drives a rotating turbo-generator or reciprocating alternator to
generate electricity
o Electrochemical: converts chemical energy directly into electricity
o Thermionic: thermal energy is converted into electricity using thermionic
emission: electrons (working fluid) are emitted from a hot body (cathode) and
collected at the anode.
 Rechargeable Energy Storage
o Electrochemical: converts chemical energy into an electrical potential (voltage)
difference
o Momentum: kinetic energy in rotating inertia is stored and converted to
electricity
All the energy conversion methods above are static (no moving parts), except for the
thermodynamic alternator.
The energy source and energy conversion method together produce individual
spacecraft power generation technologies. Characteristics of spacecraft power system options
currently available or in development are listed in Table 3-13.
Table 3-13. Spacecraft Power System Technology Options
Power Energy Energy Conversion Description

Technology Source Method
Solar arrays Sun Photovoltaic  Widely used on spacecraft
 Supports long life spacecraft near
inner solar system
 Arrays must be pointed toward
sun
 Cannot operate during eclipse
66
 Power capability degrades over
time due to various degradation
factors
Solar Sun Thermodynamic  Solar radiation is concentrated to
Concentrator heat a fluid to generate steam and
drive an electric generator or
alternator
 Can generate up to hundreds of
kilowatts of power
 Requires large concentrator area
 Twice the efficiency of solar arrays
Thermo- Radioisotope Photovoltaic  Heat is radiated toward IR-
photovoltaic decay or sensitive PV cells
solar  Cells must be operated at
temperatures < 60 C
 Power capability degrades over
time due to various degradation
factors
Primary batteries Electrolyte Electrochemical  Used on earliest spacecraft
 Electrolyte creates a potential
difference between electrode
plates
 One-time use (non-reversible)
based on charge-capacity (A-hr)
 Cell voltage decays with discharge
Secondary Electrolyte Electrochemical  Electrolyte creates a potential
batteries difference between electrode
plates
 Usually combined with solar arrays
 Provides power during eclipse
 Recharged during sunlight
 Requires charge/discharge
controller
Radioisotope Radioisotope Thermoelectric or  Useful for missions to outer solar
Power System decay heat thermodynamic system
 Suitable for power up to several
hundred watts
 Uses radioisotope such as Pu-238
 Thermoelectric system heats an
absorbing material (flight proven)
 Thermodynamic system uses
Stirling cycle with a reciprocating
electrical alternator (not yet flight-
proven)
67
Alkaline metal  Direct thermal to electric
thermal to electric conversion process (static system)
converter (AMTEC) using alkali metal conducting
ceramic β-alumina solid electrolyte
to conduct sodium ions
 Operates at ~1000K hot side, 600
K “cold” side
 Suitable for power < 100 W
(currently in development for
greater power levels)
 Low cell voltage
Nuclear Power Nuclear Thermodynamic  Fissile material used to heat a
System Fission working fluid, whose vapor drives
a turbine generator
 Useful for missions to outer solar
system
 Suitable for power in tens to
hundreds of kilowatts
 Uses fissile material such as
uranium-235
 Suitable for power up to several
megawatts
Fuel Cells Fuel + Electrochemical  Longer life than primary batteries
Oxidizer  Continuously provides power as
reaction long as reactants are supplied
 Constant cell voltage
 Hydrogen/oxygen fuel cell
produces water as the byproduct
Thermionic Cell Hot body Thermionic  Electrons released from a hot body
(Edison effect), say the cathode,
are collected at the anode
 No moving parts
 Operates at 1800 to 2000 K hot
side, and rejects heat at 800 to
1000 K
 Low cell voltage
Flywheels Rotational Electromechanical  High specific energy
kinetic  potential for twice the life and
energy depth of discharge compared to
(momentum) batteries
 no capacity degradation over life
 significantly less cost per kW-h
than some space-qualified
batteries
68
Spacecraft power system technology options that were investigated in this research are
listed in the following table. Since the focus of this research is to evaluate spacecraft design for a
lunar polar volatiles mission, only four basic power system options were considered: solar
arrays, batteries, radioisotope power, and fuel cells.
Table 3-14. Power system options considered in this research
Power System Option Typical Efficiency (%) Typical Specific

Power (We/kg)
Solar arrays ~15-30 ~5-10
Batteries (primary or ~70-75 n/a
secondary)
Radioisotope Power System ~7-32 ~7-15
Fuel Cells ~10-80 ~100-700
Even though momentum energy conversion technology (the flywheel) was not
considered in this research, it does present a possible option for replacement of batteries in
future spacecraft. In fact, NASA Glenn Research Center is actively studying it.6 Although a
potential replacement for batteries, the flywheel does have the following disadvantages:
 Lower reliability
 Safety at rotational speeds > 50,000 rpm
 Vibration and transient torque effects on attitude control system
6
The goals of this effort are: specific energy > 200 W-hr/kg; charge/discharge cycles > 75,000; system
efficiency > 90 %; cost reduction > 25 % (41).
69
4 TECHNICAL APPROACH
4.1 OVERVIEW
The technical approach to designing a lunar polar volatiles mission, as explored in this
research, is to automate the engineering design process beyond what present concurrent
engineering or other tools can provide. This involves eliminating the need for human interaction
during each design cycle and providing a method to conduct a vast array of trade studies. The
overall intent is not to replace modern concurrent engineering methods and facilities, but rather
to supplement them with a method that can inform the customer and discipline engineers with
an early assessment of candidate designs. While some initial user input may be needed to define
basic mission/spacecraft requirements and objectives, the approach envisioned here does not
require multiple engineers to make design decisions during the design process in real-time.
Often, in a concurrent engineering environment, only a few alternative concepts are
considered due to the overwhelming trade space of possibilities. By automatically building a
table of potential configurations, each one a combination of various subsystem design options,
and running them through a system design tool, a more thorough trade space evaluation can be
made than might otherwise be possible with humans-in-the-design-loop.
In this approach, the need for the expertise of the engineers is not be eliminated,
however. Instead, this expertise is still needed for the selection of the spacecraft design
parameter inputs. In addition, if this approach were adopted within industry, the expertise of
the discipline engineers would also be present in the fidelity of the subsystem design modules
70
that were developed, the component databases utilized, and in the programmable rules the
design tool employs for making design decisions.
The research presented here, as part of the effort to design a lunar polar volatiles
mission, develops an engineering design tool to produce an array of feasible designs. In this
prototype tool, an Excel-based user-interface provides a means to define numerous
combinations of design options for each subsystem of every spacecraft in the system for a
particular mission/trajectory. An individual combination defines a unique “system
configuration”, which is defined as an assembly of multiple spacecraft with user-specified
subsystem options. For a particular system configuration, the Excel tool then writes MATLAB-
formatted design parameter input files for each system element and converts the subsystem
component databases stored in the Excel spreadsheets into MATLAB data structures. The inputs
for the system configurations are passed onto the main MATLAB tool, along with a trajectory.
The main engine of the MATLAB tool functions by sequentially designing each spacecraft
subsystem in a pre-determined order. The subsystem design modules size each subsystem in
terms of mass, power, heat generation, telemetry data rates, etc. In certain cases, internal
trades are performed to decide which component in the applicable database best meets the
requirements. The component databases are provided primarily to obtain conceptual-level mass
and power estimates based on real hardware.
For a given subsystem design module, required inputs from another subsystem may not be
yet designed or up-to-date, so the tool uses the latest state of that subsystem in its sizing
calculations. The design process automatically repeats, with each subsystem design becoming
more mature with each iteration. The end goal is that the total system mass converges. If not,
the design process terminates (marking that particular system configuration as infeasible) and
71
then proceeds onto designing the next system configuration. In this way, an automated,
sequential-iterative design cycle can permit a complete concept point design to emerge.
Alternative designs can be developed by automatically repeating this design process with a
different set of design parameter inputs.
At the basic level, the lunar polar volatiles mission considered in this research consists of
at least a lander and rover equipped with suitable science instruments. As previously
mentioned, this mission has the objective of addressing important lunar polar science questions
(as identified in the National Research Council’s 2011 Planetary Decadal Survey). Since this
mission has not yet been flown, and current studies of such a mission have not thoroughly
considered the design trade space, the mission also provides a unique application to test the
ability of the proposed approach to generate alternative concept designs.
4.2 MISSION SCIENCE OBJECTIVES
Science results from a lunar polar volatiles rover mission should address the following
questions, as posed by the National Research Council (NRC) in its 2013-2022 Decadal Survey
(35):
 “How are volatile elements and compounds distributed, transported, and
sequestered in near surface environments on the surfaces of the Moon and
Mercury? What fractions of volatiles were out-gassed from those planets’ interiors,
and what fractions represent late meteoritic and cometary in-fall?
 What are the chemical and isotopic compositions of hydrogen-rich volatiles
(possibly water ice) near the Moon’s surface?”
72
It is theorized that volatiles in the lunar polar cold traps were deposited from material
out-gassed from the lunar interior, solar wind particles, interplanetary dust, and comets.
Studying the lunar polar volatiles would help unlock information on the state of the solar system
when life emerged on Earth. In particular, a lunar South Pole rover mission would address the
following science objectives, derived from the 2011 Decadal Survey.
Table 4-1. Lunar Polar Vehicle Science Objectives (43)
# Science Objective
1 Determine the form and species of the volatile compounds at the lunar poles.
2 Determine the vertical distribution/concentration of volatile compounds in the lunar
polar regolith.
3 Determine the lateral distribution/concentration of volatile compounds in the lunar
regolith.
4 Determine the secondary alteration mineralogy of regolith.
5 Determine the composition and variation in the lunar exosphere adjacent to cold traps.
As the above NRC Decadal Survey science objectives indicate, there is still a need to
identify the species of volatile compounds at the lunar poles both horizontally (at multiple
locations) and vertically (at depth). Science objectives 1, 2, and 3 signify that there is a need for
in-situ measurements on a platform capable of obtaining spatial volatile measurements. Such a
future mission could involve multiple small impactors at several locations; however, the high
cost and complexity of separate impactors might preclude such a mission. Another option would
be to send several penetrators to obtain scientific data within the soil, however the technology
for such penetrators is still not fully developed and the risk of mission failure is high (JAXA at one
point considered such a mission but funding and technical problems led to its cancellation).
Another option is to send multiple small landers equipped with drills to land at various locations,
however the cost and complexity of that approach might render it untenable. A fourth option is
to send a single large mobile vehicle (a rover) equipped with a drill to explore a permanently
73
shadowed crater. This last approach would be simpler in terms of cost and complexity, but
would require significant engineering to enable it to function within the harsh environment of a
lunar cold trap.
To address the aforementioned science objectives, the following mission objectives
should be met. A mobile platform (rover) is chosen over a stationary lander because of the
potential to better determine the concentration of volatiles spatially (both vertically and
laterally).
 Successfully land a large rover with a suitable science payload near or within a
permanently-shadowed lunar South Pole crater
 Confirm the presence and distribution of water-ice and other volatiles inside such a
crater
 Identify the elemental and mineralogical composition of the regolith within such a
crater
 Characterize the lunar environment in the vicinity of such a crater
 Demonstrate the survivability of a large rover within such a crater
4.3 REQUIREMENTS
In order to investigate the design trade space for a lunar polar volatiles mission, a design
tool must be developed that can generate numerous rover mission designs. In turn, to develop
both the mission and tool, the top-level requirements for both must be identified. These
requirements are outlined next.
74
4.3.1 Mission Requirements
The top-level requirements for the overall mission and spacecraft system are
summarized in the following table. This table requires that a lander and rover be landed at the
lunar South Pole, in a region of high-hydrogen concentration. To ensure a safe landing, hazard
detection technology must be used, to avoid large rocks, craters, and slopes that are present in
the rugged terrain around the lunar South Pole. Since a ballistic trajectory is assumed, the
launch vehicle upper stage must provide the Delta-V to transfer to the Moon as well as attitude
control during the transfer burn.
For the spacecraft themselves, the lander must serve as a relay between the rover and
the Earth. NASA’s Deep Space Network is required for communication between the lander and
the Earth. The lander itself must provide 3-axis attitude determination and control during all
relevant mission phases. The lander must be designed to support all major structural loads
throughout the mission. Finally, the lander and rover must have separate, independent power
systems.
Table 4-2. Requirements for Lunar Polar Volatiles Mission and Spacecraft
ID Requirement
1 The system shall consist of a lander and a rover that are delivered to the lunar surface.
2 The rover shall be equipped with a suitable set of science instruments that meet the
National Research Council’s 2011 Decadal Survey lunar polar volatiles science objectives.
3 The system shall land at a suitable location with high-hydrogen concentration at the
lunar South Pole.
4 The system shall land at a safe, hazard-free site, utilizing hazard detection and avoidance
technology.
5 For a ballistic trajectory (employing chemical propulsion), the launch vehicle upper stage
shall provide the Delta-V for the initial transfer orbit.
6 For a ballistic trajectory (employing chemical propulsion), the launch vehicle upper stage
shall provide attitude control during the transfer orbit insertion Delta-V burn.
7 The system shall use the lander as a relay between the rover and the Earth.
75
ID Requirement
8 The system shall utilize the NASA DSN for communication between the vehicle and Earth.
9 The lander shall require full three-axis attitude knowledge as part of attitude
determination during all applicable mission phases.
10 The lander shall provide full three-axis attitude control (pure rotation, no translation)
during all applicable mission phases.
11 The system shall be designed to maintain operational temperatures for all internal
electronics and instruments for all operational environments.
12 The system shall be designed to support all major structural loads.
13 The lander and rover shall have independent power systems.
4.3.2 Design Tool Requirements
To build a tool to design multiple configurations of a lander and rover, a basic set of
high-level requirements was established. These requirements are listed in the following table.
To summarize these requirements, tool should allow the design of numerous system
configurations in an automated manner, designing each subsystem of the lander and rover in
terms of mass and power, as well as designing the Descent & Landing phase.
Table 4-3. Requirements for Spacecraft Design Tool
ID Requirement
1 The tool shall enable the design of numerous configurations of a combined lander/rover
system.
2 The tool shall perform the design of each system configuration in an automated manner
(without humans-in-the-design-loop).
3 The tool shall operate on a set of design parameter inputs for each system configuration.
4 The tool shall provide a graphical interface for the user to specify design parameter
inputs.
5 The tool shall design each subsystem of the lander and rover, outputting at least total
subsystem mass and power estimates.
6 The tool shall be able to use a separately-designed trajectory file in the JPL SPICE kernel
format (SPK file) for position, velocity, and other relevant trajectory data.
7 The tool shall design the Descent & Landing phase of the mission, including estimating
the required propellant mass (i.e. this is not included in the SPK trajectory).
76
4.4 SYSTEMS ENGINEERING
To properly perform a concept study for a lunar polar volatiles rover mission, a systems
engineering approach is indispensable. As a general principle, applying systems engineering
early in the life cycle of any space mission is essential to arriving at a design that is feasible and
maximizes the chances of success. In particular, the Concept Phase of a space mission’s life cycle
is critical in terms of evaluating multiple candidate concepts and justifying the concept that is
ultimately selected (44). Many projects have been tempted to shortcut the Concept Phase and
proceed directly to detailed design. According to the International Council on Systems
Engineering (INCOSE), many failure review boards have found that insufficient study at the
conceptual level was a root cause of failure for the system in question. For this reason, the
Concept Phase is considered an essential ingredient of mission success: it lays the foundation for
the mission requirements, the resulting overall system design after evaluating many concepts,
the integration & testing activities, mission operations, and analysis of failure mechanisms.
At a high level, one can conceive of a lunar polar volatiles rover mission consisting of the
following elements: the surface science payload, a rover, a lander. The mission architecture
must identify the type of trajectory to deliver the lander/rover stack to the Moon, the de-orbit
method, and the landing site, all of which affect the design of the subsystems of each vehicle. In
terms of system design, the rover’s scientific instrumentation must be selected to meet the
science objectives; suitable rover subsystems (power, communications, thermal control, and
command & data handling) must be designed for survivability to return science data during
surface operations; suitable lander subsystems (propulsion, attitude control, power,
communications, thermal control, command & data handling) must be designed to operate
throughout the mission.
77
To perform subsystem designs and trade studies, a structured system engineering
approach is essential. There are many different systems engineering standards depending on
the group developing the system: military (e.g. Department of Defense), civil (e.g. NASA),
commercial integrators, commercial manufacturers, etc. There are also many different systems
engineering process models based on the type of project: waterfall, spiral, the “Vee” process,
agile development, etc. The Vee process was selected for this project as it provides a
straightforward representation of systems engineering activities during various stages of the
project life cycle. The Vee process is illustrated below (45).
Figure 4-1. “Vee” Systems Engineering Process Model
This Vee process model can be applied at any stage of a project’s life cycle. A typical
project life cycle can consist of the following stages (as described in the INCOSE handbook) (44):
 Exploratory Research: identify needs of stakeholders, explore ideas and technologies
 Concept: Refine stakeholder’s needs, explore feasible concepts, propose viable solutions
 Development: Refine system requirements, build system, verify and validate system
78
 Production: Produce, inspect, and verify system
 Utilization: Operate system to satisfy user’s needs
 Support: Provide sustained system capability
 Retirement: Store, archive or dispose of system
Since this project consists of research into trade studies (system, subsystem, and
mission design), the applicable life cycle stages are: exploratory research and concept.
Since this project could be envisioned as a NASA mission, the standard NASA life cycle
phases can also be referenced. These NASA life cycle phases (which mirror the above INCOSE
stages) are:
 Formulation
o Pre-phase A: concept studies
o Phase A: concept & technology development
o Phase B: Preliminary design & technology completion
 Implementation
o Phase C: Final Design and Fabrication
o Phase D: System assembly, integration & test, launch
o Phase E: Operations & sustainment
o Phase F: Closeout
Following the NASA life cycle model, this research project focuses on the pre-phase A
concept study phase. The outcome or product deliverable of this phase is a feasible concept,
based on trade studies and systems engineering processes.
79
4.5 DESIGN TOOL DEVELOPMENT
Given the high-level design tool requirements outlined in Table 4-3, a brief discussion of
the assumptions and decisions made, regarding tool development and implementation, are
provided next.
4.5.1 Programming Language Selection
First, a decision had to be made as to what programming language to use to develop the
tool. Three programming languages were considered: C, C++ vs. MATLAB. A comparison of the
of the options is provided in Table 4-4. Overall, the flexibility and ease-of-use of MATLAB made
it the option to select.
Table 4-4. Comparison of C, C++, MATLAB Attributes
Attribute C or C++ MATLAB

Portability Y Y
Need to compile Y N
Parallel Execution Y N
Need for variable declaration Y N
Built-in matrix-based math N Y
functions
Built-in “structure” data type Y Y
Built-in optimization or N Y
search functions
Ease of writing code Medium Easy
Built-in error detection and N (user must print warning) Y
warning
Built-in graphical plotting N Y
tools
Ease of building a graphical Medium Medium
user interface
At first, the C or C++ programming languages were considered. The pros to this are:
 The potential portability of the final code (compiled for the proper operating system)
 The ability to code and compile separate programs and run them in parallel.
80
However, there were several cons to consider:
 The need to declare and initialize every variable in use was considered a negative, given
the hundreds of parameters potentially required.
 Specialized functions for any matrix-based linear algebra calculations would have to be
developed from scratch, as the researcher was not aware of any validated free libraries
to perform such calculations.
 Any optimization or search functions would have to also be developed from scratch.
 The difficulty in compiling and debugging code written in these languages was
considered a drawback.
 The lack of any easy-to-use graphical plotting tools.
 Given the requirement to have a user interface to input design parameters, the added
effort of having to build an entire graphical user interface (GUI), say in Visual C++, would
have been extremely time-consuming and tedious.
The other option considered was MATLAB, a high-performance language geared toward
matrix-based technical computing. The advantages of MATLAB are:
 Variable declaration by data type is not required. Variable initialization is based on the
as-needed use of the variable and the algorithm being coded.
 The ability to perform matrix-based calculations, so no special set of libraries must be
developed.
 Built-in error detection to identify the module and line of code where an error occurred.
 Availability of built-in optimization and search functions.
 No compilation of code is required, since MATLAB is an interpretive language. MATLAB
also comes with its own IDE (Integrated Development Environment) that has smart
81
coding features to assist the user in writing error free code, as well as stepping through
code while it’s running.
 MATLAB has a built-in “structure” data type that can be used to house collections of
parameters. C and C++ have this ability also, but the data structures must be declared
before use.
 Availability of graphical plotting tools.
 The ability to develop graphical user interfaces (although it has some limitations and can
be somewhat cumbersome to use in practice)
 With the right license type, more than one MATLAB instance can be called to distribute
the load in running planned lander/rover system configurations.
Some disadvantages of MATLAB are:
 Functions within a single instance of MATLAB can only be called in series, not in parallel.
That is, there are no executables as in C/C++ that can run in parallel and communicate
with one another in real-time.
 The entire MATLAB engine must be loaded into memory. This could be an issue if
numerous instances of MATLAB are required to distribute the load of designing
numerous system configurations.
4.5.2 Serial vs. Parallel Subsystem Design
Another aspect of the design tool development is how to approach the design of the
required spacecraft subsystems. Two approaches were immediately obvious: a serial approach
in which each subsystem is sized in a specific order, or a parallel approach in which the
subsystems are designed concurrently. The choice of programming language determined which
82
approach could be used. If C or C++ was chosen, then either a serial or parallel approach could
be taken. The C/C++ code could be written as one executable with each subsystem designed in
series, or as separate executables where each subsystem is designed at the same time as other
subsystems (in parallel). With MATLAB selected, however, only the serial approach could be
taken. This required the researcher to assume a pre-determined order for the subsystem design
module calls (see Section 5.2.3 for details). This order was determined based on the researcher’s
judgment, rather than an investigation of which order made the most sense. For example, the
Structures module is the second-to-last subsystem that is designed within the sequential
ordering. The rationale for this is that, for the very first call of the Structures module, if no other
subsystems have been sized, there are no load requirements on the spacecraft. Similarly, the
Power module was specified last since it was assumed that the power requirements from all
other subsystems must be known first.
In either the serial or parallel subsystem design cases, iteration of some type is required
to achieve design convergence. The serial subsystem design case requires a straightforward
iteration process. Since the subsystems are all interdependent, the inputs into each subsystem
become more mature, reflecting the latest state from the previous iteration. In this manner, the
design of each subsystem matures with each “system iteration.” A key assumption is that this
maturation process leads to convergence of the overall system design in terms of mass. In the
parallel design case, however, the iteration process is expected to be a little more complex. The
run-time for each subsystem design module can be different, and depends on the complexity of
the sizing algorithm implemented. That is, each subsystem design module would not take the
same amount of time to run once, so synchronizing the inputs to obtain design convergence
would be a little more involved.
83
4.5.3 Trade Studies
Lastly, the method used to conduct trade studies in the design tool was considered. Two
options became apparent: conducting trade systems at the system level vs. performing internal
trade studies within the selected subsystem design modules. Performing all trades at the system
level meant that the user would have to somehow specify each trade option for each subsystem
as an input. The result would be a unique set of design parameter inputs encapsulating each
system configuration. Each system configuration constitutes a trade of the overall system to be
compared with the other system configurations. This would have potentially led to an
overwhelming number of system configurations to design and evaluate (leading to a total run-
time problem). The other option, performing all trades internal to each subsystem, would have
required more complex subsystem design algorithms, thereby increasing the time to code and
also the run time per subsystem module. Given these two extremes, a decision was made to
conduct some trades at the system level, and some internally.
The design tool was written to conduct the following trades at the system level:
 Telecom architecture (relay or direct-to-Earth)
 Propulsion engine selection
 Power system type selection and specific technology within that power system category
The design tool was written to conduct the following trades internally:
 Telecom hardware selection (based on a searching for antenna dimensions and RF
power required to provide > 3dB link budget for all communication events)
 ADCS sensors and actuators selection
The CDS, Thermal, and Structures design modules did not explicitly involve any design
trades. The goal for those modules was simply to estimate mass and power based on system
84
complexity (CDS), spacecraft system dry mass (Thermal), or structural loads and assumed
material properties (Structures).
4.6 SCIENCE PAYLOAD
Given the survey of past and planned science instruments on recent landers, rovers, and
atmospheric probes (see Section 3.3), the science payload for the lunar polar volatiles was
selected. To properly study the potential volatiles within the lunar regolith at depth and at
multiple sites (per the NRC’s 2011 Decadal Survey lunar polar volatiles science objectives), this
science payload should be housed on the rover.
NASA science mission concepts and proposals typically follow a formal process to select
science instrumentation. One of the required elements of NASA science mission proposals is the
Science Traceability Matrix (STM). This is a table that links high-level science objectives down to
the selected instrumentation and to the associated mission and spacecraft requirements. A
typical STM consists of the high-level Science Objectives, followed by the Measurement
Objectives, the measurement requirements, the selected instruments, the instrument
requirements, and science data products. This information can also be linked to mission
requirements and technology development needs.
An STM was created to aid in the identification of science instruments for this research.
The final STM generated for this research is shown in Table 4-5 through Table 4-8. In this STM,
the Science Objectives begin with the 5 objectives outlined in the NRC’s 2011 Decadal Survey for
lunar polar volatiles science. The first part of the STM, in Table 4-5, traces the selection of 3
instruments to the first science objective: determining the form and species of the volatile
85
compounds at the lunar poles. The 3 selected instruments are a Sample Pyrolysis Quadrupole
Mass Spectrometer, a Regolith Conductivity Analyzer, and a Downhole Microscopic Imager.
To determine the composition of the lunar regolith in a polar cold trap, a mass
spectrometer of some sort is needed. The type of mass spectrometer selected uses vacuum
pyrolysis—heating a sample to elevated temperatures in a vacuum to release the trapped
volatiles (e.g. temperatures greater than 1400 degrees C are required to release trapped oxygen
and other noble gases). For comparison, the Viking lander gas chromatograph mass
spectrometer (GCMS) was capable of heating samples to 500 C, the Phoenix Thermal Evolved
Gas Analyzer (TEGA) instrument was able to heat samples up to 950 C, and the MSL rover’s SAM
instrument (Sample Analysis at Mars) can heat samples between 950-1100 C. This type of mass
spectrometer has been shown to be an efficient way to release trapped volatiles within a
sample of material. Since no flight proven mass spectrometer yet operates up to 1400 C, the
technology is being developed by NASA as a part of its Desert Research and Technology Studies
(Desert RATS) program. In this regard, this program has been testing the Volatile Analysis by
Pyrolysis of Regolith (VAPoR) instrument, which is a simplified version of the MSL rover’s SAM
instrument (46).
86
Table 4-5. Science Traceability Matrix (Science Objective 1)
Science Objective Measurement Measurement Requirement Instrument

Objective
1. Determine the Determine the Obtain spectral data at Sample
form and species of composition of sufficient resolution and Pyrolysis
the volatile volatile compounds atomic mass range to Quadrupole
compounds at the (isotopes, elements, determine chemical Mass
lunar poles. molecules, composition of volatile Spectrometer
minerology) in the compounds (H2O, hydroxyl
regolith in-situ. OH, CO2, CO, methane CH4,
ammonia NH3, N2, H2) from
10 regolith samples (5 at
depth and 5 at the surface).
Determine the soil Measure temperature, Regolith

characteristics of the thermal conductivity (heat Conductivity
lunar regolith both flow), electrical conductivity Analyzer
from an undisturbed of 5 regolith surface
(in-situ) and samples.
disturbed sample.
Observe the size and texture Downhole
of regolith at microscopic Microscopic
levels. Imager
The second science objective is to determine the vertical distribution/concentration of
volatile compounds in the lunar polar regolith, as shown in Table 4-6. One measurement
objective this implies is the ability to detect the presence of layered volatile deposits in the
subsurface regolith. To achieve this, a ground penetrating radar was selected to detect the
change in dielectric constant due to layering with back-scattered radar. A second measurement
objective is to obtain the concentration (or abundances) of volatiles compounds at depths up to
2 m (data from LRO’s LEND instrument suggest that hydrogen deposits exist within the upper
1m of the regolith). This implies the presence of a sample acquisition drill to extract vertical
87
samples. One challenge of drill design and operations would be to ensure it can operate in the
less than 100 K temperatures of a lunar polar cold trap. A sample transfer mechanism will also
be needed to deliver the acquired samples to the sample analysis instruments (such as the mass
spectrometer). To measure hydrogen concentration at depth, a neutron spectrometer can be
mounted near the drill head. Honeybee Robotics has implemented drill systems with an
embedded neutron spectrometer detector at a mass of 0.5 kg and 1 W.
Science Objective Measurement Measurement Instrument

Objective Requirement
2. Determine the vertical Determine the Detect the change in Ground
distribution/concentration presence of dielectric constant due Penetrating
of volatile compounds in layered volatile to layering with Radar
the lunar polar regolith. (specifically water backscattered radar.
ice) deposits
within the regolith
to a depth of N m.
Measure the Acquire samples of Sample
concentration regolith at depth for Acquisition
(abundances) of sample chemical Drill
volatile analysis
compounds to a
depth of 2m in
situ.
Deliver regolith samples Sample
acquired at depth to Transfer
sample analysis Mechanism
instruments
Measure hydrogen Downhole
concentration (2 ppm) neutron
with sufficient spectrometer
resolution beyond
orbital remote sensing
capabilities, within each
hole drilled into the
regolith.
88
The third science objective is to determine the lateral distribution/concentration of
volatile compounds in the lunar regolith (see Table 4-7 below). This can be achieved by imaging
the terrain with cameras (both visible light and infrared). If the rover operates within a
permanently-shadowed region (PSR), artificial lighting can be used to illuminate the local
terrain. Otherwise, sunlight can provide the illumination source. In addition, to determine the
lateral distribution of hydrogen, the downhole neutron spectrometer mentioned earlier can be
used to measure samples at depth at multiple locations. Instead of requiring 2 neutron
spectrometers, the downhole neutron spectrometer (mounted on the drill head) can also be
used when it is in a stowed position.
Science Objective Measurement Measurement Instrument

Objective Requirement
3. Determine the lateral Obtain visible *Obtain monochrome Visual Imaging
distribution/concentration images of surface visible imaging spatial Camera
of volatile compounds in geology. data under illuminated
the lunar regolith. conditions
*Provide lighting to
generate shadows on
rocks within field of
view
Measure the Obtain thermal maps at Thermal IR
temperature of a minimum of 5 surface Camera
surface regolith in locations separated by
context to local at least 1 m
geology
Measure the Measure hydrogen Downhole
concentration concentration (2 ppm) neutron
(abundances) of at 5 surface targets. spectrometer
volatile
compounds
horizontally at
various surface
locations in-situ.
89
The fourth and fifth science objectives and their associated instruments are listed in
Table 4-8. The fourth science objective is to determine the secondary alternation minerology of
the regolith—that is, determining the minerals formed from low-temperature geochemical and
gas phase diffusion processes operating on primary minerals. To achieve this, an X-ray
diffractometer can be used to analyze the structure of the regolith using the backscatter signal
from an X-ray source onto a surface or sub-surface sample.
The fifth science objective is to determine the composition and variation of the lunar
exosphere adjacent to a cold trap. The measurement objective corresponding to this is to
determine the chemical compounds in the lunar exosphere to understand how volatiles are
transported and how they are retained within the cold traps. To achieve this, spectral data of
the ambient exospheric gases (such as Neon 20, He, H2, and Argon 40) can be obtained. Since a
mass spectrometer is already included in the set of science instruments, an exosphere inlet can
be used to sample the exospheric gases.
Table 4-8. Science Traceability Matrix (Science Objectives 4 and 5)
Science Objectives Measurement Measurement Instruments

Objectives Requirements
4. Determine the Determine minerals Measure backscatter signal Soil Sample X-
secondary alteration formed by from an X-ray source onto at ray
mineralogy of secondary alteration least 1 surface sample and 1 diffractometer
regolith. (from low- subsurface sample.
temperature
geochemical and gas
phase diffusion
processes operating
on primary
minerals).
90
Science Objectives Measurement Measurement Instruments
Objectives Requirements
5. Determine the Determine the Obtain in-situ spectral data Sample
composition and chemical of ambient exosphere gases Pyrolysis
variation of the lunar compounds present (Neon 20, He, H2, Argon 40) Quadrupole
exosphere adjacent in the lunar at a minimum of 5 separate Mass
to cold traps. exosphere within a horizontal locations. Spectrometer
cold trap to
understand volatiles
transport &
retention processes.
Using some of the data in the science instrument database identified in Section 3.3,
along with a literature search on planned advancements in instrument technology, the following
table of instrument masses and power required was assembled. This table represents a lower
bound on the total instrument masses, assuming instrument technology development.
The instruments selected were categorized into two groups based on the importance of
their measurements: those of Priority 1, which are considered essential to the science data
return, and those of Priority 2, which are not essential but would provide “bonus” science.
According to this categorization, the Priority 1 instruments (including the mass spectrometer,
imaging camera, drill, sample transfer mechanism, and downhole neutron spectrometer) sum
up to a mass of 24 kg. The Priority 2 instruments sum up to a mass of ~5.1 kg. So, if all
instruments were included on the lunar polar volatiles rover, the total mass would be 29.1 kg.
Table 4-9. Science Instrument Mass and Power Summary
Instrument Priority Mass (kg) Peak

Power (W)
1. Sample Pyrolysis Quadrupole Mass 1 4 80
Spectrometer
2. Visual Imaging Camera 1 3 15
3. Sample Acquisition Drill 1 10 100
4. Sample Transfer Mechanism 1 3 35
5. Downhole Neutron Spectrometer 1 4 3
91
Instrument Priority Mass (kg) Peak
Power (W)
6. Regolith Conductivity Analyzer 2 0.1 0.6
7. Ground Penetrating Radar 2 0.5 3
8. Thermal IR Camera 2 2 5
9. Soil Sample X-ray diffractometer 2 2 12
10. Downhole Microscopic Imager 2 0.5 2
Total (Priority 1) 24
Total (Priority 2) 5.1
Total (All) 29.1
In terms of power, the instruments requiring the most power are the mass
spectrometer (80 W), the sample acquisition drill (100 W), and the sample transfer mechanism
(35 W). To simplify the payload power modes and reduce the required power from the rover, it
is assumed that the instruments are each operating at different times. The following table
illustrates an example list of power modes for the science payload. Note that the imaging mode
includes use of all cameras. However, it may be desirable to image while drilling and transferring
the sample, so that the drill mode total power could increase.
Table 4-10. Example Science Modes
Mode Power
(W)
Drilling 100
Sample Transfer 35
Sample Analysis 80
Imaging 25
Neutron Spectrometry 3
Radar Sounding 3
Conductivity 0.6
X-ray Diffractometry 12
Overall, for the purposes of this research, a total science instrument payload mass of 30
kg with a peak power of 100 W was assumed. These instrument mass and power estimates
92
assume advancement in development of the sample acquisition drill, the sample transfer
mechanism, the mass spectrometer, and ground penetrating radar. As an example of the
assumption of further technology development, the instrument masses for this research are
compared with the Johns Hopkins Applied Physics Lab’s (JHUAPL) study report on a lunar polar
volatiles explorer (LPVE) mission (47). A total instrument suite mass of ~69 kg was assumed for
the JHUAPL concept, more than twice the estimate assumed in this research. The large
reductions in assumed mass are highlighted in Table 4-11. The mass spectrometer assumed in
this research is almost 10 kg lighter than that assumed in the JHUAPL study, while the power
estimate is nearly twice as much in this research as the JHUAPL study. The sample acquisition
drill, based on Honeybee Robotics plans, has a mass of 10 kg vs. ~42 kg in the JHUAPL study.
However, the power estimate is nearly the same. The sample transfer mechanism is assumed to
be 3 kg in this research vs. 8.5 kg in the JHUAPL study. Lastly, the ground penetrating radar is
assumed to be extremely miniaturized in this research (at 0.5 kg) compared to 3.5 kg in the
JHUAPL study.
Table 4-11. Comparison of JHUAPL LPVE mission instruments vs. this research
Instrument Mass (kg) Mass (kg) Power Power (W)

(This (JHUAPL (W) (JHUAPL
research) study) (This study)
research)
Sample Pyrolysis
Quadrupole Mass
Spectrometer 4 13 80 47
Visual Imaging Camera 3 n/a 15 n/a
Sample Acquisition Drill 10 41.6 100 98
Sample Transfer Mechanism 3 8.5 35 34
Downhole Neutron
Spectrometer 4 0.8 3 2.9
Regolith Conductivity
Analyzer 0.1 n/a 0.6 n/a
Ground Penetrating Radar 0.5 3.5 3 8
93
Instrument Mass (kg) Mass (kg) Power Power (W)
(This (JHUAPL (W) (JHUAPL
research) study) (This study)
research)
Thermal IR Camera 2 n/a 5 n/a
Soil Sample X-ray
diffractometer 2 0.9 12 12
Downhole Microscopic
Imager 0.5 0.3 2 1
Total 29.1 68.6
4.7 LANDING SITE SELECTION
For the purposes of this research, the landing site for the lunar science rover is
designated to be near the lunar South Pole. While the lunar North Pole is equally as valid, the
lunar South Pole was a general area of interest in NASA’s recent crewed lunar return efforts
(canceled in 2009). The specific landing site should be an area with a high concentration of
hydrogen, as revealed by recent spacecraft observations of the lunar poles. Such a high
hydrogen concentration site at the lunar South Pole is likely to be within a permanently-
shadowed region but could also be within a sunlit region, as both regions appear to have
signatures of hydrogen. In addition, the landing site determination can be affected by
architecture-level decisions such as the type of communications and power system. For a vehicle
that must maintain direct communications with Earth, the landing site must be in an area with
visibility to the Earth. For vehicles dependent on solar power generation, the landing site must
clearly be within a sunlit region or with nearby accessibility to a sunlit region. Also, the landing
site environment has an effect on the thermal design of the rover, which must operate in the
cold temperatures of shadowed regions or warmer temperatures of sunlight regions. Figure 4-2
shows a temperature map with craters named for context.
94
Figure 4-2. Lunar South Pole craters and temperature map from LRO Diviner thermal mapper data (NASA)
The first step in identifying a potential landing site for this research is to obtain a map of
areas in the lunar South Pole with high hydrogen concentration. Figure 4-3 below shows a map
of epithermal neutron flux (count rate, or counts per second) as detected by the Lunar
Exploration Neutron Detector (LEND) instrument onboard NASA’s Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter
(LRO) spacecraft, launched in 2009 and currently orbiting the Moon. The Russian-made LEND
instrument consists of nine detectors that operate by measuring the flux of neutrons (thermal,
epithermal, and fast) that are produced from molecules and atoms near the lunar surface when
bombarded with high-energy cosmic rays. The neutrons can interact with other elements in the
lunar regolith, which can slow them down. The neutrons can also be absorbed by some of these
elements, such as hydrogen. As a result, neutron speeds can be used to deduce elemental
composition. The map in Figure 4-3 depicts LEND neutron count rate data for both the North
and South lunar polar regions above +80 and -80 degrees latitude, respectively. The dark blue
and purple regions indicate areas with low neutron count rates, which are called neutron
95
suppression regions (NSR). The NSRs are indicative of areas with increased hydrogen content. In
the case of the lunar South Pole epithermal neutron map (right projection), two distinct dark
patches are seen (48):
1. One on the right half of the projection South Pole projection, within a Shoemaker crater,
with up to ~0.2 % water by weight.
2. One on the left half of the South Pole projection, within Cabeus crater, with even higher
estimated water-ice levels of ~0.4 % water by weight.
Figure 4-3. LRO LEND maps of epithermal neutron flux at North and South lunar poles (48)
From this LEND data, the Cabeus and Shoemaker craters appear to be interesting initial
candidate sites for a lunar polar volatiles rover mission. Characteristics of these craters are
summarized in Table 4-12. The Cabeus crater region has the largest diameter and depth, with
maximum crater floor slope of 15 degrees.
96
Table 4-12. Candidate Lunar South Pole Landing Site Characteristics
Crater Name Width (km) Depth (km) Floor max Latitude (deg Longitude
slope South) (deg)
(deg)
Cabeus 98 4 15 84.9 35.5 West
Shoemaker 50 3-4 13 88.1 44.9 East
Zoomed maps of both these craters are shown in the following two figures. Figure 4-4
shows the epithermal neutron flux at Cabeus crater with an inset on the upper right containing a
temperature map. In the larger neutron flux map, the white outlines indicate permanently-
shadowed regions, while the pink contours denote neutron suppression regions. It can be seen
that the neutron suppression region extends beyond the bounds of the permanently-shadowed
region by up to 20 km. The thermal map inset indicates that the region with strongest neutron
suppression has a temperature of about 40 K (-233 degrees C), while the outer region has a
temperature of about 80 K (-193 degrees C). Thus, within Cabeus crater there is hydrogen both
within shadow and in sunlight. The estimated hydrogen content in the deepest neutron
suppression region is 500 ppm, while in all of Cabeus crater it is 300 ppm (49).
97
Figure 4-4. Epithermal neutron flux map at Cabeus crater from LRO LEND data (49)
Figure 4-5 below shows the epithermal neutron flux at Shoemaker crater. In this case,
the neutron suppression region contains an entire permanently-shadowed region as well as a
ring outside it.
Figure 4-5. Epithermal neutron flux map at Shoemaker crater from LRO LEND data (48)
98
The above two results are in agreement with other studies. According to (49), in which 9
permanently-shadowed regions were studied for neutron suppression, Cabeus crater has the
strongest neutron suppression, followed by Shoemaker crater, and then Haworth crater. The
enhanced hydrogen content suggested at Cabeus crater was the reason that the LCROSS
spacecraft was directed to impact it in September 2009.
The discovery that the lunar poles have some neutron suppression regions outside of
permanently-shadowed regions (within sunlight) is an interesting result. It is expected that in
sunlit areas near the poles, the upper few centimeters of regolith could be heated to 200 K (-73
degrees C). At this temperature, any hydrogen-rich volatiles, such as water ice, should
evaporate. Thus, the hydrogen content in these sunlit areas should be much less than the
underlying soil. That is, hydrogen content is expected to increase with soil depth. For example, if
the upper 60 cm thick hydrogen-poor layer is assumed to have a concentration of 100 ppm, the
buried hydrogen could be between 600 to 4500 ppm. This represents buried water-ice content
of up to 4% by weight. Note that LCROSS detected about 5.6 +/- 2.9 % water content by weight.
A more complex model of volatile accumulation is needed to explain the suggestion of a shallow
subsurface hydrogen layer (49).
From a science perspective, then, the desired landing site for this research is selected to
be the floor of Cabeus crater. As previously stated, there are both shadowed and sunlit regions
within Cabeus crater that could accommodate either a non-solar powered rover or a solar
powered one.
99
5 METHODS AND TOOLS
5.1 OVERALL MISSION AND SYSTEM DESIGN PROCESS
In this research, the overall process for designing a space system to meet the
requirements of a specific mission involves a few steps, as depicted in Figure 5-1 below. The first
step is to conceptually define the objective of the mission, based on customer requirements and
stakeholder needs. In the case of this research, the objective of the mission being designed is to
prospect for lunar polar volatiles in order to answer scientific questions as posed by the National
Research Council’s most recent 2011 Decadal Survey. Once these objectives are defined, the
next step is to brainstorm how to deliver the spacecraft to its destination (the trajectory) and
what instrumentation (payload, in terms of mass, peak power, and peak data rate) is required to
meet the mission objectives. Once these high-level requirements are determined, the next step
is to design the mission and spacecraft to meet these requirements.
100
Define high-level requirements:
 mission objectives based on stakeholder needs Design and build
 applicable trajectory type(s) trajectory SPK and
 payload instruments (mass, power, etc.) simulation data files
MASD Tool MASS Tool
Define spacecraft design Run specific system configuration

parameters and build system .m files in Mission and Spacecraft
configuration .m parameter files Sizing (MASS) tool to produce a
using Mission and Spacecraft point design for each configuration
Definition (MASD) tool .m file
Analysis Tool
Rank system configuration point

designs by desired criteria (mass,
etc.) and identify minimum mass
design solutions
Figure 5-1. Overall Mission and System Design Process
5.1.1 Trajectory Definition
The first step in the mission and spacecraft design process is to design and build a
trajectory to transport the spacecraft to its ultimate destination (in the case of this research, the
Moon). This trajectory can be designed using a suitable trajectory design software package. In
this research, the General Mission Analysis Tool (GMAT, version 2013) designed by the NASA
Goddard Space Flight Center (GSFC) was used. Regardless of what tool is used, the trajectory
must be converted into two data files: 1) the SPK (spice kernel) format for use by the JPL SPICE
toolkit (provided by JPL’s NAIF—Navigation and Ancillary Information Facility—to provide space
geometry and event data for mission design, science planning and science data analysis), and 2)
a time-based simulation data file containing spacecraft position and velocity data relative to
101
both the Earth and the destination central body (e.g. the Moon), along with a spacecraft mass
estimate.
5.1.1.1 GMAT Resources
The trajectory in GMAT can be designed either using the graphical user interface (GUI)
or a GMAT script. In any case, the procedure in GMAT requires the user to specify the
“resources” to be used in designing the trajectory. The essential resources include a satellite
object, a fuel tank (to model propellant consumption), 2 impulsive burns (translunar injection or
TLI, and lunar orbit insertion or LOI), 2 propagators (one Earth-centered and the other Moon-
centered), and a differential corrector boundary value solver.
The key satellite parameters (epoch and a subset of the orbital elements) are
summarized in Table 5-1. As this table shows, the satellite object has a starting epoch of July 13,
2018 03:00:00 UTC. The initial parking low Earth orbit (LEO) is given as a 150 km circular orbit.
This altitude was selected as the optimal Earth departure altitude to minimize the total Delta-V
to reach a 15 km low lunar orbit (from an early patched conic study done by the researcher as
part of the USC Ph.D. Qualification Exam). Thus, the orbit semi-major axis is set as 6528.137 km
(6378.137 km Earth equatorial radius + 150 km) and the eccentricity is set as 0. Since the
argument of perigee is undefined for a circular orbit, a value of zero is assumed. The values of
the other orbital elements (inclination, right ascension of the ascending node or RAAN, and true
anomaly) are not known a priori and are solved for by GMAT.
Table 5-1. GMAT Satellite Key Parameters
Parameter Value
Epoch July 13, 2018 03:00:00 UTC
Semi-major axis (km) 6528.137
LEO altitude (km) 150.0
Eccentricity 0.0
102
The fuel tank object is set with a total fuel mass of 10,000 kg (a placeholder number), a
density of 1260 kg/m3, pressure of 1500 kPa, and volume of 9 m3. Negative fuel mass was
permitted to allow GMAT to reach a trajectory solution without terminating the run in cases
where negative fuel mass was encountered.
Each of the two impulsive burn objects (TLI and LOI) specify the components of the
Delta-V vector in an Earth-centered “VNB” orbital reference frame, where V is along the orbit
velocity vector (orbital frame X-axis), N is normal to the orbit plane (Y-axis), and B (Z-axis)
completes the triad. The required Delta-V components for both the TLI and LOI burns are solved
for by GMAT. For the TLI burn, however, an estimate of the Delta-V component in the X-axis
direction is given as 3.146 km/s to assist the solver in finding a trajectory solution. This value
was obtained from the researcher’s previously-mentioned patched conic lunar trajectory study.
Both impulsive burn objects are allowed to decrement mass using the fuel tank object, with an
assumed propulsive Isp of 300 seconds.
The 2 propagators both use the Runge-Kutta 89 numerical integrator (provided by
GMAT). The Earth-centered propagator uses a 20x20 (degree x order) harmonic Earth gravity
field based on the JGM-2 gravity model, assumes no atmospheric drag, includes gravitational
perturbation from the Moon only (treated as a point mass), and accounts for solar radiation
pressure. The Moon-centered propagator uses a 20x20 harmonic lunar gravity field based on
the LP-165 gravity model, includes gravitational perturbation from the Earth (point mass), and
accounts for solar radiation pressure.
The differential corrector (DC) solver in GMAT is a numerical solver for boundary value
problems. According to the GMAT Help, the DC uses a simple shooting method to refine a set of
103
variable parameters to meet a set of goals, where the derivatives are obtained by finite
differencing. For this research, the default forward difference method was used.
5.1.1.2 Mission Sequence
To allow GMAT to find a trajectory from the Earth to a low lunar orbit starting at the
specified satellite epoch and circular low Earth orbit, a mission sequence is specified. This
mission sequence includes two “Target” commands. The target command solves for a condition
by varying one or more parameters.
The objective of the first target command, named “Target Periselene” is to execute the
TLI burn to target a periselene at 100 km altitude over either lunar pole. The parameters that
the “Target Periselene” command varies are the LEO inclination, RAAN, and true anomaly, as
well as all 3 components of the TLI Delta-V vector. The search range for each variation in LEO
inclination, RAAN, and true anomaly is from 0 to 360 degrees. The variation in the TLI Delta-V
vector components is from -4 to 4 km/s in X, Y, and Z (or VNB) directions. All of these parameter
variations uses the differential corrector boundary value solver. Given the varying LEO orbital
geometry, satellite true anomaly, and TLI Delta-V components, the TLI impulsive burn is then
executed. The trajectory is then propagated using the Earth-centered propagator until lunar
periapse (or periselene) is reached. Two “Achieve” commands are then used to specify goals for
the final state at the end of the propagation. The first goal is to achieve a 100 km lunar altitude
at periselene. The second goal is to achieve a polar position at periselene, by setting the
required B-plane component 𝐵 ∙ 𝑇 = 0.
Once the desired state at periselene is achieved, the second target command then
executes. The goal of this command, named “Target LOI” is to execute the LOI burn to place the
104
satellite into a circular lunar orbit (with altitude of 100 km and a polar inclination from the
previous target command). To do this, the LOI Delta-V x-component is varied between -3 to 0.2
km/s. The Δ𝑉𝑥 parameter variation is seeded with an initial value of -0.776 km/s (as identified in
the researcher’s early patched conic study). Note that the Delta-V component has a negative
sign since the satellite’s velocity must be reduced in order to be captured into lunar orbit. Given
the varying Δ𝑉𝑥 , the LOI impulsive burn is executed. The orbit is then propagated using the
Moon-centered propagator for 1 lunar orbit. To ensure a circular orbit is achieved, an “Achieve”
command is used to target a lunar eccentricity of 0.
5.1.1.3 Trajectory Solution
The GMAT mission sequence described above converges to a solution very quickly,
taking only 15.5 seconds. The periselene targeter converged in 19 iterations (out of the user-
specified maximum of 50). The final values of the varied parameters are summarized in the
following table. Note that the TLI Delta-V vector has values in all 3 components, indicating that
the desired Delta-V direction is not in-plane to the low Earth orbit. Also note that the Delta-V
magnitude is 3.654 km/s (compared to the 3.146 km/s from the lunar patched conic trajectory
study). The LOI targeter achieved a solution in 3 iterations, requiring an LOI Delta-V x-
component of -0.861 km/s (compared to the -0.776 km/s obtained from the lunar patched conic
study).
Table 5-2. Solved GMAT LEO conditions, TLI/LOI Delta-V components, and time of flight
Parameter Value
LEO inclination (deg) 20.950
LEO RAAN (deg) 0.440
LEO true anomaly (deg) 4.362
TLI DVx (km/s) 2.933
TLI DVy (km/s) 1.558
TLI DVz (km/s) 1.524
105
Parameter Value
TLI DV magnitude (km/s) 3.654
LOI DVx (km/s) -0.861
Trajectory time of flight (days) 3.2
The overall trajectory (from TLI to 1 lunar orbit past LOI) took 76.87 hours (or 3.2 days),
which is a relatively fast lunar trajectory. The final epoch is July 13, 2018 07:04:02.7 UTC. From
the GMAT simulation data file, the satellite mass after TLI was 3177.8 kg, and the final mass
after LOI was 2371.6 kg, suggesting an LOI propellant mass of 806.2 kg. The total propellant
mass for this lunar mission, including de-orbit, descent, and landing, is estimated in this research
by the MATLAB-based Mission and Spacecraft Sizing (MASS) tool.
Visualizations of the solved trajectory are provided in the following figures. In these
figures, the satellite’s trajectory is shown in red, and the Moon’s trajectory is shown in gray. In
Figure 5-2, note that the trajectory appears to be very elongated, corresponding to the fast
lunar transfer time of flight.
Figure 5-2. Solved GMAT lunar transfer trajectory (Earth inertial view)
106
The polar low lunar orbit after LOI is shown in Figure 5-3. This provides visual
confirmation that the intended final condition was achieved.
Figure 5-3. Solved GMAT low lunar orbit (Moon inertial view)
5.1.2 Definition of System Parameters
Once the trajectory files are available, the next step is to use an Excel-based tool named
the Mission and Spacecraft Definition (MASD) tool to define the overall spacecraft design
parameters. The end goal is to create a set of system configuration .m input files that will be
used in a separate MATLAB-based Mission and Spacecraft Sizing tool. The overall process for
using the MASD tool to define the spacecraft design parameters is depicted in Figure 5-4 below.
107
MASD Tool
MASD Tool Click on “Pre-populate Subsystem

Design Parameters” button to pre-fill
Enter high-level mission & system the following input sheets with default
data: design parameters
 Trajectory type  Trajectory
 Mission Phases  Ground System
 Spacecraft elements  Payload
 Spacecraft Subsystem  7 Subsystems
Matrix
MASD Tool MASD Tool
Customize system by Click on “Create MATLAB Inputs” button to create MATLAB design
specifying design parameter input .m files (multiple system configuration
parameters in all input combinations). Parameter files are:
sheets  Trajectory parameters .m file
 Ground system parameters .m file
 System configuration .m files containing design
parameters for all subsystems in each spacecraft
element
Subsystem
databases
Figure 5-4. Overall Process to Define System Design Parameters and Create System Configurations in MASD tool
The first step in using this tool is to enter high-level information in the “Mission &
System” sheet, as depicted in Table 5-3. This high-level information includes:
 Trajectory type: the type of trajectory being employed in the mission
 Mission Phases: a list of mission phases (as user-input phase names, selecting the phase
type from a pre-defined list, and selecting the primary gravitational body influencing the
trajectory for each mission phase)
 Spacecraft Elements: a list of spacecraft elements required for the mission (as user-
input element names, selecting the spacecraft type from a pre-defined list). Multi-
element spacecraft are treated like a spacecraft stack, where one spacecraft is the
108
payload of another spacecraft. This approach lends itself for delivery systems such as a
Lander carrying a rover to the lunar surface.
 Spacecraft subsystem matrix: A table specifying “Y” or “N” indicating whether a
particular subsystem is present onboard each spacecraft element in the stack. This is
useful in case a particular spacecraft element does not contain a particular subsystem,
e.g. a Rover typically does not contain a Propulsion system (rather it contains a Mobility
system that is book-kept with the Structures & Mechanisms subsystem).
Once this high-level information is entered in the “Mission & System” sheet, the first
action is to click the button named “Assign Spacecraft & Prefill Subsystem Parameters”. The
functions of this button are to: 1) get the list of user-input spacecraft elements; 2) get an array
of true/false flags for the subsystems in each spacecraft element, indicating whether the user
requires that subsystem to be present onboard the given spacecraft element; 3) going to each
subsystem sheet in the Excel workbook and adding a new column for each spacecraft element
that the user-defined; 4) and pre-filling the design parameters with default values for each new
spacecraft element column in each subsystem sheet. The purpose for pre-populating the design
parameters is to save the user time in specifying all the design parameters, since many of the
default values will likely be acceptable. The sheets that are pre-populated with default design
parameter values are: Payload, CDS, Telecom, ADCS, Propulsion, Thermal, Structures, and
Power.
109
Table 5-3. “Mission & System” sheet in Mission and Spacecraft Definition (MASD) tool
MISSION AND SPACECRAFT DEFINITION (MASD) tool

MISSION
Trajectory Options Value 1) Pre-populate Subsystem
Design Parameters
Trajectory Type Ballistic
Primary
Mission Phase Name Phase Type Gravitational Body 2) Create MATLAB Inputs
Cruise Cruise Earth
Lunar Orbit Orbital Operations Moon
Entry, Descent, and
Descent and Landing Landing Moon
Surface Operations Surface Operations Moon
Spacecraft Elements
Spacecraft Element Name Spacecraft Type
Rover Rover
Lander Lander
Set has_XYZ_flag = true

or false depending on S/C
Spacecraft Subsystem Matrix element type
Spacecraft Element CDS Telecom ADCS Propulsion Thermal Structures Power
Rover Y Y Y N Y Y Y
Lander Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
Once the design parameters in the individual subsystem sheets are pre-populated, the
next step is for the user to customize the design parameters themselves. This is the most
interactive portion of the design definition process, as the user must go through the various
input sheets and specify desired values for the various design parameters.
In addition to the payload and various subsystem sheets, two additional inputs sheets
are the “Trajectory” and “Ground System” input sheets. Additional ancillary data sheets are the
“Defaults” sheet containing the default value of all design parameters for each input sheet, the
“Definitions” sheet containing lists of the available options for specific design parameters
present throughout the various input sheets, and an “External Data” sheet containing tables
connected to tables existing within external workbooks (using the Microsoft Excel Query tools).
Screenshots of the various input sheets are shown in the following sections along with a brief
summary of the design parameters included within each sheet. In each screenshot, it is assumed
that a Rover and Lander are the two user-input spacecraft elements. Also, note that the second
110
column, labeled “MATLAB Parameter Name” contains the parameter name as a variable that is
recognized by the MATLAB-based Mission and Spacecraft Sizing tool (MASS), which is described
in Section 5.2 in more detail.
5.1.2.1 Trajectory Inputs Sheet
The trajectory inputs sheet contains a single column to define trajectory-specific inputs
such as:
 General trajectory inputs:
o The path to the trajectory SPK file
o The path to the trajectory simulation data text file
o The spacecraft SPK ID (for querying spacecraft position and velocity in the
trajectory SPK file)
o Target body: The destination of the mission
o Landing site latitude and longitude (for surface missions)
 Descent & Landing inputs: See section 5.3.8 for details of the Descent & Landing
simulation
o # of integration steps for braking burn 1 (BB1) phase
o Initial (or lower bound on) starting altitude for the BB1 de-orbit phase
o Maximum starting altitude for the BB1 de-orbit phase
o BB1 de-orbit altitude search step size
o Approach phase velocity magnitude
o Approach phase slant angle
o Approach phase starting slant range
111
o Approach phase final slant range
o Hazard avoidance divert distance
o Maximum allowable # of descent engines for D&L algorithm to assume
An example input sheet is shown in Table 5-4.
Table 5-4. “Trajectory” input sheet in Mission and Spacecraft Definition (MASD) tool
Trajectory MATLAB Parameter Name Value

General
Trajectory Type type Ballistic
Trajectory ID traj_ID 1
SPK File Path spk_filepath C:\Users\Michael\OneDrive\Documents\Education\PhD\Thesis\GM
Sim Data Path traj_data_filepath C:\Users\Michael\OneDrive\Documents\Education\PhD\Thesis\GM
Spacecraft SPK ID sc_spk_id -123456789
Target Body target_body Moon
Landing Site Latitude (deg) landing_site_latitude_deg -89
Landing Site Longitude (deg) landing_site_longitude_deg 0
Descent & Landing
# integration steps for Braking Burn 1 descent_landing.N_steps_bb1 500
Plot BB1 mass data per D&L iteration descent_landing.plot_mass_iter_flag FALSE
Starting altitude for BB1 de-orbit burn
search (km) descent_landing.h0_initial_km 15
Maximum altitude for BB1 de-orbit
burn search (km) descent_landing.h0_max_km 100
BB1 de-orbit altitude search step size
(km) descent_landing.dh0_km 1
Initial uprange distance at BB1 start descent_landing.S0_initial_km 700
Approach phase velocity magnitude
(m/s) descent_landing.v0_approach_mps 10
Approach phase slant angle (deg) descent_landing.slant_angle_approach_deg 30
Approach phase starting slant range
(m) descent_landing.r0_approach_m 1000
Approach phase final slant range (m) descent_landing.rf_approach_m 150
Hazard avoidance divert distance (m) descent_landing.D_term_m 100
Initial # descent engines descent_landing.num_engines_initial 1
Maximum # descent engines descent_landing.max_num_engines 6
5.1.2.2 Ground System Inputs Sheet
The “Ground System” inputs sheet contains design parameters for the ground network
antenna system that communicates with the spacecraft. For this research, NASA’s Deep Space
Network is assumed for the lunar mission, although other ground networks could conceivable
be used as well. The design parameters included in the “Ground System” inputs sheet include:
112
 The antenna system being used (assumed use of 34m DSN antennas since the 70m
systems are very expensive to use)
 The desired frequency band for the antenna (this depends on the frequency band
capability of each antenna system)
 Miscellaneous link parameters such as ground antenna pointing error (assumed to be 6
milli-degrees per pg. 243 of (33)), antenna efficiency, antenna noise temperature,
transmission line loss, receiver line loss, Earth atmospheric zenith loss, maximum
elevation angle (assumed to be 6 degrees per Ted Sweetser recommendation), system
implementation losses, receiver noise figure, modulation scheme, required receiver
signal-to-noise ratio, and uplink data rate
An example input sheet is shown in Table 5-5.
Table 5-5. “Ground System” input sheet in Mission and Spacecraft Definition (MASD) tool
Ground System MATLAB Parameter Name Value

Ground Antenna Network Type type DSN
Antenna System antenna_system DSN 34m
Desired frequency band desired_freq_band X-band
Pointing Error (deg) pointing_err_deg 0.006
Antenna Efficiency antenna_efficiency 0.55
Antenna noise temperature Tant_K 68.75
Transmission Line Loss (dB) Lt_line_loss_dB -1
Receiver Line Loss (dB) Lr_line_loss_dB -0.5
Polarization Loss (dB) L_polariz_loss_dB -0.3
Earth atmospheric zenith
absorption loss (dB) L_absorp_loss_zenith_dB -0.04447
Minimum elevation angle (deg) min_elev_angle_deg 6

System Implementation Loss
(dB) L_implement_dB -2
Receiver Noise Figure (dB) receiver_noise_figure_dB 1
BPSK/QPSK + R-1/2
Modulation Scheme modulation_scheme Viterbi Decoding
Required receiver signal-to-
noise ratio (Eb/N0) (dB) receiver_Eb_N0_req_dB 5
Uplink Data Rate (bps) R_uplink_datarate_bps 4000
113
5.1.2.3 Payload Inputs Sheet
The Payload inputs sheet contains the fewest number of design parameters. The
payload mass (for all instrumentation) and peak power (of all payload operation modes) are
entered in this sheet.
An example Payload inputs sheet is shown in Table 5-6 below. Note the presence of the
“Science Payload” and the “Other Payload” rows. The science payload entries indicate the mass,
power, and data rate estimates for the payload instrument suite onboard the spacecraft
element. The other payload entries indicate any other instrument packages that are not used for
science but nevertheless required onboard the spacecraft. Note that the “other payload” mass
and power design parameters have entries of 20 kg and 20 W, respectively, for the Lander.
These design values represent estimates for an onboard Hazard Detection and Avoidance (HDA)
system, similar to that flown on NASA’s ALHAT (Autonomous Landing and Hazard Avoidance
Technology) project (50), and assumed to be present on the Lander to aid in safe landing site
identification. The mass and power estimates currently just represent placeholder numbers.
Table 5-6. Payload inputs sheet in Mission and Spacecraft Definition (MASD) tool
Science Payload Definition MATLAB Parameter Name Rover Lander

Another spacecraft is payload? has_spacecraft_payload_flag N Y
Science Payload Mass (kg) m_instr_payload_kg 30 0
Science Payload Peak Power (W) P_instr_payload_peak_W 100 0
Science Payload Peak Data Rate (kbps) R_instr_payload_peak_kpbs 50,000 0
Other Payload Mass (kg) m_other_payload_kg 0 20
Other Payload Peak Power (W) P_other_payload_peak_W 0 20
Other Payload Peak Data Rate (kbps) R_other_payload_peak_kbps 0 1000
Other Payload Operations Phase other_payload_ops_phase n/a Descent and Landing
5.1.2.4 CDS Inputs Sheet
The CDS inputs sheet contains several parameters specifying that subsystem’s
functionality, capability and operation. The list of inputs includes:
114
 System type: command only, telemetry only, or combined command & telemetry
 Autonomy
o Software autonomy complexity level: simple or complex
o Presence of fault monitoring
o Presence of fault detection
 Command Processing
o Command processing rate (# commands per second)
o Total # of command channels for subsystem control
o Computer bus constraints (single, multiple, or integrated units)
 Environmental: low and high operating temperature limits for CDS electronics in a warm
electronics box (WEB), and the radiation environment level
 Telemetry
o Standard telemetry sampling frequencies (Hz) for voltage, current, temperature,
data storage; telemetry margin; and total # of telemetry channels
An example CDS inputs sheet is shown in Table 5-7 below.
115
Table 5-7. “CDS” inputs sheet in Mission and Spacecraft Definition (MASD) tool
MATLAB Parameter
CDS Name Rover Lander
Combined Command Combined Command
System Type system_type and Telemetry and Telemetry
Autonomy
Software level of autonomy software_autonomy Complex Complex
Has fault monitors? has_fault_monitors_flag Y Y
Has fault correction? has_fault_correction_flag Y Y
Command Processing
Onboard Command Rate (cmds/sec) cmd_rate_cmds_per_sec 50 50
# Command Channels for Subsystem
Control num_cmd_channels 200 200
Computer Bus Constraint bus_constraint Integrated Integrated
Environmental
Low Operating Temperature (deg C) T_low_op_C -10 -10
High Operating Temperature (deg C) T_high_op_C 50 50
Radiation Environment (krad) radiation_environment_krad 10 10

Telemetry
Voltage telemetry rate (Hz) fs_generic_voltage_rate_Hz 10 10
Current telemetry rate (Hz) fs_generic_current_rate_Hz 10 10
Temperature telemetry rate (Hz) fs_generic_temp_rate_Hz 1 1
Data storage telemetry rate (Hz) fs_data_storage_Hz 1 1
Telemetry data rate margin factor f_tlm_margin 0.1 0.1
# telemetry channels num_tlm_channels 500 500
5.1.2.5 Telecom Inputs Sheet
The Telecom inputs sheet contains the most design parameters of all the input sheets.
The telecom design parameters are grouped into the following categories:
 General: Telecom architecture type (e.g. DTE or Relay), and whether the spacecraft
element serves as a relay node to Earth.
 Uplink/Downlink Parameters: List of link parameters such as spacecraft receiver noise
figure, link polarization loss, system implementation loss, Earth atmospheric zenith
absorption loss, link modulation scheme (should be the same as that input in the
“Ground System” inputs), minimum elevation angle (if the spacecraft operated on a
planetary surface or surface of a moon with an atmosphere), and the required
spacecraft receiver signal-to-noise ratio
116
 Hardware parameters: RF amplifier cut-off power above which to select a TWTA
(traveling wave tube amplifier) vs. an SSPA (solid state power amplifier)
 Primary Antenna parameters: the antenna type, presence of a gimbal, pointing error,
efficiency, range of dimensions (minimum, maximum and step size) for the antenna
diameter and length (if applicable), range of RF transmission power (minimum,
maximum, and step size), antenna noise temperature, and line loss
 The same set of design parameters for the Backup antenna
 The same set of design parameters for the Relay antenna (if present)
 Telemetry: Standard telemetry sampling frequencies (Hz) for voltage, current,
temperature; and telemetry compression ratio.
An example of the Telecom inputs sheet is shown in Table 5-8.
117
Table 5-8. “Telecom” inputs sheet in Mission and Spacecraft Definition (MASD) tool
TELECOM MATLAB Parameter Name Rover Lander

General
Telecom Architecture Type telecom_arch_type Relay (w/ DTE in loop) Relay (w/ DTE in loop)
Does this spacecraft relay data directly
to Earth? is_relay_node_flag N Y
Uplink/Downlink Parameters
Spacecraft receiver noise figure (dB) receiver_noise_figure_dB 1 1
Link polarization loss (dB) L_polariz_loss_dB 0 0
System implementation loss (dB) L_implement_dB -2 -2
Earth atmospheric zenith absorption loss
(dB) L_absorp_loss_zenith_dB 0 0
BPSK/QPSK + R-1/2 BPSK/QPSK + R-1/2
Link modulation scheme modulation_scheme Viterbi Decoding Viterbi Decoding
Minimum elevation angle (deg) min_elev_angle_deg 0 0
Required spacecraft receiver signal-to-
noise ratio (Eb/N0) (dB) receiver_Eb_N0_req_dB 5 5
Hardware Parameters
RF amplifier cut-off power above which
to select TWTA (W) RF_power_TWTA_cutoff_W 15 15
Cabling mass fraction cabling_mass_fraction 0.1 0.1
Primary Antenna (for DTE)
Primary antenna type primary_antenna.antenna_type Parabolic Parabolic
Is antenna gimballed? primary_antenna.gimbaled_flag N N
Primary antenna pointing error (deg) primary_antenna.pointing_err_deg 0 0
Primary antenna efficiency factor primary_antenna.antenna_efficiency 0.55 0.55
Primary antenna min diameter (m) primary_antenna.D_antenna_min_m 0.1 0.1
Primary antenna max diameter (m) primary_antenna.D_antenna_max_m 0.5 0.5
Primary antenna diameter step size (m) primary_antenna.D_antenna_step_m 0.05 0.05
Primary antenna min length (m) primary_antenna.L_antenna_min_m n/a n/a
Primary antenna max length (m) primary_antenna.L_antena_max_m n/a n/a
Primary antenna length step size (m) primary_antenna.L_antenna_step_m n/a n/a
Primary antenna min RF transmission
power (W) primary_antenna.Pt_min_W 5 5
Primary antenna max RF transmission
power (W) primary_antenna.Pt_max_W 80 80
Primary antenna RF transmission power
step size (W) primary_antenna.Pt_step_W 1 1
Primary antenna temperature from
environmental noise (K) Tant_K 84.56 84.56
Primary antenna line loss (dB) L_line_loss_dB -0.5 -0.5
5.1.2.6 ADCS Inputs Sheet
The ADCS inputs sheet contains the second most numerous list of design parameters.
These parameters are grouped into the following categories:
 General
o Is an inertial sensor (e.g. IMU) required?
o Does the spacecraft element have attitude control (e.g. for a free flying
spacecraft that can slew)?
o Include a reaction control subsystem (RCS) in the internal design trade space?
118
 Telemetry: standard voltage, current, and temperature telemetry sampling frequencies,
along with RWA speed sampling frequency
 Software
o Cycle time for ADCS software
o Software functionality flags for items such as kinematic integration, attitude
error determination, ephemeris propagation, orbit propagation, and Kalman
filter presence
 RCS inputs (if applicable): If an RCS is included in the trade space, parameters such as:
o # thrusters firing per control axis (typically 2)
o # single string thrusters
o # thruster strings (typically 2)
o RCS propulsion system type (typically mono-prop)
o Pressurant
o Pressurant feed system type (e.g. tank pressure fed) and subtype (blowdown)
o RCS propellant mass margin, residual mass margin, loading uncertainty factor
o Minimum impulse specific impulse (Isp) fraction
 RCS tank parameters: parameters such as fuel tank maximum pressure, fuel tank
material, composite tank liner material (if fuel tank is composite), tank pressure factor
of safety, propellant control device type, etc.
 Body vectors: Definition of standard body vectors used for specifying the spacecraft
attitude
 Pointing: Parameters such as default pointing accuracy, knowledge accuracy fraction,
slew coasting time fraction, and default slew coasting rate
119
An example of the ADCS inputs sheet is shown below.
Table 5-9. ADCS inputs sheet in Mission and Spacecraft Definition (MASD) tool
ADCS MATLAB Parameter Name Rover Lander

General
Inertial reference sensor required? inertial_sensor_required_flag Y Y
Has attitude control functionality? has_attitude_control_flag N Y
Include reaction control system in design trade space? rcs_possible_flag N Y
Telemetry
RWA speeds telemetry rate (Hz) fs_rwa_speeds_Hz 10 10
Software
Cycle time (sec) t_software_cycle_sec 0.05 0.05
Has kinematic integration? has_kinematic_integration_flag Y Y
Has attitude error determination? has_error_determination_flag Y Y
Has ephemeris propagation? has_ephemeris_propagation_flag Y Y
Has complex ephemeris? has_complex_ephemeris_flag N N
Has orbit propagation? has_orbit_propagation_flag Y Y
Has Kalman filter? has_kalman_filter_flag Y Y
RCS inputs (if applicable)
Assumed thruster valve current (A) rcs.I_assumed_current_thruster_valve_A n/a 1
RCS torque margin (%) rcs.f_rcs_torque_margin_percent n/a 100
# thrusters firing per control axis rcs.N_thrusters_firing_per_axis n/a 2
# single string thrusters rcs.num_single_string_thrusters n/a 8
# thruster strings rcs.num_thruster_strings n/a 2
RCS propulsion system type rcs.type n/a Mono-prop
Pressurant rcs.pressurant n/a All
Pressurant Phase rcs.press_phase n/a gas
Pressurant Feed Type rcs.press_type n/a Tank Pressure Fed
Pressurant Feed Subtype rcs.press_subtype n/a Blowdown
Regulator pressure drop (if applicable) (MPa) rcs.dP_regulator_MPa n/a n/a
Mixture ratio (if applicable) rcs.mixture_ratio n/a n/a
RCS propellant mass margin rcs.f_margin n/a 0.25
RCS propellant residual mass margin rcs.f_residual n/a 0.03
RCS propellant loading uncertainty rcs.f_load_unc n/a 0.005
Minimum impulse Isp fraction rcs.f_Isp_min_pulse n/a 0.85
Nominal Fuel Temperature (deg C) rcs.T_fuel_C n/a 25
Nominal Pressurant Temperature (deg C) rcs.T_press_C n/a 25
RCS tank parameters (if applicable)
Fuel tank maximum pressure (MPa) rcs.P_fuel_tank_max_MPa n/a 15
Fuel tank material type rcs.tank_material_type n/a All
Metal fuel tank material alloy/product rcs.tank_material_type_metal_alloy_product n/a Al 7075-T73
Composite fuel tank material alloy/product rcs.tank_material_type_composite_alloy_product n/a Torayca T1000G
Composite tank liner material product rcs.tank_liner_material_product n/a Al 7075-T73
Tank liner thickness (m) rcs.tank_liner_thickness_m n/a 0.000254
Tank pressure factor of safety rcs.tank_pressure_factor_of_safety n/a 1.25
Propellant control device type rcs.prop_control_type n/a bladder
Propellant control material rcs.prop_control_material_name n/a Elastomer
Propellant control material thickness (m) rcs.prop_control_material_thickness_m n/a 0.002
Body Vectors Definition
Primary Antenna Boresight body_vec(1) X axis X axis
Solar Array Normal body_vec(2) Y axis Y axis
Primary Thrust body_vec(3) Z axis Z axis
Pointing
Attitude Pointing Constraint attitude_constraint none none
Default pointing accuracy (deg) pointing_accuracy_mag_deg 1 1
Knowledge Error Fraction f_knowledge_accuracy 0.1 0.1
Slew coasting time fraction f_coasting_time 0.4 0.4
Default slew coasting rate (deg/s) w_coasting_default_deg_per_sec 0.1 0.1
5.1.2.7 Propulsion Inputs Sheet
The Propulsion inputs sheet contains the following categories of design parameters:
120
 Telemetry: Standard voltage, current, temperature telemetry sampling frequencies, and
the primary engine control cycle frequency.
 Propulsion system inputs: for the primary propulsion system
o Propulsion system type: Based on the type of trajectory
 Chemical ballistic and Weak Stability Boundary: Mono-prop, bi-prop,
and solid rocket motor
 Low thrust: electric propulsion (ion, hall thruster, pulsed plasma
thruster)
o Pressurant Feed type: only tank pressure fed supported in MASS tool (i.e. pump
fed not supported)
o Pressurant Feed subtype: Regulated and Blowdown supported for tank pressure
fed type
o Pressurant
o Fuel ullage factor: determines amount of pressurant ullage gas within fuel tank
o Oxidizer ullage factor: determines amount of pressurant ullage gas within
oxidizer tank
o Contingency propellant factor: determines additional propellant for contingency
Delta-V
o Residual propellant factor: determines amount of residual propellant in the lines
and valves
o Propellant loading uncertainty factor: determines amount of additional
propellant filled due to loading uncertainty
121
o Fuel operating temperature (used only if fuel is a gas, so not used since fuel is
typically a liquid)
o Oxidizer operating temperature (used only if oxidizer is a gas, so not used since
oxidizer is typically a liquid)
o Pressurant operating temperature (used only if pressurant is a gas)
 Engine inputs
o # active thrusters per trajectory control Delta-V: usually 1, even if multiple
engines are present for the Descent & Landing portion of lunar mission
o Minimum nozzle separation distance: the separation distance between nozzles
at the exit plane
 Tank parameters
o Fuel tank maximum pressure
o Oxidizer tank maximum pressure
o Pressurant tank maximum pressure
o Fuel tank material type: metal, composite, or all (if “all” selected, two separate
configurations are created in separate runs of the MASS tool)
o Metal fuel tank material alloy/product (if metal is selected as the tank material
type)
o Composite fuel tank material alloy/product (if composite if selected as the tank
material type)
o Composite tank liner material product (used if a composite tank is selected)
o Tank pressure factor of safety
o Propellant control device type and material
122
An example of the Propulsion inputs sheet is shown below in Table 5-10 and Table 5-11.
Table 5-10. Propulsion inputs sheet (part 1) in Mission and Spacecraft Definition (MASD) tool
PROPULSION MATLAB Parameter Name Rover Lander

Telemetry
Voltage telemetry rate (Hz) fs_generic_voltage_rate_Hz n/a 10
Current telemetry rate (Hz) fs_generic_current_rate_Hz n/a 10
Temperature telemetry rate (Hz) fs_generic_temp_rate_Hz n/a 1
Engine control cycle (Hz) fs_engine_control_cycle_Hz n/a 5
Propulsion system inputs
type
Prop Sys Type n/a Bi-prop
press_type Tank Pressure

Pressurant Feed Type n/a Fed
press_subtype
Pressurant Feed Subtype n/a Blowdown
pressurant
Pressurant n/a All
Pressurant Phase press_phase n/a gas
Fuel Ullage factor f_ullage_fuel n/a 0.05
Oxidizer Ullage factor f_ullage_ox n/a 0.05
Contingency Propellant factor f_margin n/a 0.05
Residual Propellant factor f_residual n/a 0.03
Propellant Loading Uncertainty factor f_load_unc n/a 0.005
Fuel Operating Temperature (deg C) T_fuel_C n/a 25
Oxidizer Operating Temperature (deg C) T_ox_C n/a 25
T_press_C
Pressurant Operating Temperature (deg C) n/a 25
Table 5-11. Propulsion inputs sheet (part 2) in Mission and Spacecraft Definition (MASD) tool
PROPULSION MATLAB Parameter Name Rover Lander

Engine inputs
num_active_thrusters
# active thrusters per trajectory control
DeltaV n/a 1
Min nozzle exit separation distance (m) min_nozzle_exit_separation_distance_m n/a 0.05
Tank parameters
Fuel tank maximum pressure (MPa) P_fuel_tank_max_MPa n/a 15
Oxidizer tank maximum pressure (MPa) P_ox_tank_max_MPa n/a 15
Pressurant tank maximum pressure (MPa) P_press_tank_max_MPa n/a 56
tank_material_type
Fuel tank material type n/a All
Metal fuel tank material alloy/product tank_material_type_metal_alloy_product n/a Al 7075-T73
Composite fuel tank material Torayca
alloy/product tank_material_type_composite_alloy_product n/a T1000G
Composite tank liner material product tank_liner_material_product n/a Ti-6Al-4V
Tank liner thickness (mm) tank_liner_thickness_m n/a 0.5
Tank pressure factor of safety tank_pressure_factor_of_safety n/a 4
Propellant control device type prop_control_type n/a bladder
prop_control_material_name
Propellant control material n/a Elastomer
Propellant control material thickness (m) prop_control_material_thickness_m n/a 0.002
The Thermal inputs sheet contains the following categories of inputs:
 General
123
o Thermal subsystem mass fraction: typically, between 2-4% of the spacecraft dry
mass
 Telemetry: standard voltage, current, and temperature telemetry sampling frequencies
 Operational temperatures
o Spacecraft internal units’ lower temperature limit
o Spacecraft internal unit’s upper temperature limit
o Temperature margin: additional degrees Celsius below or above lower/upper
temperature limits
 Surface Properties
o Electronics surface material: representative surface material for most
electronics within spacecraft warm electronics box (WEB)
o Spacecraft surface material: representative surface material for spacecraft
thermal equilibrium calculations
An example Thermal inputs sheet is shown in Table 5-12 below.
124
Table 5-12. Thermal inputs sheet in Mission and Spacecraft Definition (MASD) tool
THERMAL MATLAB Parameter Name Rover Lander

General
Thermal mass fraction f_thermal_mass 0.04 0.04
Telemetry
fs_generic_temp_rate_Hz
Temperature telemetry rate (Hz) 1 1
Operational Temperatures
S/C internal units lower
temperature limit (deg C) T_sc_internal_units_lower_C 0 0
S/C internal units upper
temperature limit (deg C) T_sc_internal_units_upper_C 40 40
Temperature margin (deg C) T_margin_C 5 5
Surface Properties
Al 6061-T6 Al 6061-T6
Electronics surface material electronics_surface_material polished polished
White paint White paint
S/C surface material sc_surface_material (silicate) (silicate)
5.1.2.8 Structures Inputs Sheet
The Structures subsystem inputs sheet contains the following categories of inputs:
 General
o Spacecraft reflectance factor (for solar radiation pressure calculations)
o # Rover wheels (applies to Rover only)
 Telemetry: standard voltage, current, and telemetry sampling frequencies
 Warm Electronics Box inputs
o WEB structure material alloy/product
o WEB sheet thickness
 Lander structural parameters (applies to Lander only)
o Material type: metal or composite
o Material alloy/product: specific metal or composite name
o Yield safety factor
125
o Buckling safety factor
o Bending safety factor
o Yield margin of safety
o # thrust structure columns: 4 are assumed and supported in MASS
o Separation distance between tank and thrust structure
o # engine mounting struts: 4 are assumed and supported in MASS tool
o Max load factor: acceleration in Earth g’s due to launch and/or Delta-V
maneuver thrusting
o # landing legs: 4 are assumed and supported in MASS
o Rock hazard height: height of a rock before it hits the landing engine nozzles
o Nominal leg strut spacing: distance between the top of each leg at the base of
the Lander
o Leg theta elevation angle: elevation angle of leg with respect to X-Y lander plane
(parallel to ground)
o Leg phi azimuth angle: clock angle of leg with respect to Y-axis of lander.
Assumed to be 45 deg.
An example of the Structures subsystem inputs sheet is shown in Table 5-13.
126
Table 5-13. Structures subsystem inputs sheet in Mission and Spacecraft Definition (MASD) tool
STRUCTURES MATLAB Parameter Name Rover Lander

General
S/C reflectance factor reflectance_factor 0.7 0.7
# Rover Wheels num_wheels 4 n/a
Telemetry
Warm Electronics Box inputs
WEB structure material alloy/product web.alloy_product Al 7075-T73 Al 7075-T73
WEB sheet thickness (m) web.thickness_m 0.0025 0.0025
Lander Structural Parameters
Material Type material_type n/a Metal
Material Alloy/Product alloy_product n/a Al 7075-T73
Yield Safety Factor fs_yield n/a 2
Buckling Safety Factor fs_buckling n/a 2
Bending Safety Factor fs_bending n/a 2
Yield Margin of Safety (%) fms_yield n/a 200
Thrust structure minimimum height (m) h_thrust_struct_min_m n/a 0.25
# thrust structure columns num_thrust_struct_columns n/a 4
Separation distance between tank and thrust
structure (m) d_sep_tank2thrust_struct_m n/a 0.05
# engine mounting struts num_engine_mounting_struts n/a 4
Max load factor n_max_load_factor n/a 4
# Landing legs num_legs n/a 4
Rock hazard height (m) h_rock_hazard_m n/a 0.35
Nominal leg strut spacing (m) b_leg_strut_spacing_m n/a 0.25
Leg theta elevation angle (deg) theta_AB_el_leg_deg n/a 70
Leg phi azimuth angle (deg) phi_AB_az_leg_deg n/a 45
The Power inputs sheet contains the following categories of inputs:
 General:
o Power system type: currently can be solar arrays + batteries, radioisotope +
batteries, and fuel cells + batteries
o Secondary battery chemistry: used to select which battery technology option to
use in the above power system type
o Solar array structure type (if applicable): can be rigid panel, flexible fold-up
panels, or flexible roll-up panels
o Fuel cell sizing method (if applicable): can be either to minimize fuel cell system
mass or minimize fuel cell system power density
o Power Control method: either Peak Power Tracking or Direct Energy Transfer
127
o Spacecraft Bus Voltage
 Telemetry: standard voltage, current, temperature telemetry sampling frequencies, and
power subsystem telemetry sampling frequency
An example Power inputs sheet is shown in Table 5-14 below.
Table 5-14. Power inputs sheet in Mission and Spacecraft Definition (MASD) tool
POWER MATLAB Parameter Name Rover Lander

General
Power system type type All Solar Array + Battery

Secondary battery chemistry battery_chem Li-ion Li-ion
Flexible Fold-up
Solar array structure type (if applicable) solar_array_structure_type Flexible Fold-up Blankets Blankets
Fuel cell sizing method (if applicable) fuel_cell.sizing_method Minimize mass Minimize mass
Power Control Method power_control_method Peak Power Tracking Peak Power Tracking
S/C Bus Voltage (V) bus_voltage 100 100
Telemetry
Power telemetry rate (Hz) fs_power_Hz 5 5
5.1.3 Generation of System Configuration Inputs
5.1.3.1 Parameter File Generation
Once the user has specified desired parameters in each design sheet of the Mission and
Spacecraft Definition (MASD) tool, as described in Section 5.1.2, the next step is to generate
combinations of system configurations based on the parameter values and selections. This is
done by clicking on the “Create MATLAB Inputs” button on the Mission & System sheet of the
MASD tool. This button executes VBA code that reads in the design parameters in each Excel
Table from each input sheet. First the design parameters in the Trajectory Inputs and Ground
System input sheets are read in and then printed out to separate MATLAB .m files named
128
“traj_params.m” and “ground_params.m”. These input files are written to a folder on the
Desktop of the computer on which the designs will be run.
The parameters in these files are written, one per line, using the MATLAB “structure”
data type. According to the MATLAB documentation (release R2013a), a “structure” data type is
an “array with named fields that can contain data of various types and sizes”. This provides an
easy way to encapsulate related parameters and other data under a common data grouping. It
also enables parameter groups to be sent as arguments to specific top-level custom MATLAB
functions.
For example, the design parameters are all grouped under the “mission” structure.
Within this structure is another structure field named “traj” that houses all the trajectory-
related parameters, mostly those that control the Descent & Landing sizing module. The
Descent & Landing parameters are themselves housed within a “descent_landing” field within
the “traj” structure.
The same situation applies to the “ground_params.m” input file: all ground network
related parameters are grouped under the “mission” structure, within the “ground_network”
sub-structure. The ground parameters input file also contains a database of parameters for
NASA’s Deep Space Network. These parameters are grouped by frequency band (the DSN
supports S-band, X-band, and Ka-band, depending on the antenna ground station in use) for
both near-Earth and deep space applications.
The following chart in Figure 5-5 depicts the organization of the trajectory and ground
system parameters. Each blue box represents a MATLAB data structure, whereas each green box
represents a parameter = value setting. So, for example, the design parameter that sets the
starting value of the descent de-orbit altitude h0 (used as part of the Descent & Landing
129
module’s braking burn 1 initial conditions search algorithm) can be found according to the
following syntax: “mission.traj.descent_landing.h0_initial_km = <value>;”. Note that each
parameter input line is terminated with a semicolon, as this is the MATLAB syntax that
suppresses output of the parameter value in the MATLAB Command Window.
The name of each MATLAB parameter is specified in the “MATLAB Parameter Name”
column of each design parameter input sheet (see various examples in Section 5.1.2). This
column was made visible in order to allow the name of the parameter to be changed easily
while developing the MASD tool. Once the tool development was complete, however, it was
NOT desirable to change the MATLAB parameter name, since the MATLAB tool that generates
the system designs expects parameters according to pre-defined names (and would require
editing the MATLAB design tool to use the new parameter names).
mission mission
traj ground_network
<param> = <value> <param> = <value>
descent_landing freq_band(i)
<param> = <value>
near_Earth
deep_space
<param> = <value>
Figure 5-5. Trajectory and Ground Systems design parameter organization in MATLAB input files
130
After the trajectory and ground systems input MATLAB files are generated, the VBA
code executes the following logic for each of the user-specified spacecraft element in the
mission: it goes through each of the payload and subsystem parameter input sheets, extracts
the design parameters and writes their parameter = value lines to a separate MATLAB
parameter input file containing all the “general” parameters for that spacecraft element. The
term “general” refers to parameters that are intended to be fixed, or constant, across all system
configuration combinations. As an example, if a Rover and Lander are specified in that order, the
VBA code first outputs Rover-related parameters to a “rover_general_params.m” file and then
proceeds to output Lander-related parameters to a “lander_general_params.m” file.
The design parameters for each spacecraft element are organized using the same
MATLAB structure organization that was employed for the trajectory and ground system
parameters. This is depicted in below. In this figure, the spacecraft element design parameters
are organized by the “mission” structure, following by a sub-structure field for the
“system_config”, followed by a sub-structure for the “element”, followed by a sub-structure for
the subsystem (either “payload” or one of the general spacecraft subsystems), and then the
parameter field itself. For example, the Lander telecommunications architecture type parameter
is specified as: “mission.system_config.element(2).telecom.telecom_arch_type = ‘<string
value>’;”. This parameter organization is depicted in below.
131
mission
system_config
element(i)
payload
…
cds
telecom
…
<param> = <value>
adcs
prop
thermal
structures
power
Figure 5-6. Payload and subsystem design parameter organization in MATLAB input files
Once the general parameters are created for a given spacecraft element, the next step
is to generate the “trade” parameters input files containing the set of parameters for each
“tradeable” parameter option for each subsystem for each spacecraft element. As previously
mentioned, some of the design parameters in a given input sheet consist of fixed values,
whereas others (the “trade” parameters) consist of more than one applicable option or an
option that itself expands into a set of unique design parameters that are obtained from a
database. For a subsystem that has a set of “trade” parameters, the unique design parameters
132
are output to a .m file according to the following naming convention: <element
name>_<subsystem>_<trade parameter name>_trade<trade number>.m. The trade number
designator can be either a single number or in the form “N_M”, where N represents the primary
trade option and M represents a trade sub-option. These “trade” parameter input files are
placed in the data generation folder, within a “trade_params” folder and subsystem subfolder.
The list of “trade” parameters or parameters with expandable parameter sets per
subsystem, as used in this research, is given below.
Table 5-15. Subsystem “Trade” Parameters
Subsystem Parameter Available Options # Unique Options

ADCS RCS pressurant Nitrogen, Helium, or All 2
ADCS RCS fuel tank material type Metal, Composite, or All 2
ADCS Composite tank liner Single user-specified 1
material product option
ADCS Propellant control device Single user-specified 1
material option
Propulsion Propulsion system type Bi-prop (several engine 9 (Bi-prop engines >
sub-options available in 200 N max thrust)
Thruster/Engine
database)
Propulsion Propulsion system Nitrogen, Helium, or All 2
pressurant
Propulsion Fuel tank material type Metal, Composite, or All 2
Propulsion Composite tank liner Single user-specified 1
material product option
Propulsion Propellant control device Single user-specified 1
material option
Thermal Electronics surface material Single user-specified 1
option
Thermal Spacecraft surface material Single user-specified 1
option
Structures Warm electronics box Single user-specified 1
(WEB) structure material option
alloy/product
Structures General structure material Single user-specified 1
alloy/product option
133
Subsystem Parameter Available Options # Unique Options
Power Power system type Solar array + battery, 5 solar cell types, 4
Radioisotope + battery, RPS types, 2 fuel cell
Fuel cell + battery, or All types
Power Secondary (re-chargeable) Single user-specified 1
battery chemistry option
Power Solar array structure type Single user-specified 1
(if applicable) option (Rigid Panel,
Flexible Fold-up Blankets,
Flexible Roll-up Blankets)
Power Power control method Single user-specified 1
option (Peak Power
Tracking, Direct Energy
Transfer)
For example, the power system type parameter in the Power input sheet has a list of
choices that the user can select from: All, Solar array + Battery, Radioisotope + Battery, and Fuel
Cell + Battery. Say the user selects the “Solar array + Battery” option for the Lander. Since
multiple solar cell options are available in the solar cell database, each of these options can be
used as a potential solution. So, the VBA code extracts each solar cell entry from the solar array
database and prints out the associated set of parameters (or “properties”) to a unique file for
each entry. For the solar cell trade parameter, the output files are named as
“lander_power_type_trade1_<N>.m”, where the “1” indicates the only power type selected
(solar array + battery) and N represents a numeric designator for the solar cell option. Note that
the battery chemistry selection in this research is limited to one battery option (e.g. Li-ion) for
both the Rover and Lander, in order to reduce the number of possible power type combinations
(e.g. several solar cell options + one battery cell selection).
134
5.1.3.2 Spacecraft Subsystem Combinations Generation
Once all the spacecraft element subsystem trade parameter files have been created, the
next step is to combine them ultimately into a set of unique system configurations. The first step
in this process is to get all the unique subsystem trade parameter file prefixes for each
spacecraft element from the .m file names and identify the number of options for each trade
parameter. A 2D array containing this information is generated for each spacecraft element and
passed to a VBA function named RecursiveCombinations. This function uses a recursive call to
itself to parse through the 2D array of options by subsystem trade parameter and generate a list
of .m file combinations, printing one combination line to a row in the “Subsys Combos” sheet. In
other words, each trade parameter option .m file in each subsystem is combined with every
other trade parameter option .m file for that subsystem.
Once this list of subsystem combinations is created for each spacecraft element,
another VBA function is called to concatenate the contents of each trade parameter .m file
listed within each combination row into a subsystem configuration .m file for that spacecraft
element. The subsystem configuration files are named as <element>_<subsystem>_config<N>
and placed within a subsystem subfolder within a “subsys_configs” folder. For example, the 2
Lander ADCS trade parameters (RCS pressurant and RCS fuel tank material type), each
containing 2 trade options, are combined into 4 Lander ADCS configurations (e.g.
lander_adcs_config1.m through lander_adcs_config4.m).
5.1.3.3 Spacecraft Element Combinations Generation
Once the set of unique spacecraft element subsystem configuration .m files are created,
the next step is to combine them into a set of spacecraft element configuration .m files. This is
135
done using the same VBA functions that were used in generating the subsystem configuration
.m files. That is, the RecursiveCombinations VBA functions is again called given a 2D array of
subsystem options (a list of config .m files per subsystem) for each spacecraft element to
generate a list of combinations. In other words, each subsystem configuration .m file is
combined with every other subsystem configuration .m file and output to a row in the “Elem
Combos” sheet in the MASD Excel tool. The individual subsystem configuration .m files are
combined in numerical order (rather than the standard file system order that places
“lander_prop_config10.m” and “lander_prop_config11.m”, etc. after “lander_prop_config1.m”).
This preserves a logical order for the combination sequences, since the numerical ID of the
element combinations will represent a consistent grouping of the various subsystem
configurations. For example, Lander configurations 1 through 180 will combine Lander ADCS
configuration 1 with Lander Power configurations 1 through 5, with Lander Propulsion
configurations 1 through 36, with the single Lander Structures and Thermal configurations.
The number of spacecraft element combinations generated can be large, depending on
the number of options available per trade parameter. Using the data in the fourth column of
Table 5-15 above (the number of unique combinations available per trade parameter), the
number of spacecraft element configurations can be determined. In this research, the Rover is
traded only on power system type (5 solar cell options + 4 RPS options + 2 fuel cell options).
That results in 11 rover power configurations.
For the Lander, there are 2 ADCS RCS pressurant gas options, 2 ADCS RCS tank material
options, 9 Propulsion bi-propellant system options, 2 Propulsion pressurant gas options, 2
Propulsion tank material options, and 5 Power solar cell options. Multiplying all these together
136
results in 720 unique Lander configurations. Generating this many .m files takes a couple
minutes.
5.1.3.4 System Configuration Combinations Generation
The final step is to combine all the individual spacecraft element configuration .m files
into a set of complete system configuration .m files. This again involves making use of the
RecursiveCombinations VBA function to generate a list of combinations of each spacecraft
element configuration .m file with every other element configuration .m file. This list is output,
one combination per row, to a “Sys Combos” sheet in the MASD tool. Given that 11 Rover
configurations and 720 Lander configurations were generated in the previous step, the result is
11*720 = 7920 unique system configuration combinations. This number of combinations can
easily be stored in Excel, as it is below the maximum number of rows that can exist (over 1
million rows). Since each unique system configuration must be combined with the set of
“general” parameter inputs per spacecraft element described earlier, the additional “general”
parameter input files are also included in each combination row (although they are the same set
of files in each system configuration combination row). Once the list of system combinations is
generated, the final step is to concatenate the .m files listed in each combination into a unique
system configuration .m file. The system configuration .m files are named as “sys_configN.m”
and placed within a “sys_configs” subfolder. An example listing of the first 9 system
configuration combinations is shown below in Table 5-16, where the first combination would be
named “sys_config1.m”.
137
Table 5-16. Example set of first 9 System Configuration combinations
..\lander_general_params.m ..\rover_general_params.m rover_config1.m lander_config1.m

Generating 7920 .m files takes a few minutes due to the slow nature of reading from
and writing to a text file in VBA. In a typical system configuration .m file, there are between 845
to 865 individual parameters, depending on the subsystem trade parameter options (the fuel
cell option has more parameters than the solar array option, for example).
5.2 MISSION AND SPACECRAFT SIZING TOOL (MASS)
The objective of the mission described in this research is to deliver a lander and its rover
payload to the lunar South Pole to prospect for lunar volatiles. To obtain a conceptual design of
both spacecraft, a design tool named the Mission and Spacecraft Sizing (MASS) tool was
developed in MATLAB. This primary objective of this tool is to perform spacecraft system design
by means of automated trade space exploration. That is, the intent of the tool is to design both
the lander and rover given numerous different configurations of each spacecraft. The competing
configurations are determined by user inputs specified in the Excel-based Mission and
Spacecraft Definition (MASD) tool, as described in Section 5.1.2 (Definition of System
Parameters) and 5.1.3 (Generation of System Configuration Inputs).
The formal design problem that the MASS tool is intended to solve is known as the
multi-disciplinary design problem (MDP). In the MDP, the design of the entire system depends
138
on the design of each subsystem, and each subsystem design in turn depends on the design of
the other subsystems. The method chosen to address this problem as it applies to the lunar
science mission of this research is a sequential-iterative approach. That is, each subsystem of
each spacecraft is designed in series, passing design outputs from one subsystem to the next.
Once all subsystems have been designed, the process then repeats in an iterative manner until
either the total system mass converges or not. The overall architecture of the MASS tool is
depicted in Figure 5-7.
MASS tool
For each system configuration in list: Mission module

 Load ground and trajectory
 Get list of mission
Get list of parameters
events
configuration  Load system config parameters
 Call System design
IDs to run  Load subsystem database
module
parameters
 Call Mission module
System design module
 Iterate on design of current system

configuration, calling the Spacecraft
design module for each system Spacecraft design module
element
 Design each subsystem of
current spacecraft element
 Call Descent & Landing
 Compute additional Delta-V to design module (if element is
transfer from lunar capture orbit to Lander)
low lunar orbit
 Terminate system iterations upon
total system mass convergence,
reaching max # iterations allowed, or
for infeasible Descent & Landing
design
Figure 5-7. Overall Architecture of the Mission and Spacecraft Sizing (MASS) Tool
139
The tool first starts by loading in several files required by the JPL SPICE toolkit (a suite of
functions to process spacecraft trajectory data and solar system ephemerides and other
geometry). These files are the planetary SPICE kernel (de430.bsp, containing solar system body
ephemerides), the planetary constants kernel (pck00010.tpc), and the leap seconds file
(naif0010.tls). The JPL SPICE toolkit functions are used throughout the MASS tool to find
spacecraft position, velocity, and other relevant data (e.g. eclipse periods, etc.).
Once the above files are loaded, the user is prompted for a text file containing a list of
numbers, corresponding to the ID of each system configuration that the user intends to design.
Each of these configurations has a “sys_config<N>.m” file associated with it. These “system
configuration” .m files were generated by the process described in Section 5.1.3.
The tool has a for-loop to cycle through each of the configuration IDs. Within the for-
loop, the “ground_params.m” file (containing ground network parameters) and
“traj_params.m” file (containing trajectory and Descent & Landing parameters) are loaded. Then
the system configuration .m file associated with the current configuration ID is loaded. Again,
this system configuration .m file contains all the design parameters that will be used in designing
the system. Next, the following subsystem database .m files are loaded: Telecom, ADCS,
Propulsion, CDS, and Structures. The Telecom, ADCS, and Propulsion databases contain mass,
power, and other performance parameters for several different components under different
technology categories. The Telecom database contains parameters for several different
transponders and transceivers, as well as an RF amplifier mass database based on required RF
output power. The ADCS database contains parameters for multiple star trackers, sun sensors,
IMUs, and reaction wheels. The Propulsion database contains parameters for several mono-
propellant and bi-propellant thrusters/engines, as well as a database of physical properties for
140
various propellants and pressurants. The CDS database contains computing throughput
parameters for different spacecraft software functions. The Structures database contains
properties for various metals and composites, as well as rover sizing parameters (based on
historical data). The parameters in each database .m file are categorized under a common
MATLAB structure named “database”, followed by a sub-structure for the relevant subsystem.
A timer is then started to keep a track of the duration required to design each system
configuration. The design process begins by a call to the Mission module given the “mission”
structure, “database” structure, and the current system configuration ID. The details of this
module are described next.
5.2.1 Mission Design Module
The purpose of the Mission module is to load the trajectory file (as a SPICE kernel, or
SPK) into memory, to obtain a list of mission events based on that trajectory, and to then call
the System design module to execute the spacecraft design process. The event module first
finds the set of eclipse periods along the spacecraft trajectory, using a JPL SPICE function. The
maximum periods in eclipse and sunlight are then obtained. Next, the list of impulsive Delta-Vs
that the spacecraft must provide (i.e. after the translunar injection burn in LEO) is obtained. To
obtain this, the GMAT simulation data file is first searched for abrupt changes in the simulated
spacecraft mass, which indicates a propulsive Delta-V maneuver was executed. The rough time
of this mass change is then used as an input in searching the trajectory SPK file for the exact
time of the impulsive Delta-V maneuver. The Delta-V vector (in Earth mean equator of J2000
frame, or EMEJ2000) and magnitude can then be obtained. For the GMAT trajectory designed in
this research, there is only one post-TLI Delta-V maneuver: at lunar orbit insertion (LOI). The TLI
141
Delta-V burn is assumed to be provided by the launch vehicle upper stage. The post-TLI Delta-V
maneuver(s) are then assigned an event name based on an annotation function that analyzes
the pre-impulse and post-impulse spacecraft state to obtain the type of final state orbit and an
event type (a Delta-V event).
Mission events are then defined for the given trajectory. First, the post-TLI Delta-V
maneuver time(s) are used to split the trajectory into segments. For a single post-TLI Delta-V
maneuver, the result would be 2 segments. Then, for simplicity, communication events are then
added in the middle of each segment and assigned an event name using the previously
mentioned annotation function. Next, non-propulsive coasting (or cruise) events are added in
between trajectory start and the first “Comm” event, and between Delta-V-to-Comm segments.
As an aside, due to a design idiosyncrasy, note that the Telecom design module (Section 5.3.1)
checks the link at each mission event, not just those designated “Comm” events. The events are
then sorted in time order, and each event (except for Descent & Landing, and Surface
Operations events) are assigned a set of vectors to define the initial and final attitude at each
event. That is, the spacecraft attitude is defined with a primary body vector being aligned with a
primary target vector, and a secondary body vector pointing as close as possible to a secondary
target vector. These attitude vectors are used by the ADCS design module to determine slew
requirements for the ADCS actuators.
Since the trajectory is constant for all system configurations, this results in the following
list of 6 mission events:
Event # Event Name Event Type Event Phase Event Epoch (UTC)
1 Earth coasting post- Coasting Cruise 2018 JUL 13
orbit transfer (after 22:13:05.84
TLI)
142
Event # Event Name Event Type Event Phase Event Epoch (UTC)
2 Earth communication In-Space Cruise 2018 JUL 14
post-orbit transfer Communication 17:26:11.68
3 Lunar orbit insertion Delta-V Lunar Orbit 2018 JUL 16
burn targeting (ha x hp) 05:54:30.85
99.9 x 99.8 km alt orbit
4 Descent & Landing Delta-V Entry, Descent & 2018 JUL 16
Landing 07:52:22.361
5 Surface Science Surface Science Surface 2018 JUL 16
Operations 07:52:22.361
6 Surface Surface Surface 2018 JUL 16
Communication Communication Operations 07:52:22.361
Once the mission events are defined and added to the “traj” data structure, the System
design module is called with the following key inputs: trajectory data structure, ground network
data structure, and system configuration data structure.
5.2.2 System Design Module
The overall architecture of the System design module is depicted in Figure 5-8. The
System design module consists of two main for-loops: the inner loop that executes the full
spacecraft design module for each spacecraft element in the system (in this case 2 elements, a
rover and lander), and the outer loop that controls the number of “system iterations”. A system
iteration consists of one complete call to the full spacecraft design module, described in Section
5.2.3, and which designs all of the spacecraft subsystems and the Descent & Landing phase. The
system iteration process continues until either total system mass convergence (to within a hard-
coded tolerance of 3 kg) or the hard-coded maximum number of iterations (15) is reached.
Within the inner loop, a check is done on whether the Descent & Landing design became
“infeasible”. If so, a warming message is printed and the code exits the System design module
(to proceed onto the design of the next system configuration in the list of configurations to run).
143
The iteration history of each subsystem’s total mass is also stored in arrays for display in a
special GUI that plots the total rover and lander mass, the rover and lander subsystem masses,
and the run time per iteration.
Inputs
Get the relay node for Update mass Call the Spacecraft design
current system properties for payload module for each system
element (i.e. lander is (i.e. rover is lander’s element (i.e. rover or
rover’s relay node) payload) lander)
Check for feasible Descent Compute additional Delta-V to Update MASS GUI
& Landing trajectory design. transfer from initial circular with plots of
If infeasible, exit System lunar capture orbit to circular subsystem masses
module low lunar orbit at altitude h0 per system element
Terminate system iterations upon:

 total system mass convergence, OR
 reaching max # iterations allowed,
OR
 if infeasible Descent & Landing
design
Outputs
Figure 5-8. Algorithm for System Design Module
Lastly, assuming that the code did not exit due to an infeasible Descent & Landing
design (i.e. that a required de-orbit altitude h0 was found in the Descent & Landing design
module), the System module proceeds to compute the additional Delta-V required to get from
the circular lunar capture orbit (100 km in this research) into a circular low lunar orbit (LLO) with
an altitude of h0. This requires two impulsive Delta-Vs based on the standard Hohmann transfer:
one to transfer from the circular lunar capture orbit to periselene with an altitude of h0, and a
144
second to circularize at the altitude h0. The Delta-V calculations are done using standard orbital
mechanics methods.
The two additional Delta-V events are then added to the list of mission events in the
“traj” data structure. This is done so that the total Delta-V for all post-TLI maneuvers can be
used to estimate the total propellant mass required for orbital maneuvering. Since the Delta-V
vectors in EMEJ2000 are also required by other parts of the MASS tool, these must also be
computed. For the transfer Delta-V maneuver, the Delta-V direction is the direction of the
spacecraft’s velocity vector with respect to the Moon, which can be found from the trajectory
SPK file. For the circularization Delta-V maneuver, the Delta-V direction can be found via the
universal variables solution to Kepler’s problem, as described in Section 4.3 of reference (51).
Using this method, the transfer orbit’s initial position and velocity vectors (in EMEJ2000) are
propagated over the predicted time of flight to obtain the final position and velocity vectors at
transfer orbit periapse. The circularization Delta-V direction can then be found by obtaining the
unit vector of the final periapse velocity vector.
5.2.3 Spacecraft Design Module
The spacecraft design module is a MATLAB function in which the various subsystems
design modules are called in a sequential order to size the various subsystems for a given
spacecraft element. The operation of the spacecraft design module is depicted in Figure 5-9
below. The specific subsystem order shown in the figure was an initial educated guess based on
the judgement of the researcher. The sizing functions included are (in the order shown in Figure
5-9): Telecommunications, CDS (Command & Data subsystem), ADCS (Attitude Determination &
145
Control Subsystem), Propulsion, Thermal, Structures, Power, Descent & Landing design (to size
descent & landing propellant mass).
In the above list there are 7 subsystem sizing modules and one Descent & Landing
design module. The landing simulation module uses inputs from all other subsystems, and
attempts to model the descent and landing portion of the lander’s trajectory—sizing the
propellant mass required to safely execute a soft, propulsive landing on the lunar surface. The
Descent & Landing design module outputs an updated Trajectory parameters data structure.
Once all subsystem modules and the landing simulation module are called, the total
subsystem masses are obtained and added together to get the total spacecraft element launch
mass (including any necessary propellant). Finally, the subsystem data structures for the
spacecraft element are updated and set as the latest designed subsystem data structures. In
other words, all the subsystem design results are captured for the spacecraft element being
sized.
146
Inputs
Get the spacecraft element’s Telecom CDS ADCS

subsystem data structures
Propulsion Thermal Structures Power
Landing Get subsystem masses Update spacecraft element’s

Simulation and total mass subsystem data structures
Module
Outputs
Figure 5-9. Algorithm for Spacecraft Design Module
The inputs required for the spacecraft design module, indicated by the “Inputs” box in
Figure 5-9 above, are: current system-level iteration count, ground network parameters (data
structure), trajectory parameters (data structure), subsystem databases (data structures),
spacecraft element parameters (data structure), and relay element parameters (data structure).
The outputs of the spacecraft design module are: updated trajectory parameters (data
structure), updated spacecraft element parameters with subsystem parameters updated (data
structure), and updated relay element parameters (data structure).
In Figure 5-9 above, one of the first steps involved is to obtain the subsystem data
structures from the given spacecraft element data structure: Payload, Telecommunications,
CDS, ADCS, Propulsion, Thermal, Structures, and Power. These data structures are inputs that
are common to all the subsystem design modules. The individual subsystem design modules are
147
generally modeled as indicated in Figure 5-10 below. Each subsystem design module outputs an
updated set of subsystem data structure parameters.
The spacecraft design module is architected such that the outputs of each call to a
specific subsystem design module are passed onto the call of the next subsystem design
module. So, in the data flow represented in Figure 5-9 above, the Telecom module takes inputs
from several subsystems, including Telecom, to provide a telecommunications hardware design
for the given spacecraft element, updating the Telecom parameter data structure in the process.
The design parameters for each subsystem, including the recently updated Telecom parameters,
are next passed onto the CDS design module. The CDS design module computes CDS telemetry
data rates and sizes the CDS hardware in terms of mass, power, and volume, outputting updated
CDS parameters. Next the ADCS design module is called, passing in all required subsystem
design parameters, including the updated Telecom and CDS parameters. The ADCS module
selects and sizes ADCS hardware (sensors and control actuators) based on inputs from all
subsystems, as appropriate, and outputs an updated set of ADCS parameters. Next the
Propulsion design module is called, passing in all required subsystem design parameters,
including the previously designed subsystems (Telecom, CDS, and ADCS) in order to size the
primary propulsion system propellant and tankage, as well as position the engines, outputting
an updated set of Propulsion parameters. Next the Thermal, Structures, and Power subsystems
are called, each with an increasing number of recently design subsystems, and each outputting
an updated set of its own subsystem parameters. Thus, within a single system-level design
iteration for a given spacecraft element, the spacecraft is designed incrementally, in a particular
order of subsystem design module calls.
148
System iter
Spacecraft
element type
Has N
subsystem Skip
Ground X?
parameters
Trajectory
parameters Y
Database
parameters
Payload Subsystem X Design Subsystem X

parameters Module parameters
ADCS
parameters
Propulsion
parameters
Relay
Telecom element
parameters
CDS Thermal Power Structures

parameters parameters parameters parameters
Figure 5-10. Modeling of Subsystem Design Module Inputs and Outputs
Note that a given spacecraft element may not include all the common spacecraft
subsystems shown above in Figure 5-10. For example, a typical rover will not have a propulsion
subsystem. To account for the absence or presence of a given spacecraft subsystem,
TRUE/FALSE flags for each traditional spacecraft subsystem are obtained from the spacecraft
element’s subsystem data structures before any of the subsystem design modules are called. As
an example, for the rover, the “has propulsion subsystem” flag will be set to FALSE and the call
149
to the Propulsion subsystem design module will be skipped. This avoids errors in the execution
of the MATLAB program.
5.3 SUBSYSTEM DESIGN MODULES
Descriptions of the algorithms within each subsystem design module, sequentially called
in the Spacecraft design module of Section 5.2.3, are described in this section.
5.3.1 Telecommunications Design Module
The telecommunications design module is built to size and select telecommunications
hardware for the spacecraft element being designed. The architecture of this tool is depicted in
Figure 5-11 below. This design tool accepts the following MATLAB inputs: spacecraft element
type, ground parameters (data structure), database parameters (data structure), trajectory
parameters (data structure), payload parameters (data structure), Individual subsystem
parameters (a separate data structure for each subsystem), relay element parameters
(spacecraft element that serves as a relay). The tool returns the following MATLAB outputs:
updated Telecom parameters (data structure), updated relay element parameters (spacecraft
element that serves as a relay).
This design tool first initializes several internal variables related to mass and power,
antenna dimensions, and hardware selection flags. It then proceeds to perform link budget
calculations based on whether the telecom architecture for the specified spacecraft element is
“Direct-to-Earth” or “Relay”. As part of the link budget calculations, the tool also determines the
antenna dimensions (for both primary and backup antennas), RF power required, and
electronics required (transponder or transceiver, and RF amplifier required—either TWTA or
150
SSPA). After the telecom hardware is sized and selected from a database, the cable mass is
determined and added to the overall mass. Lastly, all relevant design outputs are passed as
MATLAB outputs.
Inputs Outputs
Direct-to- DTE Arch Assign

Earth Arch. Design Tool output
Telecom s
Arch.
Type
Relay Arch
Design Tool
Has
Relay
science
Arch. DTE Arch
instr?
Design Tool
Figure 5-11. Telecom Design Module Top-level Architecture
The details of each telecom architecture MATLAB design function (Direct-to-Earth or
Relay) are described next.
5.3.1.1 Direct-to-Earth Telecom Architecture
If the telecommunications architecture of the spacecraft element being designed is
designated as “DTE”, then the “Direct-to-Earth” architecture design function is called. The
algorithm for the DTE design function is depicted in Figure 5-12 below. In this figure, the steps
involved in computing the DTE links are listed under the “Compute DTE links” label. First, the
DTE links are computed for the primary antenna onboard the spacecraft element. This is done
by defining the uplink and downlink parameters (such as antenna type, pointing error, losses,
required receiver signal-to-noise ratio, etc.), and then computing the uplink and downlink
151
margins for a range of receiver antenna (i.e. on the spacecraft) dimensions for each
communication (i.e. comm.) event. This process returns an array of uplink margins, organized as
shown in Figure 5-13 below: each array row is a unique antenna dimension, and each array
column is a comm. event. The minimum-size antenna case (for reduced mass) that has uplink
margins > 3 dB for all comm. events is selected as the desired antenna size. The downlink
computation process also returns an array of downlink margins, organized as shown in Figure
5-14 below: again rows represent unique antenna dimensions, columns are comm. events, and
the 3rd dimension represents unique RF transmission power values. Next, for the selected
receiver antenna dimension (a specific row in the downlink margins array), the minimum
downlink RF power case that has downlink margins > 3 dB for all comm. events is selected as the
transmission power level.
152
Inputs
Compute DTE Links: Primary Antenna
 Get uplink and downlink parameters

 Compute uplink/downlink margin for each antenna dimension
 For a given antenna dimension, compute uplink and downlink
margin for each communication event
 Get array of all uplink margin cases (for all antenna dimensions
and comm. events)
 For each spacecraft uplink receiver antenna dimension case, find
cases with ALL comm. events with uplink margin > 3 dB.
 Select good uplink case with smallest antenna dimension.
 Get array of downlink margins (as array of comm. events and RF
output power)
 For selected spacecraft antenna receiver dimension, find RF
power cases with ALL comm. events having downlink margin >
3dB.
 Select good downlink case with smallest RF output power.
Compute primary antenna mass

Compute DTE Links: Backup Antenna
Compute backup antenna mass

Select minimum mass applicable
Transponder or Transceiver electronics
Compute RF amplifier mass
(TWTA or SSPA)
Outputs
Figure 5-12. Algorithm for designing DTE architecture
This above process is repeated for the backup antenna. After the two antennas’
dimensions and RF transmit power are determined, the required telecommunications
electronics hardware is selected as either a transponder (combined transmitter and receiver), or
a transceiver (for UHF-links only). An example of the available transponders in the database is
shown below in Table 5-17.
Table 5-17. Transponder Database
Manu- Model Receive Transmit Mass Transmitter Receiver

facturer Frequency Frequency (kg) Power Power
Range Range Consumption Consumption
(GHz) (GHz)
L3 Comm. CSX-610 2.025-2.12 2.2-2.3 2.631 35 5.5
L3 Comm. MSX-765 2-2.11 1-2 2.722 35 8
153
Manu- Model Receive Transmit Mass Transmitter Receiver
facturer Frequency Frequency (kg) Power Power
Range Range Consumption Consumption
(GHz) (GHz)
X-band Small 7.145- 8.4-8.5 3.175 15.8 12.5
General Deep Space 7.235
Dynamics Transponder
Then, given the antenna dimensions, the antenna masses are computed (for both
primary and backup antennas) by calculating the antenna transmission area and multiplying by a
sizing factor k (kg/m2). The sizing factor k is read in from the telecommunications database for
the specific type of antenna (parabolic, helix, or horn). The antenna database is shown below in
Table 5-18 (30).
Table 5-18. Antenna Database
Antenna Antenna Mass Diameter Length Area k (kg/m2)

Type (kg) (m) (m) (m2)
Quad Helix Helix 1.8 0.4 0.4 0.16 11.3
Parabola (Fixed) Parabola 3.9 0.7 0 0.49 8.0
Parabola w/ Feed Parabola 29.4 2.44 0 5.954 4.9
Array
Array
Array
Parabola (steerable) Parabola 5.8 1.1 0 1.21 4.8
Horn Horn 3.1 0.3 0.65 0.195 15.9
Finally, the required RF (radio frequency) amplifier mass and DC (direct current) power
are determined. The RF amplifiers supported by this tool are either a TWTA (traveling wave-tube
amplifier), or SSPA (solid state power assembly). The rule followed in selecting a TWTA vs. an
SSPA is that the TWTA is selected at higher power efficiencies (34). That is, if the RF power is
greater than or equal to an RF power cut-off value, a suitable TWTA is selected. Otherwise, an
154
SSPA is selected. Either way, the RF amplifier mass, power, and efficiency are interpolated from
a telecom database of TWTA or SSPA mass, power, and efficiency as a function of required RF
transmission power (as shown below in Table 5-19 (30)). An RF amplifier is selected only when a
transponder has been selected. If a transceiver was selected (e.g. for UHF relay), no RF amplifier
is selected.
Table 5-19. RF Amplifier Mass/Power/Efficiency Database
RF TWTA SSPA TWTA SSPA TWTA SSPA

Power Mass (kg) Mass (kg) DC DC Efficiency Efficiency
Output Power Power (%) (%)
(W) (W) (W)
0.2 1.9 1.2 10 10 2.0 2.0
1 2 1.2 10 15 10.0 6.7
5 2.5 1.2 20 20 25.0 25.0
10 3 1.3 30 40 33.3 25.0
20 4 1.35 40 70 50.0 28.6
50 6 2 80 100 62.5 50.0
80 8 3 105 110 76.2 72.7
Columns = Communication event
Rows =
Antenna
dimension
case (diam
and length)
Figure 5-13. Array of Uplink Margins
155
3rd Dim: Columns = Communication event
Downlink RF
Power
Rows =
Antenna
dimension
case (diam
and length)
Figure 5-14. Array of Downlink Margins
In Figure 5-12, the uplink/downlink margin calculation requires some explanation. For
uplink, the radio signal frequency is determined by the selected frequency band of the ground
station (a user input) and whether the spacecraft is “near Earth” or in “deep space”. For NASA’s
Deep Space Network of antennas, near Earth is considered anywhere within 2 million km of the
Earth and deep space is outside of that (33). The actual uplink and downlink frequencies are the
middle of the user-selected DSN frequency band (X-band, S-band, or Ka-band, as available per
each DSN antenna’s capability). The uplink RF transmission power from the ground station is
selected to be the maximum uplink power for the selected frequency band. The uplink data rate
is a user-defined value. Given all the uplink parameters, a generic link budget function is called
to return uplink design outputs for each comm. event.
For downlink, the transmission data rate requirement is read in from the CDS
parameters data structure for the particular comm. event in question. The downlink for a
156
particular spacecraft receiver antenna can be accomplished with a range of RF transmit power
levels. Thus, the generic link budget function is called to return downlink design outputs for
each comm. event and each RF transmit power level. That is, for a given spacecraft antenna
dimension and a particular comm. event, a range of RF transmit power levels are evaluated.
5.3.1.2 Relay Telecom Architecture
If the telecommunications architecture of the spacecraft element being designed is
designated as “Relay”, then either the “Relay” or “DTE” architecture design function is called, as
depicted in Figure 5-11. The reason either one can be called is that there are two parts to the
relay architecture: one spacecraft collects valuable data (at the “science node”) that is relayed
to another spacecraft (the “relay node”) that in turn transmits the data directly to Earth. The
relay architecture design function is called only if the given spacecraft element has science
instruments whose data must be relayed to another spacecraft—that is, the spacecraft is
considered a “science node”. In this case, the telecommunications hardware for both the
science node and relay node are sized and selected (for the forward and return links).
Otherwise, the spacecraft is considered a “relay node” and the Direct-to-Earth architecture
design function described in the previous section is called. For example, a rover equipped with
science instruments with a “Relay” architecture designation should have the relay architecture
design tool called to select telecommunications hardware to transmit data to a lander “relay
node”. When it is the lander’s turn to have its telecommunications system designed, its “Relay”
architecture designation will result in the “DTE” architecture design tool being called so that the
relevant hardware for DTE is sized and selected. The algorithm for the relay architecture design
tool is depicted in Figure 5-15 below.
157
For the relay architecture design tool, the first step is to call the “Compute relay links”
function—that is, to compute the applicable forward and return link margins. Using the resulting
link margins, the antenna dimensions and RF transmit power for both the science and relay
nodes are determined. The first step involved in computing the relay links is to obtain the
required forward link and return link parameters (such as antenna type, pointing error, losses,
required receiver signal-to-noise ratio, etc.). Next, several for loops are employed to compute
the link margins. The first for-loop is the forward link transmit antenna diameter for the
assumed helix antenna. The second nested for-loop is the forward link transmit antenna length
for the assumed helix antenna. These first two for-loops define unique relay node helix antenna
dimension combination cases. The third nested for-loop is the forward link transmit RF power
level. The fourth for-loop is for the various comm. events. Within this fourth for-loop, the
function checks whether the comm. event is designated as requiring relay communications. For
the selected lunar science rover mission in this research, the only comm. event assumed to
require relay communications is during surface science and surface communications. For
simplicity and to reduce the number of link parameter combinations being evaluated, the
forward link receiver antenna diameter and length (i.e. at the science node) is set to the same
diameter and length as the relay node transmit antenna. Then the link budget tool is called with
the forward link parameters. The fifth and final nested for-loop is for the return link RF power
level. At this point, the link budget tool is called with the return link parameters.
After the forward and return link margins are computed, they are extracted into a 1D
array of forward and return link margins. The forward and return link margins are added to form
a combined 1D array. The indices of the forward link and return link margins >= 3 dB are
obtained. These indices are used to find the selected forward and return links with minimum
158
link margin. The selected forward and return links are then used to identify the antenna
dimensions and transmit RF power level.
Next, the required transponder or transceiver hardware is selected. If the relay
frequency is in the UHF band, the minimum mass applicable transceiver is selected from a
database. Given the selected science node and relay node antenna dimensions, the antenna
mass on the science node spacecraft and antenna mass on the relay node spacecraft are
computed. This is done by calculating the antenna transmission area and multiplying by a sizing
factor k (kg/m2). The sizing factor k is read in from the telecommunications database for the
specific type of antenna (parabolic, helix, or horn).
Inputs
Compute Relay Links: For Science Node
 Get forward link and return link parameters

 For each forward link transmit (relay node) antenna dimension:
o For each forward link (relay node) transmit RF power
level:
 For each comm. event: Select minimum
 Compute forward link margin mass applicable
 Compute return link margin for Transponder or
each return link transmit RF Transceiver
power level electronics
 Get array of all forward link margin cases (for all antenna
dimensions, transmit RF power levels, and comm. events)
 Get array of all return link margin cases (for all antenna
dimensions, comm. events, and transmit RF power levels) Compute science
 Find forward and return links cases link margin > 3 dB each. node antenna mass
 Select relay node antenna dimension and RF transmit power
with minimum link margin.
 Select science node antenna dimension and RF transmit power
with minimum link margin. Compute relay node
antenna mass
Compute RF amplifier
mass (TWTA or SSPA)
Outputs
Figure 5-15. Algorithm for designing the Relay architecture
159
Finally, the required science node relay RF amplifier mass and DC power are
determined. This is done by linearly interpolating from telecom database curves in the same
manner as done for the DTE architecture. That is, the supported amplifiers are either the TWTA
or SSPA. The TWTA is chosen if the required RF power is greater than or equal to an RF power
cut-off value, otherwise the SSPA is selected. Assuming that the relay architecture employs the
UHF band and a transceiver is selected, no RF amplifier is required.
5.3.2 CDS Design Module
The overall function of the CDS design module is to compute the CDS telemetry data
rates, determine the CDS complexity based on desired CDS functions in order to select CDS
hardware, compute CDS hardware heat generation, and size the CDS software. The architecture
of the CDS design module is shown in Figure 5-16 below.
160
Input
s
Determine CDS Size CDS

Compute CDS telemetry
functions & hardware mass,
data rates for each comm.
overall CDS power, and
event
complexity volume
Estimate CDS software

Get existence factors code memory, data storage
Compute CDS for CDS software
dissipated heat memory, and throughput
functions
Outputs
Figure 5-16. CDS Design Module Top-Level Architecture
The inputs required for the CDS design module are: system iteration count, spacecraft
element type, trajectory parameters (data structure), database parameters (data structure),
payload parameters (data structure), and individual subsystem parameters (a separate data
structure for each subsystem). The outputs of the CDS design module are just one: the updated
CDS parameters (data structure).
5.3.2.1 Telemetry Data Rates
The first step in the CDS design module is to determine CDS data rates for telemetry
(from all subsystems) for each comm. event. The CDS telemetry for a given comm. event
consists of two parts: housekeeping telemetry (from all subsystems) and payload telemetry. The
housekeeping telemetry rates for all engineering subsystems (telecommunications, CDS, ADCS,
Propulsion, Thermal, Structures, and Power) are all computed by summing the contributions of
telemetry from individual components that have been selected. For example, if an IMU is
161
present in the ADCS design, the gyro rate telemetry data rate is estimated as the number of
separate telemetry signals times the bits per signal measured times the sampling frequency in
Hz, as indicated in the equation below.
𝑅 = 𝑁𝑏𝑓𝑠 Equation 5-1
where N = # of individual signals, b = the # of bits per sample, and fs = the sampling frequency.
So since there are 3 axes of gyro rates to measure, the telemetry rate (in bits per
second) for one signal is multiplied by 3. In a similar manner, the IMU accelerometer position
and velocity measurement telemetry rates are also estimated.
The combined telemetry data rate is then compressed using a compression factor as
compressed rate = factor*(full rate). If the spacecraft element is a science node (that is, having
science instruments), and the specific comm. event is designated as a relay comm. event, the
return link data rate is set as the compressed CDS telemetry rate.
5.3.2.2 CDS Hardware Selection
The next step is to determine the CDS complexity level in order to size the CDS hardware
in terms of mass, power, and volume. This procedure is outlined in the Chapter 11.3 of Space
Mission Analysis & Design (SMAD), reference (30). The CDS complexity level can be divided into
three possible levels: simple, typical, and complex.
Determining the complexity level involves considering the CDS’s required capability and
functions. CDS functional requirements to consider are listed below. Each of these items
contributes to the CDS’s complexity score. A single point is added for each complexity level
based on the absence or presence of a given CDS requirement, or on the value a particular
requirement takes compared to thresholds.
162
 Processing commands
o Command rate (commands per second): Simple if less than 50 cmds/sec, typical
if between 50 and 75, and complex if greater than or equal to 75.
o Command computer interface (assumed true if the spacecraft element has a
science payload or ADCS). No computer interface is considered part of a simple
system, whereas a computer interface is considered typical or complex.
o Stored commands (assumed true if the spacecraft element has a
telecommunications subsystem and commands must execute when the
spacecraft is out of contact with Earth). If there are no stored commands
required, the CDS is considered simple. If a computer interface is required, a
point is added to the complex category. If not, a point is added to the typical
category.
o # of command channels: Simple point added if between 0 and 200, typical if
between 200 and 500, and complex if greater than or equal to 500.
 Processing of Telemetry Data
o Housekeeping telemetry data rate: Simple point added if between 0 and 4,000
bps, typical if between 4,000 and 64,000 bps, and complex if greater than or
equal to 64,000 bps.
o Payload telemetry data rate: Simple point if there is no payload telemetry data
rate, typical if between 0 and 200 kbps, and complex if greater than 200 kbps.
o Telemetry computer interface: If there is a telecom system required, then a
telemetry computer interface is assumed and it gets a complex point added.
163
Otherwise, no telemetry computer interface is assumed and simple and typical
points are added.
o # of telemetry channels: Simple point added if between 0 and 200 channels,
typical if between 200 and 500, and complex if greater than or equal to 500.
 General computer functions
o Mission time clock: If there is an ADCS or command computer interface
required, a mission clock is assumed. In that case, a point is added for typical
and complex categories. Otherwise, for no mission clock, a simple point is
added.
o Computer watchdog timer: This is a timer onboard the spacecraft computer to
check that the computer hardware and software are functioning correctly. A
watchdog timer is assumed present if there is a command computer interface. If
so, then a point gets added for typical and complex categories. Otherwise, no
watchdog timer is present and a simple point gets added.
o ACS functions: If an attitude control subsystem is present (part of the ADCS),
then a complex point gets added. Otherwise, a point gets added for simple and
typical categories.
 Computer bus constraints: The computer bus architecture can be described as one of
three classes:
o Single unit: provides one unit for command processing, one unit for telemetry
processing, or a single unit that integrates both. A single unit gets a simple
score.
164
o Multiple unit: Since the single unit solution can require a large wire harness to
route every interface signal to a physical location on the unit, the multiple unit
solution allows for a computing interface located remotely from the central
processing unit. Multiple unit gets a typical score.
o Integrated: This type of unit combines command, telemetry, flight processing
and attitude control in one overall system. This system typically requires
increased software programming and costs. An integrated unit gets a complex
score.
 Radiation environment: If the radiation environment is between 0 and 2 krad, a simple
point is added. If between 2 and 50 krad, a typical point is added. If greater than or
equal to 50 krad, a complex point is added.
Once complexity level points are summed for all complexity level categories, the overall
CDS complexity is marked as simple, typical, or complex. The CDS mass, power, and volume are
then estimated according to Table 5-20 from (30). Note that an overall CDS system type,
designated as command only, telemetry only, or combined, also determines the CDS mass,
power, and volume.
Table 5-20. Estimates of CDS Hardware Mass, Power, and Volume based on complexity level
Parameter CDS System Type Simple Typical Complex

Volume (cm3) Command only 3,000 4,000 6,000
Telemetry only 3,000 6,000 10,000
Combined system 6,000 9,000 15,000
Mass (kg) Command only 2.5 3 5
Telemetry only 2.5 4 7.5
Combined system 5.5 6.5 10.5
Power (W) Command only 2 2 2
Telemetry only 10 16 20
Combined system 12 18 25
165
Next, the heat dissipated by the CDS electronics at the low and high operating
temperature limits is computed. This requires estimating the overall size of the CDS electronics.
For simplicity, the estimated CDS volume from Table 5-20 above is assumed to be a cube. A
generic waste heat function is used to estimate the dissipation area of the cube (assumed to be
all sides) and, given the emissivity of the assumed cube, to compute the low and high heat
dissipation according to the Stefan-Boltzmann equation below, where Q is heat dissipation, 𝜎 is
the Stefan-Boltzmann constant, 𝜖 is surface emissitivity, T is temperature in Kelvin, and A is
surface area.
𝑄 = 𝜎𝜖𝑇 4 𝐴 Equation 5-2
5.3.2.3 CDS Software Size Estimation
Finally, the CDS software size, data storage size, and processing throughput are
estimated. Note that in this research, the estimates of CDS software, data storage, and
throughput are not used in estimating the mass, power, or volume of the CDS hardware, as
these are based on a complexity score. To estimate CDS software characteristics and computing
resources, several existence factors (or flags, 1 indicating existence, and 0 not) are defined
according to the required CDS functions. This procedure is based off of that described in section
16.3, pg. 673, of SMAD (30). The modeling of the CDS software function existence factors is
described in the following bullets.
 Communications
o Command processing and telemetry processing existence factors are set to 1 if a
telecom system is required
166
 ADCS: Existence factors are set for the following groups of ADCS processing functions. If
an ADCS is not required, all existence factors are set to 0.
o Attitude sensor processing
 Individual factors are set to 1 for the existence of a rate gyro, sun
sensor, Earth sensor, magnetometer, and star tracker
o Attitude determination
 Individual factors are set to 1 for the presence of onboard kinematic
integration, attitude error determination, ephemeris propagation,
complex ephemeris propagation, spacecraft orbit propagation, and
Kalman filter estimation
o Attitude control
 Individual factors are set to 1 for the presence of attitude control
methods such as precession control, magnetic control, thruster control,
reaction wheel control, and control moment gyro control
 Autonomy
o Simple autonomy
o Complex autonomy
 Fault Detection
o Fault Monitors: If fault monitors are required, fault monitoring is given a factor
of 1.
o Fault Correction: If fault correction is required, it is given a factor of 1.
 Other Functions
167
o Power management: If there is a power subsystem, power management is
given a factor of 1.
o Thermal control: If there is a thermal subsystem, thermal control is given a
factor of 1.
The software code size, data memory size, and processing throughput for each of the
functions described in the bullets above are then estimated using a common CDS processing
function. This CDS processing function takes the existence factor for a particular software
function, the software function execution frequency, and type of software function, and returns
the software function code size, required data memory size, and required processing
throughput in thousands of instructions per second (kips).
The code size S (in kwords) is estimated as:
𝑆 = 𝑓𝑒𝑥𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑆𝑑𝑒𝑓𝑎𝑢𝑙𝑡 𝑓𝑒𝑥𝑒𝑐_𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 Equation 5-3
using the existence factor (a 0 or a 1), the default code size Sdefault for a generic spacecraft, and
the execution ratio defined as the ratio between the actual function execution frequency
divided by the default execution frequency.
The data memory size D (in kwords) is estimated as:
𝐷 = 𝑓𝑒𝑥𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝐷𝑑𝑒𝑓𝑎𝑢𝑙𝑡 𝑓𝑒𝑥𝑒𝑐_𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 Equation 5-4
using the existence factor (a 0 or a 1), the default data size Ddefault for a generic spacecraft, and
the execution ratio just described.
The default code size, data storage size, throughput, and execution frequency are stored
in the CDS database MATLAB structure for the different software functions. The data in this
database is obtained from Table 16-13, pg. 665 of (30).
168
The processing throughput (in kips) is estimated as:
𝑇 = 𝑓𝑒𝑥𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑇𝑑𝑒𝑓𝑎𝑢𝑙𝑡 𝑓𝑒𝑥𝑒𝑐_𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 Equation 5-5
using the existence factor (a 0 or a 1), the default throughput Tdefault for a generic spacecraft, and
an execution ratio.
The basic operating system (OS) software functions must also be estimated. To do this,
the number of tasks per second for communications (commanding and telemetry), attitude
sensing, attitude determination & control, autonomy, fault protection, and other functions must
be estimated by adding the component function execution frequencies for each category. Then
the tasks per second for each category are added together. This total number of tasks per
second, n, is used to estimate throughput requirements for a couple OS sub-functions. Typical
OS functions are summarized below (30):
 Executive: Throughput (in kips) is estimated as 0.3*n
 Run-time kernel
 Input/Output (I/O) device handlers: Throughput is estimated as 0.05*m, where m is the
number of data words handled per second.
 Built-in test & diagnostics
 Math utilities
The number of data words handle per second, m, is estimated by summing the
contributions from the sensors (rate gyro, sun sensors, Earth sensors, magnetometers, star
trackers), telemetry stream, command stream. This total is used to compute the throughput for
the I/O device handlers.
The OS total code size, data size, and throughput are also summed from the
contributors.
169
The total software application code size, data size, and throughput requirements are
then computed from the individual software component estimates computed above
(communications, attitude sensing, attitude determination & control, autonomy, fault detection,
and other functions). The total code size (in kwords), data size (in kwords), and throughput for
both the applications + OS is then summed (without margin). Margin for uncertainty is
computed as the total application code size, data size, and throughput + the non-COTS code
size, data size, and throughput. The non-COTS contributions are themselves estimated as the OS
contribution minus the run-time kernel contribution. Margin for a spare copy of the application
and OS is computed as the total code size, data size, and throughput plus the uncertainty
margin.
The next step is to convert the total software code size and data size from kwords to
units of bytes. This is done by assuming there are 4 bytes per word (32-bits) and 1024 words per
kword. Thus the total software size in bytes is the total size in kwords times words per kword
times bytes per word.
The basic outputs of all the above CDS design module computations are then captured
in the CDS data structure, e.g. items such as total mass, volume, length, width, height, heat
dissipation area and low/high rates, power, and software size in bytes.
5.3.3 ADCS Design Module
The purpose of the ADCS design module is to select attitude sensors and control
actuators needed to execute the various slews required for the mission, and to control the
spacecraft attitude. The mass, power, and size of the sensors and actuators are obtained from
170
an ADCS database of components. The architecture of the ADCS design module is depicted in
Figure 5-17 below.
Inputs Outputs
Get list of ADCS Select actuator with max control authority

events to meet requirements for all slews
1. If RWA+RCS:
a. Select either pyramid or
tetrahedron config
For each ADCS event: b. Select RW with smallest
1. Get pointing knowledge & control mass that meets both
accuracy torque and momentum
2. Define applicable control methods requirements
3. Select reference and inertial sensors c. Size RCS thrusters for Delta-
V and Descent & Landing
attitude control
d. Estimate RCS propellant
1. Identify unique control methods over mass
all events e. Size RCS tanks
2. Identify unique ref and inertial sensors 2. If RCS only:
3. Select reference sensors with min a. Find max slew torque
knowledge accuracy requirement and compare
4. Select inertial sensor with min angular with max external torque
rate b. Find min disturbance
torque for limit cycling calcs
c. Size RCS thrusters for slews,
Delta-V and Descent &
For each ADCS event: Landing attitude control
1. Compute init/final attitudes, slew d. Estimate RCS propellant
angle, and slew duration mass
2. For each control method: e. Size RCS tanks
a. Compute total
disturbance torque at
final attitude
b. If RWA+RCS, find 1. Select smallest mass control system
required RWA pyramid 2. Calculate heat dissipation for all
vs. tetrahedron slew sensors and actuators
torques
c. If RCS-only, find
required slew torque
Figure 5-17. ADCS Design Module Top-level Architecture
For this research project, in order to design the ADCS under a given set of mission and
subsystem requirements, the following general design process was used (30):
1. Control Modes: Define the attitude control modes. An attitude control mode is
characterized by its own set of requirements on pointing accuracy (both knowledge and
control), pointing stability, jitter, and slewing that the spacecraft must meet in order to
171
provide a particular function (e.g. communications, power, propulsive maneuvers, etc.).
Each control mode can have multiple instances, or events, requiring attitude control.
Find the minimum pointing accuracy from all control modes for all events. Determine
the pointing knowledge accuracy and pointing control accuracy requirements from the
minimum pointing accuracy requirement.
2. Control Method: Use the minimum pointing control accuracy requirement and any
attitude/pointing constraint to determine the applicable attitude control methods (one
or more may be applicable).
3. Disturbance Environment: Quantify the disturbance torques (both internal and external)
expected during each event of each control mode. These disturbance torques will be
used in sizing the actuators for each control mode event.
4. Select and Size ADCS hardware: ADCS sensors should be selected to meet the smallest
required pointing knowledge accuracy.
a. Given the pointing knowledge accuracy, select the most suitable (lowest mass
and power) attitude determination sensors from a database.
b. Size the attitude actuators to meet the disturbance torques in each control
mode event, selecting the most capable actuator set with the largest control
torques as the final desired hardware. Finally, select the actuator hardware that
meets the required capability from a database.
The inputs required for the ADCS design module are: system iteration count, spacecraft
element type, trajectory parameters (data structure), database parameters (data structure),
payload parameters (data structure), and individual subsystem parameters (a separate data
structure for each subsystem). These inputs contain parameters for pointing requirements,
172
primary propulsion subsystem parameters, reaction wheel and RCS thruster parameters,
electronics surface emissivity, a database of ADCS sensors and control actuators, payload
parameters, and durations for each sub-phase of the Descent & Landing phase of the mission (in
the trajectory parameters), and individual subsystem masses.
The output is an update to the single data structure for ADCS. This data structure is
updated with the results of the ADCS design. This output includes selected ADCS sensor
specifications (both inertial and reference sensors), attitude control actuators (for the two
supported control methods, RWA + RCS, and RCS-only), the total ADCS mass and masses of
attitude sensors and actuators, and total power for all ADCS sensors.
5.3.3.1 ADCS Events
The first major step in the ADCS design module is to copy the list of mission events from
the Trajectory data structure to a list of events for ADCS. If the spacecraft element is a Lander,
Orbiter, or other generic spacecraft, all events are captured except for any Entry, Descent, and
Landing (EDL) events and surface operations events. Otherwise, if the spacecraft element is a
Rover, the event is copied if it is a surface operations event.
Now that the list of ADCS events for the given spacecraft element has been identified,
the pointing accuracy magnitude required for each event is obtained. The pointing accuracy is
ultimately a user-provided input. The pointing accuracy consists of two major components:
knowledge accuracy and control accuracy. The knowledge accuracy is computed as a fraction of
the total pointing accuracy, and the control accuracy is computed given the fact that the total
pointing accuracy is the root-sum-squared (RSS) of the knowledge accuracy and control
accuracy.
173
5.3.3.2 Control Methods
Next a list of suitable control methods for each ADCS event are obtained so that the
control accuracy can be met. There are several types of control methods that modern spacecraft
can employ. Examples of passive attitude control methods include gravity gradient stabilization,
magnetic stabilization, and spin-stabilization. Examples of active attitude control methods
include zero momentum and bias momentum.
To enable the ADCS design tool to automatically select a control method for a given
control mode, the pointing control accuracy requirement can be used to determine which group
of control methods is applicable. The attitude constraint and # of axes to be controlled can next
be used to further select the applicable control methods. For the purposes of this research, the
attitude constraint is defined as a particular attitude that is the only one achievable by the given
control method. Table 5-21 below illustrates this method of categorizing the control methods
(30).
Table 5-21. Modern Spacecraft Attitude Control Methods
Required Attitude Control Method Usability # Axes

Pointing Constraint Condition controlled
Control
Accuracy
> 5 deg Nadir pointing Gravity gradient If in low orbit 2 (no yaw)
only
Nadir pointing Gravity gradient w/ If in low orbit 3
only pitch momentum
bias
North/South Magnetic If planet has 2 (north/south

Pointing stabilization magnetic only)
field
None Mass Expulsion n/a 3
(thrusters)
1 – 5 deg Inertial Spin stabilization n/a 1
174
Required Attitude Control Method Usability # Axes
Pointing Constraint Condition controlled
Control
Accuracy
Inertial/Platform Dual-spin If articulated 1
stabilization platform is
required
with inertial
pointing
None Mass Expulsion 3
(thrusters)
0.1 – 1 deg Inertial Spin stabilization n/a 1
Inertial/Platform Dual-spin n/a 1
stabilization
Inertial Pitch Momentum n/a 3
bias w/
Desaturation
Thrusters or
Magnetic Torquers
None Mass Expulsion n/a 3
(thrusters)
None Zero momentum n/a 3
(reaction wheels)
< 0.1 deg None Zero momentum n/a 3
(reaction wheels)
None/Articulated Zero momentum If vibration is 3
(reaction wheels) a concern for
w/ articulated the
platform instrument
If the pointing target is inertial, only spin-stabilization and zero-momentum control
methods are considered applicable. If the pointing target is non-inertial, then gravity gradient,
dual-spin stabilization, momentum bias, and zero momentum, and mass expulsion control
methods are applicable.
For the purposes of this research, the applicable attitude constraint is considered to be
“none” so that for pointing control accuracies between 0.1 and 1 degrees (as shown in Table
5-21 above), zero momentum (reaction wheels) and mass expulsion (thrusters) are assumed
175
applicable. For control accuracies greater than or equal to 1 degree, the applicable control
method is assumed to be mass expulsion (RCS thrusters).
5.3.3.3 Sensor Selection
Sensor selection depends primarily on the required orientation of the spacecraft
(pointing specific instruments or spacecraft axes at specific targets) and the required pointing
knowledge accuracy. For example, pointing to an inertial target will benefit from reference
sensors. Inertial rate sensors can provide measurements for attitude estimation in between
reference sensor updates and during periods of occultation of the celestial reference objects.
Other system-level requirements on redundancy, fault tolerance, sensor field of view, and
sensor data rates can also influence sensor selection (30). For this research project, both
reference sensors (to provide inertial attitude measurements) and inertial sensors (to provide
measured spacecraft attitude rates) will be used to provide the required 3-axis attitude
estimates.
The purpose of an attitude sensor is to provide measurements to determine the
spacecraft attitude. Sensors can be selected to determine the orientation of a single spacecraft
axis or all three spacecraft axes. Generally, knowledge of the orientation of all three spacecraft
axes in inertial space is required. Usually a suite of sensors will be used to provide the attitude
measurements for attitude estimation. Once single-axis or three-axis attitude determination is
identified, the sensors that provide those measurements can be selected.
If the spacecraft element being designed is a Cruise Stage, Lander, Orbiter, or generic
spacecraft, and the attitude constraint is “none”, both star trackers and sun sensors are
assumed required for attitude sensing. Otherwise, if the spacecraft is a Rover, no reference
176
sensors are assumed. For the supported spacecraft, a generic attitude reference sensor function
is called to select both the star tracker and sun sensor, given the ADCS database and the
knowledge accuracy requirement.
For the star tracker, the set of star trackers from the ADCS database with cross boresight
accuracy (at beginning of life, BOL) less than or equal to the required knowledge accuracy is
obtained. Then of this set, the minimum mass star tracker is identified and selected as a
required reference sensor. The star tracker database is shown in Table 5-22.
Table 5-22. Star Tracker Database
Manufacturer Model Optical OH Electronics Electronics Attitude Attitude

Head Power Box Mass Box Power Accuracy Accuracy
(OH) (W) (kg) (W) Cross- Roll
Mass boresight about
(kg) (arcsec, boresight
1σ) (arcsec,
1σ)
Ball CT-
Aerospace 602 5.49 9 0 0 3 10
Ball CT-
Aerospace 633 2.49 9 0 0 4 38
Ball FSC-
Aerospace 701 1.6 0.85 5.8 16 2.9 29.733
Sodurn SED26 3.7 13.5 0 0 3.67 11
Selex Galileo A-STR 3.55 13.5 0 0 2.75 3.7
AA-
Selex Galileo STR 2.6 12.6 0 0 2.75 3.7
Andrews
Space PYXIS 0.93 4.4 0 0 10 40
For the sun sensor, the set of sun sensors from the ADCS database with off-axis accuracy
less than or equal to the required knowledge accuracy is obtained. Then for the list of applicable
sun sensors, each sensor is configured to provide full coverage about all axes. That is, the
number of sun sensors required for full coverage, given the available field of view of the
177
particular sun sensor, is determined. In each sun sensor case, the total mass of the sun sensors,
including electronics, is computed. Then the minimum total sun sensor assembly mass, including
electronics, is identified and set as the selected sun sensor.
Table 5-23. Sun Sensor Database
Manufacturer Model # Axes Sensor Electronics Sensor Electronics FOV

Measured Head Box Mass Head Box Power w/
Mass (kg) Power (W) baffle
(kg) (W) (deg)
Bradford Fine &
Engineering Coarse SS 1 0.365 0 0.2 0 128
SSBV Space &
Ground Fine SS 1 0.035 0 0.728 0 140
Adcole Digital SS 2 0.25 1.1 0 0.6 128
2-axis
Adcole Fine SS 2 0.38 1.2 0 1 64
A2100
Type Fine
Adcole SS 1 0.36 1.21 0 0.8 100
Next, the inertial sensor (i.e. IMU) is selected, if one is required. If there is a spin rate
requirement (such as when a solid rocket motor is included as part of the propulsion
subsystem), the angular rate in degrees per second is obtained; otherwise it is assumed to be
zero. In any case, the set of IMUs capable of measuring rates greater than the required angular
rate are obtained. Then the minimum mass IMU of this set is identified and selected as the
required IMU. The IMU database is shown below in Table 5-24.
Table 5-24. IMU/IRU Database
Manufacturer Model Gyro Type Mass (kg) Power (W) Angular

Velocity
Range
(deg/s)
Miniature Ring Laser
Honeywell IMU (MIMU) Gyro 4.7 32 375
178
Manufacturer Model Gyro Type Mass (kg) Power (W) Angular
Velocity
Range
(deg/s)
Scalable
Space
Inertial Hemispherical
Northrop Reference Resonator
Grumman Unit (SSIRU) Gyro 7.1 43 7
Northrop Fiber Optic
Grumman LN-200S Gyro 0.748 12 1000
Space
Qualified
Kearfott
Inertial
Reference
Kearfott Unit (SKIRU
Corporation D-II) not given 12.7 26 8
Note that selection of the reference and inertial sensors is done for each ADCS event.
Thus, there may be different ADCS sensors selected for each ADCS event. However, only one set
of reference and inertial sensors can be selected for the spacecraft element to support all ADCS
events. To identify this final set, a list of unique, individual reference sensors and inertial sensors
is obtained. For each unique reference sensor, the sensor with minimum knowledge accuracy is
selected. For each unique inertial sensor, the sensor with minimum angular rate is selected.
5.3.3.4 Control Actuator Sizing
Actuator sizing depends on the type of actuator, which itself relies on the selected
control method. Once a control method has been identified, the corresponding actuator
hardware can also be identified. As previously mentioned, some control methods don’t require
any actuator hardware, e.g. gravity gradient or passive magnetic. Most control methods,
however, do require actuators to impart control torque. For this mission, the control methods
179
being considered are mass expulsion (thrusters) and zero momentum (reaction wheels with
thrusters for momentum unloading).
A set of thrusters or reaction wheels can be sized to meet two functions: 1) maintaining
the spacecraft attitude in the presence of disturbance torques; and 2) Slewing the spacecraft to
change from one attitude to another. The following describes the general approach to sizing
thrusters and reaction wheels for this mission.
If attitude control is required for the spacecraft element, an actuator set is sized for
each ADCS control event. Each ADCS event can be one of several control modes or types. The
supported event types are listed below:
 Delta V
 Coasting
 In-space Communication
 Descent & Landing
 Surface Science (only for Rover)
 Surface Communication (only for Rover)
5.3.3.4.1 Modeling Slews
For each applicable ADCS event, the epoch of the event is obtained. Each event is
characterized by an initial attitude and a final attitude. The final attitude is the attitude at which
the specific event or activity takes place. For example, the final attitude for a Delta V event will
be an attitude that aligns the thrust vector with the inertial Delta V vector, and requires a slew
from a prior attitude. In this research, the attitude is defined by a primary body vector on the
spacecraft being aligned with a primary target vector, plus a secondary body vector being
180
aligned as close as possible with a secondary target vector. The primary body vector targeting
allows two degrees of freedom to be constrained. The third degree of freedom is constrained
with the spacecraft rotating about primary body vector until the secondary body vector aligns as
close as possible with the secondary target.
The attitude quaternion (from the EMEJ2000 frame to the body frame) is computed for
the initial and final attitudes given the names of the primary and secondary body and target
vectors. The slew angle and slew axis (in body frame) are then computed from these initial and
final attitude quaternions.
Next the maximum coasting rate for all slews is identified as either the maximum star
tracker rate (if a star tracker is present) or a user-provided default coasting rate. Given the
maximum slew coasting rate, the fraction of total slew time coasting (another user-provided
input), and the computed slew angle, the slew duration is computed per the slew profile
depicted in
Figure 5-18. In this figure, the control torque applied to the Δt1 segment and Δt3
segment are considered equal and opposite. Thus, it can be assumed that Δt1 = Δt3.
ωmax
t
Δt1 Δt2 Δt3
181
Figure 5-18. Modeled ADCS Slew Profile
Using this fact, and the definition of coasting fraction as Δt2 divided by the total slew
time, one can solve for the total slew time as follows:
𝑡𝑠𝑙𝑒𝑤 = 2𝛥𝑡1 + 𝛥𝑡2 Equation 5-6
where
𝜏0
Δ𝑡1 =
𝐹
𝜏0 = θslew /𝜔𝑚𝑎𝑥
2𝑓𝑐𝑜𝑎𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔
𝐹 =1+
1 − 𝑓𝑐𝑜𝑎𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔
2𝑓𝑐𝑜𝑎𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 Δ𝑡1
Δ𝑡2 =
1 − 𝑓𝑐𝑜𝑎𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔
5.3.3.4.2 Disturbance Torques
For each unique control method in the list of control methods per ADCS control event,
the disturbance torques are computed both at the initial attitude and at the final attitude. In
each case, the disturbance torques computed are gravity gradient, solar radiation pressure,
aerodynamic, and engine thrust misalignment disturbance during Delta-V maneuvers. To
compute the disturbance torque, the total mass properties (moment of inertia matrix, mass, and
center of mass location) of the combined spacecraft and its payload must be computed.
The gravity gradient torque is computed using the following gravity gradient equations
(see Eqs. 4.8.8 on pg. 109 of (41)).
𝑇𝑔𝑔𝑥 = 𝐶(𝐼𝑧 − 𝐼𝑦 ) ∗ 𝑎23 ∗ 𝑎33 Equation 5-7
𝑇𝑔𝑔𝑦 = 𝐶(𝐼𝑧 − 𝐼𝑥 ) ∗ 𝑎13 ∗ 𝑎33
𝑇𝑔𝑔𝑧 = 𝐶(𝐼𝑥 − 𝐼𝑦 ) ∗ 𝑎13 ∗ 𝑎23
182
𝐶 = 3𝜇/𝑅03
where 𝜇 = the gravitational parameter of the celestial body being orbited, 𝑅0 is the
radius from the central celestial body to the spacecraft, and aij are components of the direction
cosine matrix (DCM) from the orbit reference frame (ORF) to body frame. The orbit reference
frame is defined such that Zorf is in the radial direction, Yorf is in the orbit normal direction, and
Xorf completes the right-hand system and points toward the velocity direction.
The solar radiation pressure torque is calculated next. First the solar intensity flux 𝐽𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟
(in W/m2) at the spacecraft’s heliocentric distance is computed according to the following
equation (see Eqn 11.1, pg. 359 of (35)).
𝑃𝑠𝑢𝑛 Equation 5-8

𝐽𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟 =
4𝜋𝑅2
where 𝑃𝑠𝑢𝑛 = 3.856 ∗ 1026 W is the total power output from the Sun and 𝑅 is the spacecraft’s
heliocentric distance in meters.
Given the solar intensity flux at the spacecraft’s location, the solar pressure force 𝐹𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟
in Newtons acting on the spacecraft can be determined as follows (see Table 11-9A, pg. 366 of
(30)).
𝐽𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟 Equation 5-9

𝐹𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟 = 𝐴𝑠 (1 + 𝑞)𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
𝑐
where 𝑐 = the speed of light in m/s, 𝐴𝑠 = the cross-sectional surface area, 𝑞 = the surface
material reflectance factor (between 0 and 1), and 𝜃 = the solar incidence angle.
The solar pressure force can be transformed from a scalar to a vector in the spacecraft
body frame by multiplying it by the unit vector to the sun in body frame. The solar radiation
pressure torque can then be found according to the following equation:
⃑ 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟 = 𝑟𝑐𝑝 ×𝐹𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟

𝑇 Equation 5-10
183
where 𝑟𝑐𝑝 is the moment arm from the spacecraft’s center of mass to the center of pressure
where the solar pressure force acts.
For this research, the aerodynamic drag force is assumed to be zero for simplicity,
although in reality this depends on the spacecraft’s altitude in the LEO parking orbit prior to the
launch vehicle upper stage executing the translunar injection (TLI) burn.
The last of the disturbance torques to compute is from the engine thrust misalignment.
That is, if the engine thrust vector does not point directly to the spacecraft’s center of mass, the
misalignment will induce a disturbance torque proportional to the misalignment distance and
the thrust magnitude. Since the disturbance torques are calculated for each ADCS control event,
the Delta-V torque is computed only during a Delta-V event.
First, the applicable Delta-V maneuver for the specific ADCS control event is found from
a list in the Trajectory data structure. Next, the parameters of the Delta-V maneuver for the
propulsion system in use are found. These include the single-engine thrust, the Isp, the maximum
spin rate and (if a solid rocket motor is in use for the particular Delta-V), and the fractional limit
on Delta-V loss caused by the engine misalignment.
If the engine is gimballed, the Delta-V disturbance torque is assumed to be zero, since
the engine can be vectored so the thrust vector points at the spacecraft center of mass.
Otherwise, the Delta-V disturbance torque is computed as the cross product of the position
vector from the spacecraft’s center of mass to the engine firing, as shown in the equation
below.
⃑ 𝐷𝑒𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑉 = 𝑟𝑐𝑚2𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑒 ×𝐹𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑢𝑠𝑡

𝑇 Equation 5-11
184
If a solid rocket motor is providing the specific Delta-V, the spacecraft will need to spin
to provide a gyroscopic torque that counters the Delta-V disturbance torque to prevent a Delta-
V loss less than that expected from the Delta-V loss fraction. This required spin rate can be
determined using the following equation, per Eq. 6.2.8, pg. 134 of (41).
4𝜋𝑇𝐷𝑒𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑉 Equation 5-12

𝜔𝑧 = √
𝜃𝑛𝑢𝑡 𝐼𝑧 (𝐼𝑧 ⁄𝐼𝑥 − 1)
where 𝜃𝑛𝑢𝑡 = acos(1 − 𝑓𝐷𝑉_𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 ) is the average nutation angle induced by the disturbing
torque.
Once all the disturbance torques are computed for each control method, at both the
initial and final attitudes, they are summed to get the total spacecraft external disturbance
torque vector in body frame at both attitudes.
5.3.3.4.3 Computing Slew Torques
Given the disturbance torques at the initial and final attitudes, the torque required to
slew the spacecraft from the initial attitude to the final attitude for each ADCS control event is
determined. The required torque depends on the control method being employed: in the case
of this research, either zero momentum reaction wheels, or mass expulsion (i.e. RCS thrusters).
5.3.3.4.3.1 Reaction Wheel Sizing
For the reaction wheels, the maximum per reaction wheel torque and momentum for
two reaction wheel configurations, pyramid and tetrahedron, are computed. In both of these
configurations, 4 reaction wheels are assumed.
The pyramid configuration for 4 reaction wheels is depicted in Figure 5-19 below,
reproduced from (52). Notice that the 4 reaction wheels are placed at the base of an inverted
185
pyramid, with reaction wheels 1 and 3 located in the X-Z plane of the spacecraft, and 2 and 4
located in the Y-Z plane. In addition, all 4 wheels are positioned at an angle β above the X-Y
plane. The 4 wheels can also be rotated from the nominal positions about the Z axis by an angle
θ. Thus, the 3x4 reaction wheel frame to spacecraft body frame torque distribution matrix can
be found as:
𝑐𝑜𝑠βcosθ −𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛽𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 −𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛽𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛽𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 Equation 5-13

𝐴𝑤_𝑝𝑦𝑟𝑎𝑚𝑖𝑑 = [𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛽𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛽𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 −𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛽𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 −𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛽𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃]
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛽 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛽 sin 𝛽 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛽
In the above equation, the angle 𝛽 is needed to maximize momentum storage and the
angle 𝜃 provides torque about all axes (52).
Figure 5-19. Pyramid configuration for 4 reaction wheels (52)
The tetrahedron configuration is shown in Figure 5-20 below. The 3x4 reaction wheel
torque distribution matrix is given in the following equation. In this equation, the angle β
indicates the angle between the X-Y plane and the axes of reaction wheels 1, 2, and 3. The angle
θ represents the rotation about the Z-axis so that reaction wheels 1, 2, and 3 all contribute to
torque about all body axes. Note that in this torque distribution matrix the fourth wheel (4th
column) is aligned with the +Z-axis and does not have any torque contribution to other body
186
axes. If all wheels are intended to provide a torque contribution about all axes, the wheel
configuration would need to be rotated about the X and Y body axes.
𝜋 𝜋 Equation 5-14
𝑐𝑜𝑠βcosθ −𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛽cos(6 − 𝜃) −𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛽cos(6 + 𝜃) 0
𝐴𝑤_𝑡𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑎 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛽𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛽cos(𝜋 + 𝜃) −𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛽𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝜋 − 𝜃) 0
−𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛽 3 3 1
[ −𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛽 − sin 𝛽 ]
Figure 5-20. Tetrahedron configuration for 4 reaction wheels (52)
For a given 4-wheel configuration, the next step is to size the reaction wheels for the
slew being modeled in each ADCS control event. First, the reaction wheel torque and
momentum capability required to execute the control event’s slew are found. This is done using
time-optimal control. The spacecraft body torque required to accelerate and decelerate the
spacecraft to achieve the desired rotation (slew angle) about the desired slew axis in the desired
time is computed according to the following equation (see Eqn. 7.7.5, pg. 207 of (41)).
4𝐼𝑠 Equation 5-15

⃑ 𝑠𝑐_𝑏𝑜𝑑𝑦 =
𝑇 𝜃
𝑡𝑓2 𝑓
where 𝐼𝑠 = the spacecraft inertia matrix, 𝑡𝑓 = the slew duration, and 𝜃𝑓 is the slew axis
vector in the spacecraft body frame.
187
Next, the torque contributed by the reaction wheels is computed per Equation 5-16
below, assuming there are no external torques. Although in reality there are external torques,
this assumption is made to simplify the equations involved.
⃑ 𝑤_𝑏𝑜𝑑𝑦 = −𝑇
𝑇 ⃑ 𝑠𝑐_𝑏𝑜𝑑𝑦 Equation 5-16
⃑ 𝑡𝑜𝑡 = 0 = 𝑇
since 𝑇 ⃑ 𝑠𝑐_𝑏𝑜𝑑𝑦 + 𝑇
⃑ 𝑤_𝑏𝑜𝑑𝑦 . That is, to achieve a position rotation about a given body
axis, a negative torque from the wheels must be provided.
Next the spacecraft momentum accumulation during the slew acceleration stage is
computed. Since the acceleration time for time-optimal control is 0.5𝑡𝑓 , the spacecraft body
⃑ 𝑠𝑐_𝑏𝑜𝑑𝑦 𝑡𝑓. The reaction wheels must provide this same

⃑ 𝑠𝑐_𝑏𝑜𝑑𝑦 = 𝑇
momentum accumulated is 𝐻 2
level of momentum, so that:
⃑ 𝑤_𝑏𝑜𝑑𝑦 = −𝐻
𝐻 ⃑ 𝑠𝑐_𝑏𝑜𝑑𝑦 Equation 5-17
In order to find the required torque and momentum capability per reaction wheel (in
wheel frame) to achieve the slew, the pseudo-inverse of the reaction wheel torque distribution
matrix must be obtained. That is, the 3x4 wheel torque distribution matrix (transforming from
wheel frame to body frame) must be converted to a 4x3 matrix that transforms from body
frame to wheel frame. The pseudo-inverse can be found as follows:
𝑃𝑖𝑛𝑣 = 𝐴𝑇𝑤 (𝐴𝑤 𝐴𝑇𝑤 )−1 Equation 5-18
Thus, the per-wheel torque and momentum can be found from the following set of
equations:
188
⃑ 𝑤__𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑙 = 𝑃𝑖𝑛𝑣 𝑇
𝑇 ⃑ 𝑤_𝑏𝑜𝑑𝑦 Equation 5-19
⃑ 𝑤__𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑙 = 𝑃𝑖𝑛𝑣 𝐻
𝐻 ⃑ 𝑤_𝑏𝑜𝑑𝑦 Equation 5-20
Since a 4-wheel configuration offers redundancy against failure of one wheel, the torque
and momentum required for a given slew will be distributed differently among the remaining
functional wheels. So, the above equations can again be used to determine the new wheel
torque and momentum capability given a new wheel torque distribution matrix. This is done for
each of four separate cases in which each reaction wheel is assumed to be out of commission.
So, the reaction wheel torque distribution matrix is modified by replacing the column of the
failed reaction wheel with a 3x1 zero vector. Then the maximum torque and momentum among
the all-wheel and failed-wheel cases are found.
5.3.3.4.3.2 Mass Expulsion (RCS Thrusters) Sizing
The torque requirement to execute a slew must be found for RCS thrusters in a similar
manner as it was found for reaction wheels. Given the slew profile described in Section
5.3.3.4.1, the coasting and acceleration durations of the slew are obtained from the coasting
fraction and the total slew duration. The coast rate vector in the body frame is then computed
using the slew angle and slew axis (in body frame). The coast angle vector is next obtained by
multiplying the coast vector by the coast duration. Next the angles about each axis achieved
during acceleration are found as follows:
𝜃𝑠𝑙𝑒𝑤 − 𝛿𝜃𝑐𝑜𝑎𝑠𝑡 Equation 5-21

𝛿𝜃𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙 =
2
The spacecraft body torque to acceleration to the coasting rate is then obtained as:
189
2𝐼𝑠 Equation 5-22
⃑ 𝑠𝑐_𝑏𝑜𝑑𝑦 =
𝑇 𝛿𝜃
𝑡𝑓2 𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙
5.3.3.4.4 Selecting Control Actuator
Once the torque (and momentum, if applicable) slew requirements for the reaction
wheels or RCS thrusters are determined, the task is next to select the actuator for each control
method with the maximum control authority to perform all slews and provide general attitude
control.
5.3.3.4.4.1 Reaction Wheels + RCS Thrusters
First, the maximum reaction wheel torques over all ADCS control events for both the
pyramid and tetrahedron configurations are found. These two maximum wheel torques are
compared and the configuration with the smallest torque is selected as the final configuration to
meet the slew requirements.
Given the desired maximum reaction wheel torque and momentum, the reaction wheel
in the ADCS database with the smallest mass, that meets both requirements, is found. That is,
the wheels in the ADCS database with torque and momentum capability greater than or equal to
the desired torque and momentum are found. Then of this set, the wheel model with the
smallest mass (both the reaction wheel itself plus the associated electronics) is identified and
selected as the desired reaction wheel. A subset of the reaction wheel database is shown in
Table 5-25 below.
190
Table 5-25. Reaction Wheel Database Subset
Manufacturer Model Mass Steady Max Max

(kg) State Angular Torque
Power Momentum (Nm)
(W) (Nms)
Honeywell HR12-12-0.2 6 22 12 0.2
Honeywell HR12-25-0.2 7 22 25 0.2
Honeywell HR12-50-0.2 9.5 22 15 0.2
Honeywell HR14-25-0.2 7.5 22 25 0.2
Honeywell HR14-50-0.2 8.5 22 50 0.2
Honeywell HR14-75-0.2 10.6 22 75 0.2
Honeywell HR16-50-0.2 9 22 50 0.2
Honeywell HR16-75-0.2 10.4 22 75 0.2
Honeywell HR16-100-0.2 12 22 100 0.2
Since reaction wheels are typically combined with RCS thrusters for activities such as
momentum unloading or attitude control during Delta-V burns, the RCS thrusters must be sized
along with the reaction wheels. To size the RCS thrusters when reaction wheels are also
present, the larger disturbance condition (momentum unloading or Delta-V torque) must be
ascertained. The total disturbance torque during momentum unloading can be found from:
⃑ ̇ 𝑢𝑛𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑_𝑏𝑜𝑑𝑦 + 𝜔
⃑ 𝑡𝑜𝑡_𝑢𝑛𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑_𝑏𝑜𝑑𝑦 = ℎ
𝑇 ⃑ 𝑠𝑐_𝑏𝑜𝑑𝑦 ×ℎ𝑢𝑛𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑_𝑏𝑜𝑑𝑦 − 𝑇𝑒𝑥𝑡
Equation 5-23
⃑ ̇ 𝑢𝑛𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑_𝑏𝑜𝑑𝑦 is the torque state of the wheels in body frame, 𝜔

where ℎ ⃑ 𝑠𝑐_𝑏𝑜𝑑𝑦 is the
body rate vector during momentum unloading, and ℎ𝑢𝑛𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑_𝑏𝑜𝑑𝑦 is the momentum state of the
wheels in body frame.
To simplify the calculations, the spacecraft can be assumed to have zero body rates
⃑ 𝑠𝑐_𝑏𝑜𝑑𝑦 = 0) with zero external torques. In reality, the spacecraft will have non-zero body
(𝜔
rates and external disturbance torque during a momentum unloading event. This is one possible
191
area of improvement for the ADCS design module. Thus, the torque on the spacecraft during
momentum unloading can be assumed to come entirely from the reaction wheels.
The momentum unloading event is characterized by spinning the wheels down to zero
while the RCS thrusters counter the wheel disturbance torque acting on the spacecraft (to
maintain pointing so the spacecraft does not slew). So the first term in Equation 5-23 must be
determined.
Each reaction wheel (in either the 4-wheel pyramid or tetrahedron configuration) has
the same maximum torque and momentum capability. During any given momentum unloading
event, each of the wheels can be spinning at a variety of speeds (momentum) up to the
maximum allowed wheel speed. Since this state is unknown, a momentum distribution vector
(4x1) is assumed. In the case of the pyramid configuration, the vector is assumed to be 𝑎 = [1 1
1 1]T, with all wheels at the same momentum. In the case of a tetrahedron configuration, the
vector is assumed to be 𝑎 =[1 -1 1 -1]T, with odd-numbered wheels having the same
momentum and even-numbered wheels having the same momentum.
Each wheel is assumed to be at 75% of the maximum momentum capability, since a
spacecraft in operation will require some margin against over-speeding the wheels. The
momentum state of the wheels can then be found as the limited momentum times the
momentum distribution vector.
During momentum unloading, the wheels are assumed to spin down to zero rpm at ½
the maximum torque capability. In a similar manner, the torque on the spacecraft as the wheels
are spinning down can be computed as the wheel spin-down torque times the momentum
distribution vector. The wheel momentum state can then be transformed to body frame by
multiplying the momentum vector by the torque distribution matrix. Similarly, the wheel torque
192
during spin-down can be converted to body frame. This is the disturbance torque that the RCS
thrusters must overcome during wheel spin-down.
Next the set of disturbance torques during each Delta-V burn is obtained. Given this, the
overall RCS torque requirement is determined to be either the momentum unloading torque or
the Delta-V disturbance torque.
To size the RCS thrusters to function for both momentum unloading and Delta-V
attitude control, the minimum RCS torque in obtained for each case. This is needed as an input
in sizing the RCS thrusters. The procedure for selecting the proper RCS thruster from the ADCS
database is described in the following section 5.3.3.4.4.2.
Once the RCS thruster is sized and selected, the propellant mass for momentum
unloading, attitude control during Delta-V burns can be found, and attitude control during
Descent & Landing can be determined. Currently, the ADCS design module assumes zero
propellant mass for momentum unloading as the MATLAB function to compute this takes a long
time to run. This is an area of possible improvement in the future. To estimate the propellant
mass required to perform attitude control during Delta-V burns, a limit cycling approach is
taken. This is discussed in section 5.3.3.4.4.2.
Finally, since the reaction wheels cannot control the spacecraft under the disturbance
torques present during Descent & Landing, the RCS thrusters must do this. The propellant mass
for attitude control via RCS thrusters during all Descent & Landing phases is determined. This is
discussed in more detail in section 5.3.3.4.4.2.
Once the total RCS propellant mass is determined, the RCS tanks are sized. This is
discussed in the next section as well.
193
5.3.3.4.4.2 RCS Thrusters Only
5.3.3.4.4.2.1 Sizing the RCS Thrusters
To size the thrusters for the mass expulsion control method, the first step is to find the
maximum slew torque requirement over all slews. Next, the maximum total disturbance torque
(out of the set of all disturbance torques acting on the spacecraft at the final attitude for each
ADCS control event) is found. The maximum RCS slew torque magnitude is compared to the
maximum external disturbance magnitude. The larger of the two is selected as the RCS torque
requirement (without margin). Additional margin (a user-provided value) is added to this torque
requirement to determine the RCS torque requirement as a vector in body frame. Next, the
minimum disturbance torque at the final attitude of all ADCS control events is found. This
minimum disturbance torque vector (in body frame) is used in selecting the minimum impulse of
the RCS thrusters. This minimum case is used because using the maximum disturbance torque
for limit cycling calculations would result in an RCS thruster with high minimum impulse being
selected. This, in turn, would cause 2-sided limit cycling when the spacecraft experiences
smaller disturbance torques.
Given the RCS slew torque requirement, the minimum disturbance torque vector, the
minimum moment arm from the spacecraft center of mass to the RCS thrusters, the number of
thrusters firing per axis, among other parameters, the RCS thrusters can be sized.
In the RCS thruster sizing function, the following simplifying assumptions are made in
finding the required RCS thrust for slews and attitude control:
194
 The moment arm for all thrusters is assumed to be the same (i.e. the center of mass is
assumed at the origin of the spacecraft structure and equidistance from all thrusters, as
depicted in Figure 5-21 below)
 There are 2 thruster strings (for redundancy)
 There are 8 thrusters per string (for a total of 16 thrusters)
 The thrusters fire in pairs (as a couple) to provide a moment/torque that causes the
spacecraft to slew about a given body axis (see Table 5-26)
 The RCS thruster is assumed to be mono-propellant based
Figure 5-21. RCS Thruster Configuration (16 thrusters, 2 strings of 8)
Table 5-26. RCS Thruster Pairs to Rotate About S/C Body Axes
Axis Rotation A-string (even) B-string (odd)

+X 6,16 5,15
-X 8,14 7,13
195
Axis Rotation A-string (even) B-string (odd)
+Y 4,10 3,9
-Y 2,12 1,11
+Z 2,10 or 6,14 3,11 or 7,15
-Z 4,12 or 8,16 5,13 or 1,9
The required RCS thruster force can then be found from Equation 5-24 below:
𝑇max_slew Equation 5-24

𝐹𝑚𝑎𝑥 =
2𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑛
where 𝑇max_slew is the maximum required slew torque, and the 2𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑛 represents the shortest
distance between the two thrusters.
Next, the required RCS minimum impulse bit about each body axis, under the minimum
disturbance torque vector (in body frame), is determined. This is obtained using the following
minimum impulse bit (Ns) equation:
Equation 5-25
16𝐼𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠 𝜃𝐷𝐵 𝑇𝑒𝑥𝑡
𝐼𝑏𝑖𝑡 = √
𝑁𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑛
where 𝐼𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠 = the moment of inertia about a given body axis, 𝜃𝐷𝐵 is the attitude control
deadband during limit cycling, 𝑇𝑒𝑥𝑡 is the magnitude of the external disturbance torque acting
on the spacecraft, 𝑁 is the number of thrusters firing per axis (2), and 𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑛 is the minimum RCS
thruster moment arm.
The overall minimum impulse bit requirement is then selected as the maximum 𝐼𝑏𝑖𝑡 over
all axes.
5.3.3.4.4.2.2 Selecting the RCS Thruster
Given the RCS thrust and minimum impulse bit requirements, the RCS thruster is then
selected from the thruster/engine database. Since the thruster/engine database includes a
196
variety of chemical thrusters and engines (mono-prop, bi-prop, solid rocket motors) and electric
propulsion thrusters, the database is limited to only the mono-prop thrusters (example subset
shown in Table 5-27 below). Since each thruster in the database can potentially have a minimum
and maximum operational thrust, the average thrust is computed and used. The set of mono-
prop thrusters that provide an average thrust greater than or equal to the required RCS thrust is
then obtained.
Table 5-27. RCS Thruster Database Subset (5 -100 N thrust)
Manufacturer Model Fuel Max Isp (sec) Max Thrust Thruster

(N) Mass (kg)
Aerojet MR-111C Hydrazine 229 5.3 0.13
Northrop
Grumman MRE-4.0 Hydrazine 217 9.8 0.5
Aerojet MR-50T Hydrazine 225 19.5 0.41
Astrium 20N Thruster Hydrazine 230 24.6 0.395
Aerojet MRM-106B Hydrazine 232 27 0.2
Northrop
Grumman MRE-5.0 Hydrazine 232 28 1.5
MR-106E
Aerojet 28V Hydrazine 235 30.7 0.635
MR-106E
Aerojet 70V Hydrazine 235 30.7 0.23
Aerojet MRM-106E Hydrazine 235 30.7 4.1
Aerojet MR-50S Hydrazine 229 32 0.41
Aerojet MR-106L Hydrazine 235 34 0.59
Northrop
Grumman MRE-15 Hydrazine 228 66 1.1
Aerojet MR-107P Hydrazine 226 98 0.65
Next, the thrusters in this set that have a minimum impulse bit less than or equal to the
required minimum impulse bit are found. If no thrusters have a minimum impulse bit that meets
this requirement, the one with the lowest minimum impulse bit is selected. Otherwise, the
thruster with the smallest mass is identified and then selected as the desired RCS thruster. The
power required to operate the associated thruster valve is also found directly from the database
197
given the assumed thruster valve current (a user-provided input) and the thruster valve voltage.
Once the RCS thruster is selected, the average thruster force, average torque per thruster
couple, and average specific impulse are found. Note that the selected RCS thrusters are one
size for attitude control throughout the mission. Another possible architecture could be to have
different-sized RCS thrusters, one set for fine attitude control and another set for Descent &
Landing, for example.
5.3.3.4.4.2.3 Sizing RCS Propellant Mass
Given the performance specifications of the RCS thruster, the total RCS propellant mass
required to execute slews and provide attitude control (for pointing and Descent & Landing
activities) is determined. The RCS propellant mass for pointing control for all ADCS control
events is determined assuming 1-sided limit cycling. That is, a given RCS thruster pulses for a
minimum pulse duration to provide a torque that counters the external disturbance torque
acting on the spacecraft.
First the disturbance torque vector (in body frame) is obtained for each ADCS control
event at the final attitude. The time the spacecraft spends in this attitude until the next control
event is found. If the event is a Delta-V burn, the burn duration is used. In either case, this time
is used as the pointing control duration. Given the pointing control duration, the RCS propellant
mass required for the thrusters to perform 1-sided limit cycling is calculated. This is done by first
finding the RCS propellant mass expended during one firing of the thruster couple per the
following equation.
𝑁𝐼𝑏𝑖𝑡 Equation 5-26

Δ𝑀𝑝_min_pulse =
𝐼𝑠𝑝 𝑔0
where 𝑔0 is the gravitational acceleration (in m/s2) at the Earth’s surface.
198
Next the pulse cycle period (time between two pulses) about each axis is computed as
follows:
2𝑁𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝐼𝑏𝑖𝑡 Equation 5-27

𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑙𝑠𝑒 =
𝑇𝑒𝑥𝑡
The total number of pulses per axis over the elapsed period can be determined by
dividing the pointing duration by the pulse cycle period per axis. Then the total RCS propellant
mass per axis for limit cycling can be found by multiplying the RCS propellant mass for one pulse
by the total number of pulses per axis. Then the total RCS propellant mass for limit cycling can
be found by summing the values for all 3 axes.
Next, the total RCS propellant mass to execute the slews for each ADCS control event is
calculated. This is done by determining the thruster on-time during each slew about each axis.
The thruster duty cycle about each axis is determined by dividing the required RCS slew torque
by the available RCS torque per thruster couple as follows:
𝑓𝑑𝑢𝑡𝑦_𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒 = 𝑇𝑠𝑙𝑒𝑤 /𝑇𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑢𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑟_𝑎𝑣𝑔 Equation 5-28
To check if the thrusters may inadvertently have been undersized for the required slew
torque, a check is done on whether the duty cycle is greater than 100%.
The thruster on-time per axis is then computed as:
𝑡𝑜𝑛 = 2𝑁𝑓𝑑𝑢𝑡𝑦_𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒 Δ𝑡𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙 Equation 5-29
where Δ𝑡𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙 is the time to provide angular acceleration during the slew, and the factor of 2
accounts for both acceleration and deceleration. The on-time per axis is summed to get the total
199
RCS thruster on-time per slew. Then the list of on-times is summed to obtain the total RCS on-
time for all slews.
The RCS propellant mass for all slews can be found by multiplying the thruster mass flow
𝐹
rate, 𝑚̇ = , by the total on-time.
𝐼𝑠𝑝 𝑔0
Δ𝑀𝑝_𝑠𝑙𝑒𝑤𝑠 = 𝑚̇𝑡𝑜𝑛 Equation 5-30
Lastly, the RCS propellant mass required to provide attitude control or slewing during
Descent & Landing is determined (see Section 5.3.8 for details on the Descent & Landing
simulation). The Descent & Landing phase is characterized by the following sub-phases:
 Braking Burn 1: engines thrusting in anti-velocity direction
 Pitch-up: spacecraft slewing to align thrust axis in anti-gravity direction (no thrusting)
 Braking Burn 2: thrust is vertical
 Approach: thrust is vertical
 Terminal Descent
For braking burn 1, the total disturbance torque vector (in body frame) contribution
from all firing engines is first obtained. This is done by taking the cross product of the thrust
moment arm vector with the thrust per engine, and then summing the torque vector for all
engines. The RCS propellant mass for attitude control during Braking Burn 1, Braking Burn 2,
Approach, and Terminal Descent are then found using the 1-sided limit cycling function
described earlier. The RCS propellant mass for the pitch-up maneuver is found by computing the
RCS thruster on-time per the procedure described earlier, given the pitch-up maneuver duration
and assuming bang-bang control for a slew about the X-axis.
200
5.3.3.4.4.2.4 Sizing RCS Tanks
Now that the RCS thruster is selected and the total RCS propellant mass estimated, the
next task is to size the entire Reaction Control Subsystem, including tanks. First, the mono-
propellant fuel parameters are obtained from the selected RCS thruster (which originated in the
Thruster/Engine database). The fuel and pressurant chemical properties (molar mass, density,
etc.) are then obtained from the Propellant/Pressurant database. Additional RCS propellant
above that required is then determined. The additional propellant is calculated according to the
following definitions.
 Reserve propellant: the required propellant mass plus margin or contingency
 Usable propellant: the required propellant mass + reserve propellant mass
 Residual propellant: propellant remaining in the lines and valves as a fraction of the
usable propellant mass
 Load uncertainty propellant: Additional propellant due to uncertainty in loading the
propellant tanks on the ground prior to launch; a fraction of the usable propellant mass
 Unusable propellant: the residual propellant mass + load uncertainty
 Total loaded propellant: the combined usable + unusable propellant mass
 Total extra propellant: the loaded propellant mass – required propellant mass
Given the total RCS propellant load, the RCS tanks can then be sized. A generic propellant tank
sizing function is called to estimate the RCS tankage mass. In the case of a mono-propellant RCS,
two pressurization options are available: regulated vs. blowdown (see Figure 5-22 below).
201
Regulated Blowdown
Fill Valve
High
Pressure Gas
Gas
Fill Valve
Propellant
Regulator
Relief
Valve
Fill Valve
Propellant
Tank
Figure 5-22. RCS Pressurization Systems
In the case of a regulated mono-prop the fuel and pressurant tank assemblies are sized.
For this research, 2 fuel/pressurant tank assemblies each offset from the spacecraft centerline
are assumed. Each assembly is also assumed to contain half of the total RCS propellant and
pressurant for mass balancing purposes. First the fuel tank of each assembly is sized using a
generic tank sizing function, followed by the pressurant tank. The generic tank sizing function
first computes the volume needed for only the required RCS propellant mass, and then the
volume needed for the usable RCS propellant mass. To get the required tank volume, the
volume of gas ullage in the tank is estimated as the ullage fraction times the usable propellant
volume. Then the tank volume is simply the required propellant volume + the gas ullage volume.
Vtank_req = 𝑉𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙_𝑟𝑒𝑞 + 𝑉𝑔𝑎𝑠_𝑢𝑙𝑙𝑎𝑔𝑒 Equation 5-31
202
Since the pressure regulator in between the tank and thruster causes a pressure drop,
and since the thruster has a range of operating feed pressures, the maximum tank pressure can
be found as the maximum thruster feed pressure plus the negative of the regulator pressure
drop.
Ptank_max = 𝑃𝑡ℎ𝑟_𝑓𝑒𝑒𝑑_𝑚𝑎𝑥 + Δ𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑔 Equation 5-32
In the case of a blowdown mono-prop RCS, the required tank volume is computed by
finding the blowdown ratio (ratio of initial tank pressure to final tank pressure) and using that,
along with the usable propellant volume, to estimate the initial gas volume per Equation 5-33
below (see pg. 713 of (30)).
P0i Equation 5-33

B=
𝑃0𝑓
𝑉𝑢𝑠𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒
Vgf =
1 − 1/𝐵
𝑉𝑔𝑓
Vgi =
𝐵
The required tank volume can then be found using Equation 5-31 above.
Given the required tank volume, the tank inner radius can be found assuming a
spherical tank:
1 Equation 5-34
3 𝑉𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑘_𝑟𝑒𝑞 3
R inner_tank =( )
4 𝜋
The volume required for the propellant control device can then be computed along with
its outer radius.
Next, the inner tank case radius can be found as the required inner tank radius plus the
propellant control device material thickness. In the case of a metal tank, no tank liner is
203
assumed. In that case, the required inner tank case radius is just the previously computed inner
tank radius. For a composite tank, on the other hand, the tank will have a metallic liner on the
inside. The radius and volume of this thin metallic tank liner is then computed. So the composite
tank inner tank case radius is then just the outer radius of the tank liner.
The tank case thickness, whether metallic or composite, can then be found using the
allowable stress formula for a spherical tank (30).
Pmax R inner_tank Equation 5-35

σ=
2t
where P is the maximum expected operating pressure and t is the tank case thickness. This
equation can be solved for the tank case thickness, given the maximum tank pressure, a user-
provided factor of safety, and assuming the allowable stress is equivalent to the tank material
ultimate tensile strength 𝐹𝑡𝑢 .
fsf Pmax R inner_tank Equation 5-36

t=
2𝐹𝑡𝑢
The tank outer radius is then the inner tank case radius plus the tank case thickness. The
total tank thickness is then the tank case thickness plus the tank liner thickness, if present. The
volume of the tank case spherical shell can then be found as follows:
4 3 3
Equation 5-37
𝑉𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑘_𝑐𝑎𝑠𝑒 = 𝜋(𝑅𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑒𝑟_𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑘_𝑐𝑎𝑠𝑒 − 𝑅𝑖𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑟_𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑘_𝑐𝑎𝑠𝑒 )
3
The last step in sizing the tanks is to compute the mass of the tank. This is done by
computing the mass of the propellant control device, the tank liner (if present), and the tank
case, using the volume of each component times the density of that component.
204
Next the RCS dry mass is computed given the fuel mass, pressurant mass, tankage mass,
thruster mass, etc.
Finally, the total RCS power is estimated as the sum of the thruster valve power, the
thruster valve heater power, and, in the case of a mono-prop system, the catalyst bed heater
power.
5.3.3.4.5 Control System Selection
Once the actuators (reaction wheels and thrusters) are selected and sized, the minimum
mass control system (reaction wheels + RCS or RCS only) is identified and selected as the desired
control system. Lastly, the heat generated by all selected sensors and actuators is estimated.
5.3.4 Propulsion Design Module
The Propulsion subsystem design module is designed to estimate the propellant
requirements to provide for all the Delta-V orbital maneuvers required in the trajectory and to
size the propellant tanks for the total propellant load (including the Descent & Landing
propellant). Note that the Descent & Landing propellant mass requirement itself is not
estimated in this module, since that is sized separately in the Descent & Landing design module
(see Section 5.3.8). The architecture of the Propulsion design module is depicted in Figure 5-23
below.
205
Inputs Outputs
Get propulsion Get total Delta-V for Get subsystem

system inputs orbital maneuvers masses
Size chemical
propulsion system
Position
Prop engines
Type
Size electric
propulsion system
Figure 5-23. Propulsion Design Module Top-Level Architecture
To make this design tool somewhat generic, it is assumed that more than one
propulsion system may be present on the spacecraft. For example, a spacecraft may have a bi-
propellant propulsion system to provide for the majority of Delta-V burns, but may use a solid
rocket motor (SRM) for an orbit insertion burn. If the spacecraft is equipped with a propulsion
subsystem (for example, a typical rover is not), then each propulsion system is sized separately.
The total mass of all propulsion subsystems is then computed.
This tool accepts the following MATLAB inputs: trajectory parameters (data structure),
payload parameters (data structure), propulsion system identification number, and individual
subsystem parameters (a separate data structure for each subsystem). The tool returns the
Propulsion data structure with updated parameters and design results.
First, the tool gets the required number of descent engines for Descent & Landing and
sets it as the total available thrusters onboard the propulsion subsystem. Next, the tool obtains
various propulsion inputs:
 the user-input thruster model (originating in the Thruster/Engine database)
206
 the supported propellants (fuel, oxidizer, and pressurant)
 the thruster feed pressure (min and max)
 propellant mass factors (for fuel/oxidizer ullage, reserve margin, residual propellant
fraction, load uncertainty fraction)
 total required Delta-V (in km/s) for all orbital maneuvers in the trajectory
 thruster performance specifications
 miscellaneous component masses (electric propulsion power units, electric propulsion
low/high pressure feed assemblies, thruster gimbals, thruster valves, thruster mass
itself, etc.)
 Propellant and pressurant chemical properties (molar mass, density, temperature,
mixture ratio)
 Maximum tank pressures (for fuel, oxidizer, and pressurant tanks)
 Tank material properties (material, ultimate tensile strength, tank factor of safety, tank
case density, tank liner density, tank liner thickness)
 Propellant control device density and thickness
 Total launch mass for each subsystem
 Descent & Landing total propellant mass
 The mass of any other separate propulsion systems (RCS thrusters are assumed part of
ADCS)
Given all the above inputs, the proper propulsion sizing module can be run. Note that the
Propulsion design module assumes the main engine model has been specified at the user-input
level and not as an internal trade within the tool itself. An example engine database is shown
below in Table 5-28.
207
Table 5-28. Propulsion Engine Database Subset
Manufacturer Model Fuel Oxidizer Max Isp Max Engine

(sec) Thrust (N) Mass (kg)
Aerojet R-1E MMH NTO 280 111 2
Aerojet R-4D MMH NTO 315.5 490 3.4
HiPAT
Liquid
Apogee
Aerojet Motor MMH NTO 323 445 5.44
HiPAT
Dual
Mode
Liquid
Apogee
Aerojet Thruster Hydrazine NTO 329 445 5.4
Aerojet R-42 MMH NTO 303 890 4.53
Aerojet R-42DM Hydrazine NTO 327 890 7.3
AMBR
Dual
Aerojet Mode Hydrazine NTO 333 623 5.4
TR-308
Liquid
Northrop Apogee
Grumman Engine Hydrazine NTO 322 470.64 4.76
TR-312
Liquid
Northrop Apogee
Grumman Engine MMH NTO 325 501.72 6.03
TR-312-
100YN
Liquid
Northrop Apogee
Grumman Engine MMH NTO 330 555 6.03
For the purposes of this research, since the reference mission is to the lunar surface, the
Propulsion design module was originally designed for either chemical or electric propulsion,
given that the trajectory could employ either of these techniques. The other more exotic
propulsion techniques were not investigated in this research. The emphasis of this research was
placed on sizing the chemical propulsion, although the capability does exist in the tool to size an
208
electric propulsion system for use in a low-thrust trajectory (but this capability has not been
fully tested with an integrated trajectory).
Once the chemical propulsion system is sized (propellant mass estimation + tank sizing),
the engines are positioned on the spacecraft. The number of engines required is determined by
the Descent & Landing module, described in Section 5.3.8. Up to 6 engines can be placed at the
base of the spacecraft. For a spacecraft without any solid rocket motors, an engine can be
placed along the spacecraft centerline. Otherwise, if a solid rocket motor is present and
positioned along the centerline, no engines can be placed on the centerline. For the purposes of
this research, the MATLAB code currently only has engine positioning for the “without solid
rocket motor” case. Potential future work could involve adding an engine positioning case for
the SRM-equipped condition. The engine positioning for this has already been mapped out but
not programmed in the Propulsion subsystem design module code.
For the non-SRM case, if one engine is sufficient to provide for the Descent & Landing, it
is place at the base of the Lander spacecraft along the centerline. Two required engines are
positioned so that they are equidistance from the centerline along the X-axis. Three required
engines are positioned in a triangular pattern. Four required engines are positioned in a square
pattern. Five required engines are positioned such that one engine is along the centerline and
the remaining 4 are arranged in a square pattern around the central engine. Six required
engines are positioned in a rectangular pattern with three engines forming each row of the
arrangement parallel to the X-axis.
209
5.3.4.1 Chemical Propulsion Sizing Module
5.3.4.1.1 Estimating Required Propellant Mass
Three types of chemical propulsion systems can be sized in the chemical propulsion
sizing module: mono-prop, bi-prop, and solid.
Sizing the chemical propulsion system, regardless of the type, at this stage requires an
iterative approach. This approach involves estimating the inert mass (assuming zero initial
required propellant on the first iteration), required propellant mass to impart the required
Delta-V, the loaded propellant mass, sizing the propellant and pressurant tanks, and then
repeating this process by iteration, computing a new inert mass (now using the just-estimated
propellant mass) until the total estimated spacecraft mass converges. The detailed calculations
to do this are described next and the overall algorithm is depicted in Figure 5-24 below.
210
Inputs Output
s
While loop
Initialize following masses
to zero:
Compute inert mass Compute loaded
 tank masses propellant mass or
 propellant masses adjusted SRM
 inert mass propellant mass
Compute total
 total est. mass
estimated mass
 total req. mass
Size fuel, oxidizer,

Compute total
and pressurant
estimated Delta-V
tanks
Compute total
required mass
Compute diff.
between current
and previous
Compute total iteration for total
required est. mass
propellant mass
Figure 5-24. Chemical propulsion module sizing algorithm
First, the inert masses are computed. The inert masses are all the masses that cannot be
used in actually propelling or slowing down the spacecraft. That is, the inert mass consists of the
masses of all the subsystems plus the unusable propellant mass. The reader may wonder how
the unusable propellant mass can be estimated without knowing the required propellant mass.
Since this is an iterative approach, the required propellant mass is assumed to be zero on the
very first iteration of this method.
Once the inert mass has been computed, an estimate of the total spacecraft mass can
be made as the sum of the inert mass plus the usable propellant mass (i.e. the wet mass).
𝑚𝑡𝑜𝑡_𝑒𝑠𝑡 = 𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑡 + Δ𝑀𝑝_𝑢𝑠𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 Equation 5-38
Given this, an estimate of the total Delta-V that can be imparted by the propulsion
system can be made using the standard field-free rocket equation.
211
𝑚𝑡𝑜𝑡_𝑒𝑠𝑡 Equation 5-39
Δ𝑉𝑒𝑠𝑡 = 𝐼𝑠𝑝 𝑔0 ln ( )
𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑡
In the above formulation, it is assumed that all the “usable” propellant is actually used,
leaving only the inert mass (final mass).
The same standard rocket equation can be used to compute the actual required total
spacecraft mass to deliver the required Delta-V.
mtot_req = 𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑡 𝑒 Δ𝑉𝑟𝑒𝑞 /𝐼𝑠𝑝 𝑔0 Equation 5-40
Given this required total spacecraft mass, the required propellant mass for the orbital
Delta-V maneuvers can be obtained as:
ΔMp_req_DV = 𝑚𝑡𝑜𝑡_𝑟𝑒𝑞 − 𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑡 Equation 5-41
Then the total propellant mass required for both Delta-V burns and Descent & Landing
can be computed as:
ΔMp_req_tot = ΔMp_req_DV + ΔMp_req_EDL Equation 5-42
Next, in the case of a bi-prop system, the usable and loaded propellant mass can be
computed as follows:
ΔMp_reserve = ΔMp_req_tot 𝑓𝑚𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑖𝑛 Equation 5-43
ΔMp_usable = ΔMp_req_tot + ΔMp_reserve
As the above equation shows, the usable propellant mass is just the total required
propellant mass plus the reserve mass.
212
ΔMp_resid = ΔMp_usable 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑑 Equation 5-44
ΔMp_load_unc = ΔMp_usable 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑_𝑢𝑛𝑐
ΔMp_unusable = ΔMp_resid + ΔMp_load_unc
Then the total loaded prop mass is just the sum of the usable and unusable propellant
mass.
ΔMp_loaded = ΔMp_usable + ΔMp_unusable Equation 5-45
The fuel and oxidizer mass can be found using the mixture ratio 𝑀𝑅 as:
ΔMp_loaded Equation 5-46

ΔMp_fuel =
𝑀𝑅 + 1
ΔMp_ox = ΔMp_loaded − ΔMp_fuel
If a solid rocket motor is being designed, propellant mass may need to be added or
removed from the SRM’s standard design (i.e. the SRM is a commercial unit). The adjusted mass
can be found as:
Δ𝑀𝑝_𝑎𝑑𝑗𝑢𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑑 = ΔMp_req_DV − Δ𝑀𝑝_𝑒𝑥𝑝𝑒𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑑 Equation 5-47
where Δ𝑀𝑝_𝑒𝑥𝑝𝑒𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑑 represents the SRM propellant consumed, and is equivalent to the total SRM
mass minus the burn out mass (as provided by the manufacturer).
If propellant has to be added, the SRM case length will need to be extended. This can be
obtained by taking the additional propellant mass and dividing it by the linear density of the
SRM (kg/cm).
213
5.3.4.1.2 Sizing Propellant Tanks
Once either the liquid or solid propellant mass is estimated, the associated tankage for
the liquid system can be sized. The tank sizing for a mono-prop RCS was described in Section
5.3.3.4.4.2.4 and can be referred to for the actual tank sizing equations since the same functions
are called again for the bi-prop fuel and oxidizer tanks.
In the case of the bi-prop pressurant tank, an optimization method to find the proper
tank pressure. To do this, the regulated pressure at the thruster feed is needed. Since there will
be pressurant gas in the oxidizer and fuel tanks (as ullage), the total pressurant ullage volume
can be found. The mass of this pressurant ullage gas can be found using the perfect gas law as
follows:
𝑃𝑟 𝑉𝑢𝑙𝑙𝑎𝑔𝑒 Equation 5-48

nmol_ullage =
𝑅𝑇
Then the total ullage mass can be found by multiplying the moles by the molar mass
(kg/mol) of the pressurant gas. The pressurant ullage mass in the fuel and oxidizer tanks can
each be estimated in a similar manner.
The volume of the fuel and oxidizer usable propellant can then be estimated from their
respective masses and densities.
Next the regulated pressurant tank pressure is found by searching for the initial tank
pressure (starting at a minimum pressure up to a pre-defined limit) that minimizes the
pressurant tank mass. First, the pressurant volume stored in the pressurant tank is estimated.
𝑃𝑟 𝑉𝑢 Equation 5-49
𝑉𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠_𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑒 =
𝑃0𝑖 − 𝑃0𝑓
214
Where 𝑃𝑟 is the regulated fuel and oxidizer tank pressure, 𝑉𝑢 is the total usable
propellant volume (fuel + oxidizer), 𝑃0𝑖 is the current guess of the initial pressurant tank
pressure, and 𝑃0𝑓 is the final pressurant tank pressure (equivalent to the minimum thruster feed
pressure minus the pressure regulator drop).
The moles of pressurant gas stored in the tanks can be found using the perfect gas law:
𝑃𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠_𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑘_𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑉𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠_𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑒 Equation 5-50

nmol_press_store =
𝑅𝑇
The mass of the pressurant gas stored in the tanks can be found by multiplying the
moles by the molar mass of the pressurant.
The total mass of pressurant gas can then be found as follows:
𝑚𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 = 𝑚𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠_𝑢𝑙𝑙𝑎𝑔𝑒 + 𝑚𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠_𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑒 Equation 5-51
Given the stored pressurant mass in the tanks, the generic tank sizing function can be called.
The process of computing the stored pressurant mass and sizing the pressurant tank
(mass, radius, thickness, volume) is repeated for every incremented initial tank pressure. The
tank corresponding to the minimum pressurant tank mass is then selected as the desired
pressurant tank.
5.3.4.2 Electric Propulsion Sizing Module
An electric propulsion sizing module was also developed as part of this research for use
in a low-thrust trajectory. However, the researcher was not able to design a low-thrust
trajectory within the dissertation research timeline and so was not able to fully test deploy this
capability. The original intent was for a Propulsion Stage module, separate from a Lander, to be
equipped with a solar electric propulsion (SEP) module to provide low-thrust. This is an area for
215
possible future work. As such, the details of the electric propulsion sizing module are not
described here.
5.3.5 Thermal Design Module
The overall goal of the thermal design module is to estimate the mass of the thermal
subsystem for each spacecraft, size the spacecraft radiator, and estimate the radiator heater
power. The overall method to accomplish this is depicted in Figure 5-25 below. The details of
the figure are described in the following sections.
Inputs Outputs
Get dry mass Compute thermal Compute min/max

w/o thermal subsystem mass S/C equilibrium
temperature for
each mission event
Size heater power to

Size S/C radiator
keep S/C radiator at
for hot allowable
lower cold allowable
S/C temperature
S/C temperature
Figure 5-25. Thermal Design Module Top-Level Architecture
5.3.5.1 Thermal Mass Estimation
The primary function of the Thermal design module is to estimate the total thermal
subsystem mass and to estimate the thermal subsystem power for each spacecraft element in
the mission. The total thermal subsystem mass can be estimated using a simple formula based
on a fraction of the total spacecraft element dry mass, as shown below in Equation 5-52.
216
𝑚𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 = 𝑓𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝑚𝑑𝑟𝑦_𝑠𝑐_𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑑𝑖𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑 Equation 5-52
The thermal mass fraction is a user-input, specified in the MASD Excel tool, and is
typically 2-5% of the spacecraft dry mass (36). In this research a value of 4% was used. The
spacecraft dry mass without the thermal contribution is first computed by summing the dry
masses of all other subsystems on the spacecraft element. Since the total spacecraft element’s
dry mass includes thermal, the predicted dry mass must be computed according to the formula
in Equation 5-53.
𝑚𝑑𝑟𝑦_𝑠𝑐_𝑛𝑜_𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 Equation 5-53

𝑚𝑑𝑟𝑦_𝑠𝑐_𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑑𝑖𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑 =
1 − 𝑓𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙
This predicted dry mass can then be multiplied by the thermal mass fraction to obtain
the thermal subsystem mass estimate.
5.3.5.2 Spacecraft Equilibrium Temperature
The next set of steps in the thermal design process is to compute the spacecraft heat
dissipation for all events in the mission as part of an effort to size the spacecraft radiator and
determine the radiator heater power. The procedure that was followed to size the spacecraft
radiator and determine radiator heater power is outlined in Table 11-45 on pg. 443 of (30). The
procedure as adapted in this research is described next.
First, the surface area of the spacecraft element is estimated by adding the surface
areas of the warm electronics box (WEB) and any appendages (such as surface area from wheels
for the Rover, but not including the surface areas of the solar arrays or RPS radiators, if present).
In the event the contributions to the total spacecraft surface area have been yet been
217
determine (i.e. if the Structures design module has not yet been run), a total spacecraft surface
area of 1 m2 is assumed.
Next the diameter of a sphere with surface area equal to the spacecraft surface area is
found. This sphere diameter is in turn used to find the cross-sectional area of the spacecraft.
Given this, a procedure, as outlined in (30), is followed to determine the minimum and
maximum spacecraft heat flux in each mission event. To do this, the maximum and minimum
heat dissipation for each event are obtained from the Power MATLAB data structure, as
estimated by the Power design module (see Section 5.3.7 for details). The maximum heat flux
for each event assumes no battery discharge, whereas the minimum heat flux represents the
heat flux during eclipses and includes battery discharge heat.
Given the minimum and maximum spacecraft internal heat dissipation (in Watts) for a
particular event, the spacecraft element’s maximum and minimum equilibrium temperatures
are estimated. Since the spacecraft’s equilibrium temperature also depends on heat fluxes from
all environmental sources, particularly the Sun. So the spacecraft’s heliocentric distance is
obtained from the trajectory at the time of each mission event. The geocentric distance is also
important, to calculate the heat flux from the Earth.
The Earth’s angular size as viewed from the spacecraft’s position in its trajectory is
determined using simple geometry, as given in the following equation.
𝑅𝐸𝑎𝑟𝑡ℎ Equation 5-54

𝜃𝐸𝑎𝑟𝑡ℎ = 𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 ( )
𝑅𝑠𝑐_𝑔𝑒𝑜𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐
where 𝑅𝐸𝑎𝑟𝑡ℎ is the Earth’s equatorial radius, and 𝑅𝑠𝑐_𝑔𝑒𝑜𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 is the distance from the Earth’s
center to the spacecraft.
218
The distance from the spacecraft to the Moon is obtained to determine the heat flux
from the Moon. The Moon’s angular size is then determined using the following equation.
𝑅𝑀𝑜𝑜𝑛 Equation 5-55

𝜃𝑀𝑜𝑜𝑛 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 ( )
𝑅𝑠𝑐_𝑠𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑜𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐
where 𝑅𝑀𝑜𝑜𝑛 is the Moon’s equatorial radius, and 𝑅𝑠𝑐_𝑠𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑜𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 is the distance from the
Moon’s center to the spacecraft.
Next, the view factors to the Earth and the Moon are determined according to the
following equation. This equation represents the view factor of an infinitesimal sphere (the
spacecraft) viewing a finite sphere. The view factor is a parameter that accounts for the
geometry and orientation of a surface in relation to radiative heat exchange.
(1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜌) Equation 5-56

𝐹=
2
where ρ is the angular radius of the Earth in radians.
The solar flux (W/m2) at the spacecraft’s position can be estimated from:

4𝜋𝑅 2
where 𝑃𝑠𝑢𝑛 is the Sun’s total power output (3.856 x 1026 W) and R is the spacecraft’s distance
from the Sun (35).
Given the spacecraft cross-section and surface areas, the relevant view factor, the solar
flux at the spacecraft’s position, and the spacecraft emissivity 𝜖 and absorptivity 𝛼, the heat
absorbed by the spacecraft from various sources can be computed. These sources are solar,
celestial body infrared heat and albedo (from the Earth or Moon), in addition to the spacecraft’s
own internal heat dissipation.
219
The heat absorbed from the Sun can be found from:
𝐽𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟_𝑎𝑏𝑠𝑜𝑟𝑏𝑒𝑑 = 𝐴𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠_𝑠𝑝ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝐽𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝛼 Equation 5-58
The heat absorbed from Earth infrared radiation can be found from:
𝐽𝐸𝑎𝑟𝑡ℎ_𝐼𝑅 = 𝐴𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓_𝑠𝑐 𝐹𝐸𝑎𝑟𝑡ℎ 𝑞𝑚𝑎𝑥_𝐸𝑎𝑟𝑡ℎ 𝜖 Equation 5-59
where 𝑞𝑚𝑎𝑥_𝐸𝑎𝑟𝑡ℎ is the maximum Earth infrared heat flux, known to be 258 W/m2 (30).
The heat absorbed from Earth albedo radiation can be found from:
𝐽𝐸𝑎𝑟𝑡ℎ_𝑎𝑙𝑏𝑒𝑑𝑜 = 𝐴𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓_𝑠𝑐 𝐹𝐸𝑎𝑟𝑡ℎ 𝐽𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑎𝐸𝑎𝑟𝑡ℎ 𝛼𝐾𝑎𝐸𝑎𝑟𝑡ℎ Equation 5-60
where 𝑎𝐸𝑎𝑟𝑡ℎ = 0.34 is Earth’s albedo, and 𝐾𝑎𝐸𝑎𝑟𝑡ℎ is an albedo correction factor that accounts
for the reflection of collimated incoming solar energy off a spherical Earth.
The Earth’s albedo correction factor is estimated as (30):
𝐾𝑎𝐸𝑎𝑟𝑡ℎ = 0.644 + 0.521𝜌𝐸𝑎𝑟𝑡ℎ − 0.203𝜌𝐸𝑎𝑟𝑡ℎ Equation 5-61
The heat absorbed from lunar infrared radiation and albedo can be determined in a
similar manner, using 𝑞𝑚𝑎𝑥_𝑀𝑜𝑜𝑛 = 1311 W/m2 (using the Moon’s maximum equatorial
temperature and the Stefan-Boltzmann equation), 𝑎𝑀𝑜𝑜𝑛 = 0.07, and 𝐾𝑎𝑀𝑜𝑜𝑛 = 1 (for lack of an
available equation).
The total maximum heat flux on the spacecraft can then be estimated by summing the
fluxes from the Sun, Earth infrared radiation, Earth albedo radiation, the Moon’s infrared
radiation, the Moon’s albedo radiation, and the spacecraft’s maximum internal heat dissipation.
Given this, the spacecraft’s maximum equilibrium temperature (in Kelvin) can be found from the
Stefan-Boltzmann equation as:
220
1 Equation 5-62
𝐽𝑚𝑎𝑥 4
𝑇𝑚𝑎𝑥 = ( )
𝐴𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓_𝑠𝑐 𝜎𝜖
The total minimum heat load on the spacecraft can be found by summing the heat from
the Earth IR, Moon IR, and spacecraft minimum internal heat dissipation (no input from the Sun
or albedo since an eclipse condition is assumed). In a similar manner, the minimum equilibrium
temperature can be found using this minimum total heat load.
5.3.5.3 Spacecraft Radiator Sizing
Next the spacecraft radiator can be sized. First the allowable spacecraft internal
temperature limits (high and low) are obtained from the user-specified inputs. Margin of about
5° C is added to both limits. The minimum overall spacecraft internal heat dissipation over all
mission events is then found, followed by the maximum overall heat dissipation over all mission
events.
Given the upper allowable spacecraft temperature (with margin), the radiator heat flux
(W/m2) can be computed per the following equation.
4 Equation 5-63
𝐽𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟 = 𝜎𝜖𝑇𝑠𝑐_𝑢𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑟
Then the required spacecraft radiator area can then be found given the maximum
spacecraft internal heat generation (assumes no solar flux).
𝑄𝑠𝑐_𝑚𝑎𝑥 Equation 5-64

𝐴𝑠𝑐_𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟 =
𝐽𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟
Then the heater power required to keep the radiator at the minimum allowable
spacecraft temperature (including margin) is computed. First the radiator temperature under
the worst-case cold condition is found:
221
1 Equation 5-65
𝑄𝑠𝑐_𝑚𝑖𝑛 4
𝑇𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟_𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑑 = ( )
𝐴𝑠𝑐_𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝜎𝜖
Then the required heater power can be found as:
4 Equation 5-66
𝑄𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟_𝑙𝑜𝑤_𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝 = 𝐴𝑠𝑐_𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝜎𝜖𝑇𝑠𝑐_𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟
This heater power is then set as the required thermal subsystem power.
5.3.6 Structures Design Module
The purpose of the Structures design module is to estimate the structural mass of each
spacecraft element: in the case of this research, a rover and a lander. The procedure to estimate
the structural mass in each case is different given the unique nature of each spacecraft type and
is described in the following sections.
5.3.6.1 Rover Structure Design
The overall architecture of the rover structural design module is depicted below.
Outputs
Inputs
Estimate rover WEB Estimate rover Estimate rover total

area and mass mobility system mass mass (mobility +
(assume 0 on first (using historical data) remaining)
iteration)
Compute rover wheel Compute rover overall Compute rover wheel

diameter and width length, width, height actuator power (using
(using historical data) (using historical data) wheel theory)
Figure 5-26. Rover Structures Design Module Top-Level Architecture
222
The first step in sizing the Rover is to estimate the area of each side of the warm
electronics box (WEB) that houses all the critical electronics, and the WEB mass. This is done
taking into account the overall dimensions of the rover (determined later on) and subtracting
the appropriate dimension of the rover wheels (width or diameter). For the very first call of the
Structures module for the Rover, the WEB mass and panel area cannot be estimated, as these
require the rover overall dimensions. So these parameters are assumed to be zero for the very
first system iteration of the Rover.
In any case, the next step is to compute the mass of all other Rover subsystems, not
including the mobility system. That is, the mass of all instrument payloads is added to the
masses of all other rover subsystems to obtain the “remaining” mass. Once this “remaining”
mass is computed, it can be used to estimate the mass of the Rover mobility system.
The mass of the mobility system has a simple linear relationship to the Rover
“remaining” mass.
𝑚𝑟𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟_𝑚𝑜𝑏𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑦 = 𝛼𝑚𝑜𝑏 𝑚𝑟𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑛𝑔 Equation 5-67
where 𝛼𝑚𝑜𝑏 is the rover mobility sizing coefficient and can be found from the rover mobility
coefficient (fit from historical data) as:
𝑓𝑚𝑜𝑏 Equation 5-68

𝛼𝑚𝑜𝑏 =
1 − 𝑓𝑚𝑜𝑏
This linear relationship was determined by obtaining publicly available mass data for
flown Mars or lunar rovers and plotting the total mass against the “remaining” mass. This data is
shown below in the following set of tables. Data was obtained for all successful NASA Mars
rovers and the two Soviet Lunokhod rovers.
223
Table 5-29 shows historical mass and power data. Table 5-30 shows dimensional data
(wheel diameter and width, and overall rover width, length, and height).
Table 5-29. Historical Rover mass and power data
Planned Total Power

Surface Mass - supply
Mission Total Science Mobility Mobility max
Duration Rover Payload System System output
Mission Launch Date Destination Rover (days) Mass (kg) Mass (kg) Mass (kg) Mass (kg) (W) Power Source # Wheels
Mars Solar array

Pathfinder 4-Dec-96 Mars Sojourner 7 10.5 0.74 2.13 8.37 16.5 (GaAs/Ge) 6
*June 10, 2003
(MER-A, Spirit)
Mars *July 7, 2003 Solar array
Exploration (MER-B, (Ultra-triple
Rovers Opportunity) Mars MER-A/B 92.4 174.5 9 35.40 139.10 140 junction) 6
Mars
Science Radiosiotope
Laboratory 26-Nov-11 Mars Curiosity 730 899 75 182.38 716.62 110 (Pu-238) 6
Luna 17 10-Nov-70 Moon Lunokhod-1 81 756 n/a 105.00 651.00 180 Solar array (Si) 8
Solar array
Luna 21 8-Jan-73 Moon Lunokhod-2 81 840 n/a 116.67 723.33 1000 (GaAs) 8
Table 5-30. Historical Rover dimensional data
Wheel Wheel Max

Diameter width Width Length Height Speed # Science
Mission Rover (m) (m) (m) (m) (m) (cm/s) Instruments
Mars
Pathfinder Sojourner 0.137 0.06 0.48 0.65 0.3 1 1
Mars
Exploration
Rovers MER-A/B 0.262 0.16 2.3 1.6 1.5 5 7
Mars
Science
Laboratory Curiosity 0.5 0.4 2.8 3 2.1 2.5 10
Luna 17 Lunokhod-1 0.51 0.2 1.6 1.7 1.35 22.2 4
Luna 21 Lunokhod-2 0.51 0.2 1.6 1.7 1.35 55.6 6
Using this data, relationships between various aspects of the rover design can be found.
A plot of the historical mobility system mass vs. rover remaining mass is shown in Figure
5-27.
224
Figure 5-27. Historical rover mobility system mass vs. remaining rover mass
A plot of rover wheel diameter vs. total mass is shown in Figure 5-28 below.
Figure 5-28. Historical rover wheel diameter vs. total rover mass
A plot of rover wheel width vs. total mass is shown in Figure 5-28 below.
225
Figure 5-29. Historical rover wheel width vs. total rover mass
A similar procedure as that used for the mobility system can be followed to determine
the dimensions of the rover wheels (diameter and width), and the overall rover width, height,
and length. That is, the dimensional data was plotted against the total rover mass for all flight
rovers to obtain curves. In the case of the wheel diameter and width, and the rover overall
width, length, and height, the curves were fit to power laws.
The rover wheel diameter can be found from:
𝛽
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑙_𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑚 Equation 5-69
𝐷𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑙 = 𝛼𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑙_𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑚 𝑚𝑡𝑜𝑡_𝑟𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟
The rover wheel width can be found from:
𝛽
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑙_𝑤𝑖𝑑𝑡ℎ Equation 5-70
𝑊𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑙 = 𝛼𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑙_𝑤𝑖𝑑𝑡ℎ 𝑚𝑡𝑜𝑡_𝑟𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟
The rover overall width, length, and height can be found using similar equations as
above. Plots of historical rover width, length, and height vs. rover total mass are shown next.
226
Figure 5-30. Historical rover width vs. total rover mass
Figure 5-31. Historical rover length vs. total rover mass
227
Figure 5-32. Historical rover height vs. total rover mass
Next, the wheel actuator motor power can be estimated from historical rover data
according to the following set of equations (53):
𝐹𝑅 = 𝑚𝑡𝑜𝑡_𝑟𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟 𝑔𝑚𝑜𝑜𝑛 (𝑓0 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃𝑚𝑎𝑥_𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑚𝑎𝑥_𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒 ) Equation 5-71
where 𝐹𝑅 is the rover rolling resistance force against a maximum slope (provided by the user
and set at 20 degrees in this research).
𝑃𝑟 = 𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝐹𝑅 Equation 5-72
where 𝑃𝑟 is the required wheel power to move at velocity 𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑥 (provided by the user and set at
3 cm/s in this research).
𝑃𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑙_𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟 = 𝑃𝑟 /𝜂𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑚𝑖𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 Equation 5-73
where 𝜂𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑚𝑖𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 is a power transmission efficiency (provided by the user and set at 0.9 in
this research).
228
5.3.6.2 Lander Structure Design
The purpose of the Lander structural design module is to estimate the total mass of all
Lander structure given expected structural loads on the spacecraft. The overall architecture for
the Lander Structural design is depicted in Figure 5-33 below.
Inputs
Get material Get Lander Get payload Get Lander leg

properties subsystem mass parameters
masses
Get max thrust Size RCS tanks Size Propulsion Size Lander
acceleration support tanks support deck plate and
structure structure beams
Size Lander Size Lander Size Lander legs Sum lander

thrust structure engine total structural
columns mounting mass
structure
Outputs
Figure 5-33. Lander Structures Design Module Top-level Architecture
The first step is to obtain all the material properties from the Structures MATLAB data
structure: primarily the ultimate tensile strength, the compressive yield strength, Young’s Elastic
Modulus, the material density, separate safety factors for buckling and yielding, and a desired
margin of safety.
Next, the total mass from all other Lander subsystems is computed (without Structure,
of course), given the subsystem masses estimated by the other subsystem sizing modules. The
total lander mass without structures is used later on in sizing the landing legs. Then the
dimensions of the Lander payload (i.e. the Rover) are obtained.
229
Next, the landing leg parameters are obtained. These parameters are: the # of landing
legs (4 for this research), Propulsion main engine length, height of a hazardous rock (a user
input), the lander leg strut horizontal spacing, and the landing leg slant angles (elevation with
respect to horizontal/ground and azimuth/clock angle). In this research, the landing leg
elevation angle is assumed to be 70 degrees, whereas the azimuth angle is 45 degrees.
Next, the maximum thrust acceleration is determined by taking the total available thrust
(for the number of engines solved for in the Descent & Landing sizing module) and dividing by
the final landed mass. On the very first system iteration, the final landed mass is taken to be the
mass of all other lander subsystems plus the payload, including the rover and any other
instrumentation). Otherwise, the final landed mass is obtained from the Descent & Landing
solution and nominally includes the rover and its payload plus the lander mass minus the spent
propellant mass (consumed in prior orbital Delta-V maneuvers and during de-orbit, descent, and
landing). Note that since reserve and unusable propellant are added to the total propellant
estimate in the Propulsion design module, this additional propellant will remain on the landed
vehicle.
5.3.6.2.1 Sizing RCS tank Support Structure
If a reaction control subsystem (RCS) using thrusters was selected by the ADCS design
module, the RCS tank support structure is sized. A common MATAB function was developed to
size support structure for any tanks, whether RCS or Propulsion. In the case of RCS tanks, the
function obtains the number of fuel tanks, number of pressurant tanks, fuel tank mass,
pressurant tank mass, as well as fuel mass and pressurant mass. Since the RCS is assumed to be
mono-propellant based, the code distinguishes between the regulated and blowdown cases. For
230
this research, a blowdown system is assumed (provided as a user-input), so support structure
for each set of RCS blowdown tanks is sized.
The RCS tank support structure is modeled as two sets of a pair of cantilevered beams,
one pair supporting the top of the tanks and the other supporting the bottom of the tanks, as
Top support beams

Pair of beams
Tank
Bottom support beams

Side View Top View
Figure 5-34. Modeled RCS tank support structure
The full tank load is set as the wet tank mass (tank structure + fuel) times the Earth’s
gravitational acceleration times the maximum load factor (a user-input and set at 4 in this
research). The per beam tank load V, acting transverse to the beams, is split in half and applied
to the upper and lower beams. The beam lengths are set to the tank radius plus a small
separation distance to the thrust structure. Since the load on each beam acts transverse to the
beam, the members are under pure bending. Thus, beam theory can be used to find the
required cross-section diameter and thickness to support the bending moment.
231
The margin of safety is the ultimate criteria for structural safety against failure. The
margin of safety (%) is defined as:
𝜎𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 Equation 5-74

𝑀𝑆 = 100 ∗ ( − 1)
𝜎𝑑𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛
where the allowable load or stress is the material strength against failure (yielding or ultimate
failure), and the design load or stress is the limit load or stress times a factor of safety.
Beam theory states that the bending stress of a beam under pure bending is:
𝑀𝑏𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑐 Equation 5-75

𝜎𝑥𝑥 =
𝐼
where 𝑐 is the cross-section distance from the extreme fiber to the neutral axis, and 𝐼 is the
cross-section area moment of inertia (with units m4).
To save mass, the beams are assumed to have a ring cross-section. The ring cross-
section inner diameter can be found from the beam theory stress equation using the
appropriate area moment of inertia:
4
32𝑀𝑏𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝐷𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑒𝑟 1/4 Equation 5-76
𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑟 = (𝐷𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑒𝑟 − )
𝜋𝜎𝑥𝑥
where 𝐷𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑒𝑟 can be found by adding a small amount Δ𝑑 (say 1 mm) to the circular cross-
section diameter form.
𝐷𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑒𝑟 = 𝐷𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐 + Δ𝑑 Equation 5-77
32𝑀𝑏𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 1/3
𝐷𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐 =( )
𝜋𝜎𝑥𝑥
In the above equations, the design bending moment is found according to the following
equation:
𝑀𝑏𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 = 𝐿𝑏𝑒𝑎𝑚 𝑉𝑓𝑆 Equation 5-78
where the bending safety factor 𝑓𝑆 (a user-input) is assumed to be 2 in this research.
232
The bending stress 𝜎𝑥𝑥 is the material allowable strength. If the ultimate tensile strength
is less than the compressive yield strength, the bending stress is taken as the ultimate strength.
Otherwise, the bending stress is taken as the yield strength.
To compute the margin of safety, the allowable stress 𝜎𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 is set as the material
bending stress. The design stress 𝜎𝑑𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛 is taken as the actual bending stress, computed using
Equation 5-75, using the actual bending moment without the factor of safety applied.
Given the cross-section dimensions and the beam length, the beam volume can be
found. This volume can be multiplied by the material density to get the mass of a single beam.
This mass is doubled for the pair of beams at the top and at the bottom of the given RCS tank.
5.3.6.2.2 Sizing Propulsion Tank Support Structure
Next, the Propulsion system tank support structure can be sized. The Propulsion system
tanks are supported in the same way as the RCS tanks, and so the MASS tool employs the same
tank support structure sizing function as that used for the RCS tanks. This tank support structure
sizing function is capable of sizing both mono-propellant and bi-propellant systems. Since the
Propulsion system focused on in this research is bi-propellant, the tank structures for the fuel
tank, oxidizer tank, and pressurant tank are sized.
5.3.6.2.3 Sizing Lander Deck Structure
The lander deck must support the weight of the payload (i.e. rover) sitting on top. The
maximum lander deck load is then taken as the payload mass times Earth’s gravitational
acceleration times the maximum load factor (assumed to be 4 in this research). This load is
increased by multiplying by the yield factor of safety (a user input, assumed to be 2).
233
The lander top deck is assumed to consist of 4 beams and a cross-beam, as shown in
Figure 5-35.
4 2
Top View
Figure 5-35. Lander top deck support beams
The lengths of beams 1 and 3 are taken to be the length of the overlying payload. The
lengths of beams 2 and 4 are taken to the width of the overlying payload.
The beams are modeled as having uniform linear load (N/m) acting across the entire
beam. The load force on each beam is taken as the maximum payload weight (including load
factor) divided by 4. Beam theory, assuming fixed-fixed end conditions, is again used to get the
maximum bending moment acting on the beams (54). The maximum bending moment is:
𝑤𝐿2 Equation 5-79

𝑀𝑐 =
24
where 𝑤 is the uniform linear load and 𝐿 is the beam length.
The beam cross-sectional width h can be found, assuming a solid rectangular beam for
simplicity.
234
6𝑀𝑐 1/3 Equation 5-80
ℎ= ( )
𝜎𝑥𝑥
where 𝜎𝑥𝑥 is the maximum bending stress, taken to be either the material ultimate strength of
the yield strength, whichever is smaller. Given the beam cross-sectional width h and the beam
length, the beam cross-sectional area and beam volume can be computed. Then the beam mass
can be found from the volume and material density.
A plate is assumed to sit on top of the beams, to provide a cover, as well as the sides.
The area, volume, and mass of the plates is then found, assuming a user-input plate thickness
(the plates here are not sized for any structural load).
5.3.6.2.4 Sizing Lander Thrust Structure
The main lander structure consists of 4 columns (a user-input) supporting the mass of
the payload, top deck beams and top plate. The total load acting on the main structure is then
this total mass times Earth’s gravitational acceleration times the maximum load factor. To
reduce mass, the columns are assumed to have a ring cross-section. The length of the columns is
determined by comparing the largest Propulsion tank diameter with a minimum thrust structure
height and selecting the greater of the two. The thrust structure columns are then sized against
buckling under compression. The theory of elastic buckling of a column is used.
According to this theory, for columns of any end fixity condition, the buckling stress, or
column critical stress, is:
𝑐𝜋 2 𝐸 Equation 5-81
𝐹𝑐𝑟 =
(𝐿⁄𝜌)2
where 𝑐 is the end-fixity coefficient, E is Young’s Modulus, L is the column length, and 𝜌 = √𝐼/𝐴
is the radius of gyration of the column cross-section.
235
Using a ring cross section, the inner radius can be solved for as:
1/4 Equation 5-82

4
64𝑓𝑠_𝑏𝑢𝑐𝑘𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑃𝐿2
𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑟 = (𝐷𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑒𝑟 − )
𝑐𝜋 3 𝐸
where 𝑃 is the axial load on the member, 𝐿 is the column length, and 𝑓𝑠_𝑏𝑢𝑐𝑘𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 is the buckling
factor of safety (a user-input and assumed to be 2 in this research).
The outer ring diameter can be found from:
𝐷𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑒𝑟 = 𝐷𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐 + Δ𝑑 Equation 5-83
1/4
64𝑓𝑠_𝑏𝑢𝑐𝑘𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑃𝐿2
𝐷𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐 =( )
𝑐𝜋 3 𝐸
where a small value of 1 mm is added to the 𝐷𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐 to avoid computing a 𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑟 of zero.
Given the dimensions of the ring cross-section, the cross-sectional area, area moment of
inertia, and radius of gyration can be found.
For the case of a vertical column, there is only an axial load. Thus, the axial member
stress can be found as:
𝑓𝑐 = 𝑃/𝐴𝑐𝑠 Equation 5-84
Next, a check against yielding before buckling is done. The yield margin is safety is found
as:
𝐹𝑐𝑦 Equation 5-85

𝑀𝑆𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑 = 100 ∗ ( − 1)
𝑓𝑐
where 𝐹𝑐𝑦 is the material compressive yield strength. If the computed yield margin of safety is
less than the desired value (a user-input and assumed to be 200% in this research), the cross-
sectional area is re-sized using Newton’s method to achieve the desired margin against yielding.
In any case, the volume of the column is found, and with the material density the
column mass can be found. Then the total thrust structure mass can be found for all 4 columns.
236
5.3.6.2.5 Sizing Lander Engine Mounting Structure
The Propulsion main engines must themselves be mounted to the lander, and this
mounting structure must be sized to support the load of the engines. Figure 5-36 below depicts
the engine mounting structure, consisting of 4 vertical columns and an engine plate.
Engine mounting struts
Engine mounting plate
Figure 5-36. Engine mounting structure (shown in gray)
The load factor applied to the loads in this structure sizing routine is the maximum of
the maximum load factor acceleration (user-provided max load factor times g0) and the
maximum thrust acceleration. The maximum thrust acceleration is the total thrust from all
engines divided by the final landed mass.
First the engine mount plate is sized according to plate theory. The length and width of
the plate are determined by the dimensions required to support the number of engines on the
lander (as determined by the Descent & Landing design module). The plate load is then found as
the total load from all the engines (with the maximum load acceleration applied), times a yield
237
factor of safety, divided by the engine plate area. The material stress is taken as the ultimate
tensile stress. Then a basic plate theory equation is used to size the plate thickness (55).
Equation 5-86
1
𝑡𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒 = √ (𝑐2 𝑝 ∗ 𝑚𝑖𝑛(𝐿𝑥 , 𝐿𝑦 ))
𝜎
where 𝑐2 is an end-fixity coefficient, p is the plate stress from the load (assumed to be uniform
across the plate), and 𝐿𝑥 and 𝐿𝑦 are the plate dimensions.
Given the plate thickness, the volume can be found, and hence, with the material
density, the mass.
The vertical engine mounting struts are then sized using the same method (elastic
buckling of a column) as used for the lander thrust structure columns (see Section 5.3.6.2.4).
5.3.6.2.6 Sizing Lander Legs
Each landing leg is treated as an angled column with 2 support struts. with respect to
the ground (at a user-input elevation angle of 70 degrees) and clocked with respect to the
lander X-axis (at a user-input 45 degrees). Initially, 3 landing leg design configurations were
under consideration:
1. Vertical columns
2. Angled columns
3. Single angled column with 2 support struts (3-member leg)
Ultimately, the 3-member leg configuration was selected for use in this research, as
238
b
Primary leg AB
Support struts AC
(AD connected on
adjacent edge of
deck)
Figure 5-37. 3-member landing leg structure
For the purposes of this research, the loads on the landing legs were assumed to be
equal. That, since there are 4 legs, the load on each leg was taken as the total load divided by 4.
This assumes the center of mass of the vehicle is along the body centerline. A more in-depth
analysis would consider the off-center center of mass and use a method such as the Integrated
Force Method (56) to solve Navier’s Table Problem to identify the loads operating on each of the
4 legs, and then use the worst-case load to size all legs.
The total load is based on the total mass supported by the legs times the maximum load
factor. The total mass supported by the legs was taken as the sum of the rover payload, the
lander top deck beam and plates, the lander thrust structure, the RCS tank support structure,
the Propulsion tank support structure, the engine mounting structure (plate + struts), and the
total lander mass without structure.
The landing leg height must consider the length of the engine nozzles, the length of the
engine mounting struts, and the height of rocks considered hazardous for this mission. The rock
hazard height was assumed to be 0.35 m based on research from NASA’s ALHAT project
239
(Autonomous Landing and Hazard Avoidance Technology) (50). Thus, the leg height can be
obtained by adding the length of the nozzles, the length of the engine mounting struts, and the
rock hazard height. Given this, and the elevation angle of the angled leg, the lander leg length
can be found. This leg length can then be used in sizing the leg as a beam-column.
The lengths of the 2 leg support struts AC and AD can be determined by the geometry of
the primary landing leg structure AB and the spacing b between the primary leg and the support
strut at the base of the lander (see Figure 5-37). The elevation and azimuth of struts AC and AD
can also be found by simple geometry.
Next the ground reaction load forces acting on the legs can be found using the method
of joints. The member force on each leg member is then the negative of the ground reaction
force.
The primary leg AB can be sized as under compression (positive axial force) to prevent
buckling using a similar procedure as outlined in Section 5.3.6.2.4. The support struts AC and AD
will both be in tension (negative axial force), so a different procedure is used to size those
members against rupture. The support struts are assumed here to use solid circular cross-
section.
The support struts can be sized by equating the member load (multiplied by a factor of
safety) with the rupture load (the member cross-sectional area times the material ultimate
tensile strength), and solving for diameter:
Equation 5-87
4𝑓𝑠 𝑇
𝐷𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐 =√
𝜋𝐹𝑡𝑢
where 𝑇 is the member tensile force (absolute value). Given the dimensions of the support
struts and the material density, their masses can be computed.
240
Once the total mass of each leg is determined, the total mass of all legs on the lander
can be estimated.
Finally, the mass of all lander structural components are added together, along with the
total mass of all other lander subsystems, to get the total lander structure mass.
5.3.7 Power Design Module
The purpose of the Power design module is to estimate the power load and heat load in
each mission event, identify the peak power load out of all events, and then to size the power
subsystem for a given spacecraft element based on the power source technology specified in
the inputs. In this research, each spacecraft element is assumed to have its own independent
power system. The overall architecture of the Power design module is depicted in Figure 5-38
below.
Inputs Outputs
Get required Estimate power load Get overall peak

power per per mission event sunlight power,
component from using component eclipse power, and
other subsystems on/off flags average power
Size S/C power

Size solar array and
subsystem given
batteries
power system type
Size radioisotope
power system (RPS)
and batteries
Size fuel cell system

and batteries
Figure 5-38. Power Design Module Top-level Architecture
241
The first step is to obtain the required component power from the other subsystems, in
addition to the peak payload power from the science instruments and any other
instrumentation packages included on the spacecraft. Note that the heat output per component
is set equal to the power dissipation of that component.
For Telecom, the power required for transponders, transceivers, and RF amplifiers are
obtained from the Telecom MATLAB data structure. For CDS, the overall power requirement is
obtained. For ADCS, the required power for each sensor (IMU, star tracker, sun sensors) and
actuators (reaction wheels, RCS thrusters) are obtained. For Propulsion, the required power to
operate the engines and associated valves and electronics (if applicable) is obtained. For
Thermal, the overall thermal power requirement is obtained. For Structures, no power
requirement is currently assumed.
Next the total power load per mission event is estimated. This is accomplished by
setting on/off flags for each power component based on which mission events (or mode) they
typically operate in. For example, the science payload on the rover operates during Science
mode on the lunar surface, Telecom components operate during communication events, ADCS
sensors are typically operating all the time, and Propulsion components operate during Delta-V
events. Given the on/off flags per event, the total power requirement and heat load in sunlight
and eclipse in each event are obtained by adding the contribution from all components, which
are multiplied by the on/off flags (a 1 or a 0).
Next the peak power in sunlight and eclipse over all mission events are obtained. These
are used to determine an average power requirement and a peak power delta requirement (the
difference between peak sunlight power and the average power). The maximum duration in
242
sunlight and eclipse, based on the trajectory geometry, are then obtained. This is used to obtain
the fraction of time in sunlight over the trajectory.
The minimum altitude to the Earth is then used to determine the solar visibility factor, a
parameter used in estimating the Earth’s albedo radiation incident on the spacecraft for solar
array sizing.
Finally, given the peak power requirements, the power system is designed as
determined by the power system type. The following power system types were considered in
this research:
 Solar array + batteries
 Radioisotope + batteries
 Fuel cell + batteries
In the configurations generated for this research, the lander is specified has using solar
arrays, whereas the rover can use any of the above 3 options. The sizing procedures for the 3
options are described in the following sections.
5.3.7.1 Battery Sizing
If a battery is specified for the spacecraft, the first step is to obtain the required inputs
for the battery technology the user selected: battery depth of discharge, discharge efficiency,
cell discharge voltage, and specific energy (W-hr/kg) from the battery database, as well as the
battery path efficiency. An example battery database is shown in Table 5-31 below.
Table 5-31. Secondary Battery Database
Chemistry Depth of Transmission Cell Discharge Specific Energy

Discharge (%) Efficiency (%) Voltage (V) (W-hr/kg)
Nickel Cadmium 40 94 1.25 40
Nickel Hydrogen
(NiH2) 60 94 1.25 45
243
Chemistry Depth of Transmission Cell Discharge Specific Energy
Discharge (%) Efficiency (%) Voltage (V) (W-hr/kg)
Nickel Metal
Hydride (NiMH) 40 94 1.25 50
Li-ion 25 94 3.5 90
Lithium-polymer 25 94 3.5 100
Silver Zinc 25 94 1.5 130
Next, the proper power load is obtained. Assuming the battery is a secondary
(rechargeable) battery, the peak eclipse power load is selected if eclipses are present along the
trajectory (as determined by the JPL SPICE toolkit); otherwise the peak burst power is used.
Next the battery energy capacity (W-hr) is sized according to the following equation
(36):
𝑃𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑡𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 Equation 5-88

𝐸=
𝑓𝐷𝑂𝐷 𝜂𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒_𝑒𝑓𝑓
where 𝑡𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 is the discharge duration in hours, 𝑓𝐷𝑂𝐷 is the depth of discharge (the fraction
of total battery capacity removed during a discharge period), and 𝜂𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒_𝑒𝑓𝑓 is the discharge
efficiency.
The battery charge capacity (A-hr) is determined by the following equation:
𝐶 = 𝐸/𝑉𝑏𝑢𝑠 Equation 5-89
where 𝑉𝑏𝑢𝑠 is the spacecraft bus voltage.
A spacecraft’s power system bus voltage (usually DC) can be selected from the following
standardized voltage levels: 28 V, 50 V, 70 V, 100 V, 120 V, and 160 V (42). Early spacecraft with
small power loads used 28 V. The system bus voltage is typically selected based on the need to
supply the required power at a reasonable current level (otherwise resistive loss in conductors
reduces system efficiency). In the case of solar arrays, at voltages beyond 160 V undesirable
interactions occur between exposed conductors and space plasma. The lunar surface, however,
244
which has no atmosphere, there is no space plasma; thus high-voltage power systems can safely
operate there. On the other hand, out-gassing from adjacent equipment can create a local
atmosphere that may be susceptible to high-voltage breakdown (42).
The maximum expected current per discharge is found as:
𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝐶/𝑡𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 Equation 5-90
Using this as the battery string current (each battery string has the same current as one
individual battery cell in that string), the total number of battery cells, number of parallel
strings, and number of cells per string can be determined per the following set of equations.
𝐼𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 = 𝑃𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 /𝑉𝑏𝑢𝑠 Equation 5-91
𝑁𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑙𝑠_𝑝𝑒𝑟_𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 = 𝑐𝑒𝑖𝑙(𝑉𝑏𝑢𝑠 /𝑉𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑙 )
𝑁𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑙 = 𝑐𝑒𝑖𝑙(𝐼𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 /𝐼𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 )
𝑁𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑙𝑠 = 𝑁𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑙𝑠_𝑝𝑒𝑟_𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑁𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑙
Finally, the battery mass can be estimated using the energy capacity 𝐸 and the specific
energy (W-hr/kg) rating 𝜖 of the particular battery cell technology.
𝑚𝑏𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑦 = 𝐸/𝜖 Equation 5-92
One final note about the batteries is that they do not operate well at very low
temperatures. For example, Li-ion battery performance is extremely poor below -40 C, due to
higher viscosity (and possible freezing) of the electrolyte. For a battery required on the rover
operating in a permanently-shadowed region at the lunar South Pole, the thermal design would
be an area for future work.
245
5.3.7.2 Solar Array Sizing
The first step in sizing the solar arrays is to get the solar cell inputs: peak power load in
sun and eclipse, average power load, delta peak power load, the duration in sunlight along the
trajectory, the duration in eclipse, the duration for the delta peak power load, the total duration
of the trajectory, the solar visibility factor, the shadowing factor (% of time in sunlight), battery
path efficiency (if batteries are also present), solar array path efficiency, bus voltage, as well as
solar cell specific parameters (obtained from the solar cell database). The solar cell database is
shown below in Table 5-32 for reference.
Table 5-32. Solar Cell Database
Solar Cell Type Manufacturer BOL Cell Efficiency (%)

Si High Efficiency unknown 17
GaAs/Ge Spectrolab 19
GaInP2/GaAs on Ge
Dual Junction Spectrolab 21.8
GaInP2/GaAs/Ge
Triple Junction Spectrolab 25.1
GaInP2/GaAs/Ge
Triple Junction Spectrolab 29.3
Next, the incident solar radiation flux (W/m2) on the spacecraft, and the albedo
reflection and the thermal radiation fluxes from the Earth are computed. The solar radiation flux
at a distance R from the Sun can be obtained from the following equation.

4𝜋𝑅 2
The body albedo flux can be obtained from:
𝐽𝑎𝑙𝑏𝑒𝑑𝑜 = 𝑎𝐹𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝐽𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟 Equation 5-94
where 𝑎 is the Earth’s albedo, and 𝐹𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟 is the solar visibility factor mentioned earlier.
The Earth’s thermal radiation flux can be obtained from:
246
𝑅𝑒𝑓𝑓 2 Equation 5-95
𝐽𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 = 234 ( )
𝑅
where 𝑅𝑒𝑓𝑓 is the Earth effective radiating radius, and 𝑅 is the distance of the spacecraft from
the center of the Earth.
The solar flux received by the solar array can then be found as:
𝑄𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟 = 𝐽𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝛼 Equation 5-96
where 𝛼 is the solar array absorptance.
The Earth thermal flux received by the solar array can then be found as:
𝑄𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 = 𝐽𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝜖 sin(𝜃𝐸𝑎𝑟𝑡ℎ )2 Equation 5-97
where 𝜃𝐸𝑎𝑟𝑡ℎ is the Earth’s angular radius as viewed from the spacecraft.
The Earth albedo flux received by the solar array can be found as:
𝑄𝑎𝑙𝑏𝑒𝑑𝑜 = 𝐽𝑎𝑙𝑏𝑒𝑑𝑜 𝛼𝐾𝑎 sin(𝜃𝐸𝑎𝑟𝑡ℎ )2 Equation 5-98
where 𝐾𝑎 is the albedo correction factor described in Equation 5-61.
The solar power generated can then be computed as:
𝑄𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟_𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟_𝑔𝑒𝑛 = 𝐽𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝜂𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑙 Equation 5-99
where 𝜂𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑙 is the solar cell efficiency.
The solar array operating temperature can then be computed using the Stefan-
Boltzmann equation:
𝑄𝑡𝑜𝑡 1/4 Equation 5-100

𝑇𝑜𝑝_𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟_𝑎𝑟𝑟𝑎𝑦 = ( )
𝜎𝜖
In the above equation, 𝑄𝑡𝑜𝑡 = 𝑄𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟 + 𝑄𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 + 𝑄𝑎𝑙𝑏𝑒𝑑𝑜 + 𝑄𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟_𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟_𝑔𝑒𝑛 .
Solar arrays are subject to various sources of degradation. Solar array design can be
affected by charged particles trapped in a planet’s magnetic field. In the case of a lunar rover
mission, the solar array would have to operate partly within Earth’s Van Allen radiation belt for
247
some duration and partly outside (near the Moon). As the Moon has a negligible magnetic field,
however, solar charged particles reach the surface and can degrade any solar arrays operating
there (for the lunar rover). In addition, a higher micrometeoroid impact rate than in low Earth
orbit can result in increased damage to solar arrays.
Given the solar cell inputs, solar cell operating temperature, and the solar array
degradation rates (radiation degradation, miscellaneous degradation, and thermal degradation),
the solar array can be sized. The solar array degradation factors can be obtained as follows:
𝑓𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙_𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 = 1 − 𝑟𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 (𝑇𝑜𝑝_𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟_𝑎𝑟𝑟𝑎𝑦 − 𝑇𝑟𝑒𝑓 ) Equation 5-101
where 𝑟𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 is the solar array thermal degradation rate (%/yr expressed as a fraction).
The inherent degradation can be found from:
𝑓𝑖𝑛ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡_𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 = 𝑓𝑎𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑚𝑏𝑙𝑦 𝑓𝑑𝑖𝑜𝑑𝑒_𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑓𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑓𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙_𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑓𝑠ℎ𝑎𝑑𝑜𝑤𝑖𝑛𝑔 Equation 5-102
where the assembly loss, diode loss, and packing factor are solar cell properties, and 𝑓𝑠ℎ𝑎𝑑𝑜𝑤𝑖𝑛𝑔
is the fraction of the trajectory time spent in eclipse.
The radiation degradation, miscellaneous degradation, and mission life degradation can
be found from the following set of equations:
𝑓𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = (1 − 𝑟𝑟𝑎𝑑 )𝑡𝑚𝑖𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 Equation 5-103
where 𝑟𝑟𝑎𝑑 is the radiation degradation rate and 𝑡𝑚𝑖𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 is the trajectory duration in years.
𝑓𝑚𝑖𝑠𝑐 = (1 − 𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑠𝑐 )𝑡𝑚𝑖𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 Equation 5-104
where 𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑠𝑐 is the miscellaneous degradation rate.
𝑓𝑙𝑖𝑓𝑒_𝑑𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑑 = 𝑓𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑓𝑚𝑖𝑠𝑐 Equation 5-105
The solar cell power density can then be found using the solar intensity flux times the
solar cell efficiency.
248
𝑃𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑙_𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑎𝑙 = 𝐽𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝜂𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑙 Equation 5-106
Given this, the cell beginning-of-life power density can be found as:
𝑃𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑙_𝐵𝑂𝐿 = 𝑃𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑙_𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑖𝑛ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 cos(𝛼𝑖𝑛𝑐 ) Equation 5-107
where 𝛼𝑖𝑛𝑐 is the solar energy incidence angle.
The solar cell power density at the end of the trajectory can then be obtained from:
𝑃𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑙_𝑙𝑖𝑓𝑒 = 𝑃𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑙_𝐵𝑂𝐿 𝑓𝑙𝑖𝑓𝑒_𝑑𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑑 Equation 5-108
Next, the power load to use for sizing the array is selected. If eclipses are present during
cruise along the trajectory, and a battery is included in the power system, the power load is:
𝑃𝑝𝑒𝑎𝑘_𝑠𝑢𝑛 𝑡𝑠𝑢𝑛𝑙𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑃𝑝𝑒𝑎𝑘_𝑒𝑐𝑙𝑖𝑝𝑠𝑒 𝑡𝑒𝑐𝑙𝑖𝑝𝑠𝑒 1 Equation 5-109

𝑃𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 = ( + )
𝜂𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟_𝑝𝑎𝑡ℎ_𝑒𝑓𝑓 𝜂𝑏𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑦_𝑝𝑎𝑡ℎ_𝑒𝑓𝑓 𝑡𝑠𝑢𝑛𝑙𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡
Here, the solar array must provide power during sunlight and charge the batteries for eclipses.
If there are no eclipses and a battery is still present, the power load is the average power plus
the delta peak power divided by the battery path efficiency:
Δ𝑃𝑝𝑒𝑎𝑘 Equation 5-110

𝑃𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 = 𝑃𝑎𝑣𝑔 +
𝜂𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟_𝑝𝑎𝑡ℎ_𝑒𝑓𝑓
The solar array path efficiency depends on the power control method. There are two
main power control techniques for solar array generated power (36):
 Peak power tracking (PPT): This is a non-dissipative method that draws the exact power
required to support the power load (up to a maximum of the peak array power). This
uses 4-7% of the total spacecraft power.
 Direct energy transfer (DET): This method dissipates excess power not required to
support the power loads. This dissipation can be done at the arrays or through external
shunt resistors. Such a system is very efficient and low-mass.
The solar array path efficiencies for the above methods are summarized below:
249
Table 5-33. Power Path Efficiencies by Power Control Method
Power Control Method Solar Array Load Power Path Battery Load Path
Efficiency Efficiency
Peak Power Tracking 0.6 0.8
Direct Energy Transfer 0.65 0.85
The solar array area can then be found from the power load (W) and the solar cell
power density (W/m2):
𝐴𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟_𝑎𝑟𝑟𝑎𝑦 = 𝑃𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 /𝑃𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑙_𝑙𝑖𝑓𝑒 Equation 5-111
The solar array number of cells, number of strings, and number of parallel strings can be
found in a similar manner as done for the batteries.
Finally, the solar array mass can be found using the solar array power load and the solar
cell specific power 𝑝 (W/kg).
𝑃𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 Equation 5-112

𝑚𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟_𝑎𝑟𝑟𝑎𝑦 =
𝑝
The solar cell specific power is a function of the solar array structural packaging and deployment
method, as summarized in the following table.
Table 5-34. Solar array specific power options
Solar array structure type Specific Power (W/kg)

Flexible Fold-up Blankets 22.2
Rigid panel 26.6
Flexible Roll-up Blankets 47.4
In this research, the flexible fold-up blanket method is assumed for both the rover and
the lander.
250
5.3.7.3 RPS sizing
The first step in sizing the radioisotope power system is to obtain the peak power loads
(in sunlight, eclipse, the average power, the delta peak power) and the durations in sunlight and
eclipse along the trajectory. If the system is equipped with a battery, the battery path efficiency
is obtained from the inputs. Next, the properties of the specific RPS system (such as the MMRTG
and Advanced Stirling Reactor Generators) are obtained. These properties are parameters such
as the power delivered per RPS module, the hot and cold sink temperatures, the system
efficiency, the radiator emissivity, the GPHS (general purpose heat source) heat generation, the
radiator sink temperature, and the number of radiator fins. An example table containing
radioisotope power systems is given below in Table 5-35.
Table 5-35. Radioisotope Power System Database
RPS Type BOL Net Hot-end Cold-end # GPHS System Total

Electrical Temperature Temperature modules Efficiency Mass (kg)
Power (W) (deg C) (deg C) (%)
MMRTG 125 538 210 8 6.3 44.2
SRG110 116 650 80 2 23.2 32.5
ASRG-650 143 650 90 2 28 20.2
ASRG-850 160 850 90 2 32 19
Given this information, the RPS can be sized. This involves first getting the actual power
load. If there is a battery and it operates during eclipses only, the power load can be found as:
Equation 5-113
𝑃𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 = (𝑃𝑝𝑒𝑎𝑘_𝑠𝑢𝑛 𝑡𝑠𝑢𝑛𝑙𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 + 𝑃𝑝𝑒𝑎𝑘_𝑒𝑐𝑙𝑖𝑝𝑠𝑒 𝑡𝑒𝑐𝑙𝑖𝑝𝑠𝑒
Δ𝑃𝑝𝑒𝑎𝑘 𝑡Δ𝑃 1
+ )
𝜂𝑏𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑦_𝑝𝑎𝑡ℎ_𝑒𝑓𝑓 𝑡𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙
where 𝑡𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 is the duration in both sunlight and eclipse. Otherwise, the power load is just the
peak power load (the greater of the sunlight or eclipse power loads).
251
The RPS heat input can be found from the delivered power per RPS module and the
system efficiency 𝜂𝑟𝑝𝑠 .
𝑃𝑟𝑝𝑠_𝑚𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑙𝑒 Equation 5-114

𝑄ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 =
𝜂𝑟𝑝𝑠
The RPS waste heat is then just:
𝑄𝑤𝑎𝑠𝑡𝑒 = 𝑄ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 − 𝑃𝑟𝑝𝑠_𝑚𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑙𝑒 Equation 5-115
The RPS radiator area can be found from the Stefan-Boltzmann equation:
𝑄𝑤𝑎𝑠𝑡𝑒 Equation 5-116

𝐴𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟 =
𝜎𝜖(𝑇𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑑_𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑘 − 𝑇𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟_𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑘 )
where 𝜖 is the radiator emissivity.
The number of GPHS modules required can be found from dividing the total RPS heat
generated by the heat output per GPHS module.
𝑄ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 Equation 5-117

𝑁𝑔𝑝ℎ𝑠 = 𝑐𝑒𝑖𝑙 ( )
𝑄𝑔𝑝ℎ𝑠
The number of RPS modules required depends on the total power load that the RPS is
required to support divided by the power capability per RPS module.
𝑃𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 Equation 5-118

𝑁𝑟𝑝𝑠 = 𝑐𝑒𝑖𝑙 ( )
𝑃𝑟𝑝𝑠_𝑚𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑙𝑒
The actual delivered power is then the number RPS modules times the delivered power per RPS
module. And the total waste heat can be found from the number of RPS modules times the per
module waste heat.
5.3.7.4 Fuel cell sizing
The first step in sizing the fuel cells is to obtain the peak power loads and durations in
sunlight and eclipse. If a battery is present, the battery path efficiency is obtained. Next, the fuel
252
cell properties are obtained for the specific fuel cell type in use (either H2/O2 or H2/H2O2). These
properties include parameters such as the sizing method (minimizing mass is used in this
research vs. minimizing power density), the fuel cell operating temperature, the limiting current,
the exchange current, and fuel crossover current, the internal resistance, the fuel cell area, the
design factor (kg/m2), the chemical parameters, the reaction parameters, and the tank
parameters. Further discussion of these parameters is provided in Appendix B2: Power, under
the Fuel Cells heading.
Given these inputs, the fuel cell system sizing procedure can be followed. The first step
is to obtain the reaction parameters: the number of moles of reactants (fuel and oxidizer) and
product (water) in the fuel cell reaction. Next, the fuel cell reaction enthalpy and entropy for the
reactants and products are obtained, followed by the reactant and product tank temperatures
and pressures. The coefficients of specific heat at constant pressure (cp) for the reactants are
obtained from the chemical parameter inputs. Next the number of electrons for reactants and
products is obtained, followed by the molar mass (g/mol) of the reactants and product. Given all
this information, the reaction enthalpy and entropy can be calculated at the system operating
temperature. Then the Gibbs free energy at the operating temperature can be found. Finally,
the equilibrium cell potential at the operating temperature and pressure can be computed per
the Nernst equation (see Equation 10-24 in the Appendix).
Next, the actual power load is obtained. If the system is equipped with a battery, the
power load can be found as:
253
Equation 5-119
𝑃𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 = (𝑃𝑝𝑒𝑎𝑘_𝑠𝑢𝑛 𝑡𝑠𝑢𝑛𝑙𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 + 𝑃𝑝𝑒𝑎𝑘_𝑒𝑐𝑙𝑖𝑝𝑠𝑒 𝑡𝑒𝑐𝑙𝑖𝑝𝑠𝑒
Δ𝑃𝑝𝑒𝑎𝑘 𝑡Δ𝑃 1
+ )
𝜂𝑏𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑦_𝑝𝑎𝑡ℎ_𝑒𝑓𝑓 𝑡𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙
Otherwise, the power load is just the maximum of the sunlight or eclipse power loads.
Once the power load and reaction calculations are complete, the optimal fuel cell
system can be sized. The mass minimization method is used in this research. In effect, the sizing
goal is to find the operating voltage and current per cell that result in the minimum overall total
fuel cell system mass. To obtain the minimum mass fuel cell system, the fuel cell design space is
searched by computing the fuel cell operating voltage for a range of current densities (A/cm2)
(from zero up to the limiting current density) using the fuel cell polarization curve (57). Once the
cell operating voltage over the range of current densities is obtained, the minimum overall fuel
cell system mass and associated parameters can be found. The calculations to accomplish this
are described next.
Essentially, the cell operating voltage is the equilibrium cell potential minus the voltage
activation loss, concentration loss, and ohmic (resistive) loss. The equations to calculate these
losses are described in Appendix B2: Power.
Next, the per cell operating current is computed as the current density 𝑖 times the cell
area.
𝐼𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑙_𝑜𝑝 = 𝑖𝐴𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑙 Equation 5-120
This is followed by computing the number of fuel cells required to deliver the total power
required at the current fuel cell power.
254
The mass flow rate of reactants and products are obtained using Faraday’s law of an
electrochemical reaction. The molar flow rate Ṅi (mol/sec) is found for fuel, oxidizer, and
product from Faraday’s law as:
𝐼𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑙_𝑜𝑝 Equation 5-121

Ṅi =
𝑛𝑒 𝐹
where 𝐼𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑙_𝑜𝑝 is the cell operating current, ne is the number of electrons for each reactant or the
product, and F is Faraday’s constant (96485.3 Coulombs/mol).
From this, the mass flow rate (g/sec) of the fuel, oxidizer, and product can be computed
using the fuel, oxidizer, or product molar mass 𝔐i (g/mol).
ṁi = Ṅi 𝔐i Equation 5-122
Then the amount of fuel and oxidizer mass required can be found by multiplying the mass flow
rate times the lifetime (i.e. the required operating duration). In this research, the required
operating lifetime is take as the combined duration in sunlight and eclipse.
mi = ṁi Δt Equation 5-123
Note that the sum of the mass flow rates of fuel and oxidizer must equal the mass flow rate of
the product. This requires correctly identifying the number of electrons involved in species
consumption or production.
The total mass of fuel or oxidizer required for the entire fuel stack can then be
expressed as:
mi,tot = Ncells mi Equation 5-124
where Ncells is the total number of cells required to deliver the total system voltage and current,
and the subscript i denotes the species (fuel or oxidizer).
255
Next, the power density 𝑃𝑎 (W/cm2) of the fuel cell can then be found from the cell
operating voltage and the current density 𝑖 (A/cm2):
𝑃𝑎 = 𝐸𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑙_𝑜𝑝 𝑖 Equation 5-125
Then the specific mass (kg/W) can be calculated from:
𝑓𝑑𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛 Equation 5-126

𝑚𝑠 =
𝑃𝑎
where 𝑓𝑑𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛 is the fuel cell design factor (kg/m2) obtained from the inputs.
Then the specific power (W/kg) can be found as the inverse of the specific mass:
𝑝 = 1/𝑚𝑠 Equation 5-127
The per cell power can then be found as:
𝑃𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑙 = 𝐼𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑙_𝑜𝑝 𝐸𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑙_𝑜𝑝 Equation 5-128
The per fuel cell mass can be obtained by multiplying the specific mass 𝑚𝑠 times the per cell
power:
𝑚𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑙 = 𝑃𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑙 𝑚𝑠 Equation 5-129
The fuel cell stack mass can be computed by multiplying the number of required fuel
cells by the per cell mass.
𝑚𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑐𝑘 = 𝑁𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑙𝑠 𝑚𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑙 Equation 5-130
The total fuel cell system mass is defined to be the sum of the mass of the stack of fuel
cells needed to deliver the required power plus the total required reactant mass for the life of
the mission.
𝑚𝑡𝑜𝑡_𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙_𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑙_𝑠𝑦𝑠 = 𝑚𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙_𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑙_𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑐𝑘 + 𝑚𝑡𝑜𝑡,𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 + Equation 5-131
𝑚𝑡𝑜𝑡,𝑜𝑥𝑖𝑑𝑖𝑧𝑒𝑟
256
Both the fuel cell stack mass and the total amount of fuel and oxidizer all depend on the
total number of fuel cells. The total number of fuel cells itself depends on the number of cells in
series (defined as a string of cells) to deliver the required total system bus voltage and the total
number of parallel strings to deliver the required total system current. Recall the following
expressions for computing the total number of “cells” required for any power system:
𝑁𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑙𝑠_𝑝𝑒𝑟_𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 = 𝑉𝑡𝑜𝑡 /𝑉𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑙 Equation 5-132
where 𝑉𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑙 for a fuel cell is computed from the fuel cell polarization curve.
𝑁𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑙_𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑠 = 𝐼𝑡𝑜𝑡 /𝐼𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑙 Equation 5-133
where 𝐼𝑡𝑜𝑡 is found from the total system power required divided by the total system voltage.
Thus, the total number of cells is:
𝑁𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑙𝑠 = 𝑁𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑙𝑠_𝑝𝑒𝑟_𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑁𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑙_𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑠 Equation 5-134
Once the fuel cell system is sized, the overall efficiency can be calculated by taking the
cell operating voltage and dividing by the thermo-neutral potential. This potential is the
maximum potential if all the reaction enthalpy Δ𝐻 could be converted to electricity. It can be
calculated from the following equation.
Δ𝐻 Equation 5-135
𝐸𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑜𝑛𝑒𝑢𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑙 = −
𝑛𝑒_𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 𝐹
Given this, the fuel cell efficiency can be found as:
𝐸𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑙_𝑜𝑝 Equation 5-136

𝜂𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙_𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑙 =
𝐸𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑜𝑛𝑒𝑢𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑙
Lastly, the total fuel cell stack heat generation can be found as:
𝑄ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 = (𝐸𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑜𝑛𝑒𝑢𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑙 − 𝐸𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑙_𝑜𝑝 )𝐼𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑙_𝑜𝑝 𝑁𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑙𝑠 Equation 5-137
257
5.3.8 Lunar Descent & Landing Design Module
5.3.8.1 Overview
The purpose of the Descent & Landing design module is to estimate the mass of the
propellant required to execute de-orbit, descent, and landing to the lunar surface. The phases of
de-orbit, descent, and landing being modeled in this research are depicted in the following
figure.
Figure 5-39. Descent & Landing phases
These phases are described in the following bullets:
 Braking Burn 1 (BB1): This phase has the lander vehicle (and its attached rover payload)
starting in a circular low lunar orbit with altitude h0. The vehicle prepares for the de-
orbit burn by orienting itself such that the thrust direction is opposite the orbit velocity
direction. The vehicle then initiates the burn, keeping the thrust direction in the anti-
velocity direction until a desired transverse velocity is reached, at which point the burn
258
terminates. This transverse velocity is the transverse velocity required during the
Approach phase, which occurs later on.
 Pitch-up & Free Fall: During the pitch-up phase, the vehicle re-orients itself from the last
attitude during BB1 so that the thrust axis is aligned with the local vertical direction.
While the vehicle is pitching up, it is also free-falling under lunar gravity, as no thrust is
being applied. The free fall period can extend beyond the duration needed for the pitch-
up.
 Braking Burn 2 (BB2): This phase begins with the vehicle re-starting the main engines
(now that the thrust axis is aligned with the local vertical, i.e. in the anti-gravity
direction) to further slow the vehicle down. The burn is terminated when the horizontal
and vertical position and velocity match that required at the start of the Approach
phase.
 Approach: This phase is needed to provide suitable approach geometry to perform
onboard detection of ground hazards (large craters, rocks, and slopes). The slant range
to the original landing site is nominally kept at 1 km to provide sufficient range for the
LIDAR (light detection and ranging) terrain mapping sensor. This slant range
requirement was derived by NASA’s ALHAT (Autonomous Landing and Hazard Avoidance
Technology) project, which tested an onboard hazard detection system (actual software
and hardware) on the Johnson Space Center-built Morpheus lander testbed (50). A
constant 30-degree approach angle also provides suitable geometry for the LIDAR
sensor operations. To maintain this approach angle during the Approach phase, the
vehicle thrust is assumed vertical and is throttled to match the vehicle weight.
259
 Terminal Descent: Once the vehicle reaches 150m slant range from the original landing
site, a horizontal divert is performed (to simulate hazard avoidance), followed by
touchdown to the new landing site.
The Descent & Landing design module is essentially an iterative approach based on
converging the total estimated propellant mass with the solved propellant mass such that all
descent and landing requirements are met. The algorithm to achieve this is described next.
5.3.8.2 Design Algorithm
The Descent & Landing design module consists of a main function that collects all the
required inputs, and then a sub-function call that actually executes the D&L design algorithm.
The first step in the Descent & Landing design module main function is to obtain the set of
trajectory requirements. These include the lower and upper bounds on the de-orbit altitude h0,
the Approach phase constant velocity magnitude, the Approach slant angle, the Approach slant
range, the slant range at Terminal descent start, the divert distance, the maximum number of
engines allowed during descent and landing, and the number of integration steps for the BB1
integrator (affects computation given the number of steps).
Next, the main engine parameters are obtained from the Propulsion inputs. These
include the single engine thrust, the engine Isp, the single engine mass, the Propulsion system
dry mass without engines, the reserve propellant mass estimate, and the unusable propellant
mass estimate. Other important parameters include the average thrust of the RCS thrusters, and
the total vehicle moment of inertia matrix at the start of descent and landing (as estimated by
the Structures design module).
260
Then, the masses of all the modeled subsystems of the lander are obtained, followed by
the mass of any onboard lander science and other instrument payloads. In this research, the
lander is assumed to carry only a hazard detection instrument package (the mass and power are
user-inputs). The subsystem and instrument masses are added together to estimate the lander
dry mass without any main engines. The main engines are not included at this stage because the
number of engines required for descent and landing is determined by the Descent & Landing
algorithm. Then, the rover mass is obtained.
Next, the starting value for the lower bound on h0 is set, depending on whether the
system iteration is the very first. If the MASS tool is in the first system iteration, the user-
provided lower bound on h0 is used—assumed to be 15 km in this research. Otherwise, if the
tool has progressed beyond the first system iteration, the code checks whether the lander dry
mass (without engines) has grown since the previous system iteration. If so, it sets the lower
bound on h0 to be the last solution of h0 found in the previous call to the Descent & Landing
algorithm. If not, it re-sets the lower bound on h0 to the initial user-provided value.
Once the above steps are complete, the tool is ready to call the sub-function that
actually performs the Descent & Landing design. This function requires an initial guess of the
combined BB1 and BB2 propellant mass (hard-coded at 100 kg). An overall depiction of the
Descent & Landing sizing algorithm sub-function is shown in Figure 5-40.
261
Inputs
Prop mass iter
Iterate #
engines & Compute Term. Compute
altitude Descent prop Approach prop Compute BB1
until BB1 mass and initial mass and initial prop mass and
solution conditions conditions final conditions
found or
search space
exhausted
Compute FF & BB2 so altitude & Compute new Stop mass iteration if
vertical velocity boundary estimate of BB1 + converged, exceed
conditions match & Approach BB2 propellant mass 15 iterations, or BB1
phase initial conditions reached using Newton or solution invalid
secant method
Outputs
Figure 5-40. Descent & Landing Algorithm
The D&L algorithm first begins with computing the gravitational acceleration (m/s2) at
the Moon’s surface within several decimal places, according to the following equation:
𝜇𝑚𝑜𝑜𝑛 Equation 5-138

𝑔𝑚 = 2
𝑅𝑚𝑜𝑜𝑛
where 𝜇𝑚𝑜𝑜𝑛 = 4902.8 𝑘𝑚3 /𝑠 2 is the Moon’s gravitational parameter and 𝑅𝑚𝑜𝑜𝑛 =
1738.4 𝑘𝑚 is the Moon’s equatorial radius. This gives a gravitational acceleration of ~1.622
m/s2. Then the algorithm computes the initial conditions for the Approach phase (based on the
user-inputs): the horizontal velocity, vertical velocity, initial downrange (horizontal) distance S0
from the original landing site, and initial altitude. The final conditions at the end of the Approach
phase are also set.
The D&L algorithm starts off with an outer while loop to perform the D&L propellant
mass iteration. The maximum number of propellant mass iterations allowed is hard-coded at 15,
262
based on the convergence behavior observed in initial testing of the integrated MASS tool. The
mass convergence tolerance is hard-coded at 0.001 kg.
Within the outer loop, the first step is to set the estimate of the combined BB1 and BB2
propellant mass. If the propellant mass iteration is the first in a given system iteration’s call to
the Descent & Landing module, the BB1 + BB2 propellant mass estimate is set to the initial guess
of 100 kg, and the minimum value of the required de-orbit altitude h0 is set to the initial value
passed into the D&L algorithm. Otherwise, the BB1 + BB2 propellant mass estimate is set to the
last estimate from the previous propellant mass iteration plus a delta mass estimated by either
Newton’s iterative method or the secant method (discussed in Section 5.3.8.2.7); and the
minimum required de-orbit altitude h0 is set to the solution from the previous propellant mass
iteration. In this manner, once the propellant mass iteration is underway and as the total D&L
propellant mass estimate grows, mass iterations are reduced by taking advantage of the
previous mass iteration’s solution to h0.
The algorithm next checks whether the BB1 + BB2 propellant mass estimate is negative,
indicating an inability to converge using either Newton’s method or the secant method. If it is
negative, a design feasibility flag is set to FALSE and the mass iteration outer loop is terminated.
Otherwise, the design feasibility flag is set to TRUE and the mass iteration is allowed to
continue.
Next the algorithm proceeds to an inner for-loop to step through a range of de-orbit
altitudes h0. The altitude range starts from the minimum required de-orbit altitude to the
maximum allowed de-orbit altitude (100 km in this research), at a user-defined step size. The
maximum de-orbit altitude is equal the circular low lunar orbit altitude that the vehicle inserts
into after the lunar orbit insertion (LOI) burn and is fixed by the GMAT trajectory.
263
Then the algorithm moves onto a second inner for-loop to step through the number of
engines, starting from the maximum of 6 down to 1. Within this second inner for-loop, the
propellant mass is estimated for Terminal Descent, Approach, and BB1, in that order. The
number of engines and initial de-orbit altitude are iterated on until the altitude search space is
exhausted or a valid BB1 solution is found.
After completing or exiting the altitude loop, the optimal free fall time (after BB1) is
found that permits BB2 start conditions required to achieve the initial state at Approach phase
start. A new estimate of the combined BB1 + BB2 propellant mass is calculated using either
Newton’s method (the default), or the secant method (under certain conditions). The propellant
mass iteration process continues until either the mass has converged with a valid BB1 solution,
an invalid BB1 solution is found, or the maximum number of mass iterations has been reached.
The following sections describe the calculations to estimate propellant masses and
obtain initial or final conditions for Terminal Descent, Approach, BB1, Free Fall (no propellant
required), and BB2.
5.3.8.2.1 Terminal Descent
The first major calculations within the engine iteration inner for-loop are for Terminal
Descent. The burn duration, propellant mass, initial vehicle mass, and touchdown velocities are
calculated for this phase based on the optimal control method identified in (58). To do this, first
the total engine mass for the current number of engines is found, along with the total thrust.
Next, the horizontal and vertical velocity at the start of Terminal Descent are set to the final
conditions from the Approach phase. The final landed mass at the end of Terminal Descent is
computed by summing the dry mass of the lander (without engines but including the reserve
264
and unusable propellant mass from the Propulsion design), the engine total mass, and the rover
mass.
The Terminal Descent design function first finds the descent duration (within a hard-
coded range of 1 to 120 seconds) that minimizes the touchdown velocities vxf_term and vyf_term,
using the MATLAB fminbnd() function. The cost function to minimize is given in the following
equation:
1 2 2
Equation 5-139
𝐽 = (𝑣𝑥𝑓 + 𝑣𝑦𝑓 )
2
The touchdown velocities for a given Terminal Descent duration are obtained from the following
equations:
Equation 5-140
1 1 3𝐷
𝑣𝑥𝑓 = 𝑥1𝑇 = ( 𝑟 ) ( − 𝑥10 )
2 1+ 𝑇
4
where 𝑥10 = the initial Terminal Descent horizontal velocity, 𝐷 = the divert distance, 𝑇= the
descent duration, and 𝑟 = 𝑇/𝑊, where 𝑊is a weighting factor, assumed to be 1 sec for this
research.
Equation 5-141
−3 1 𝑇𝑥20 𝑔𝑇 2
𝑣𝑦𝑓 = 𝑥1𝑇 = ( ) (ℎ + + )
2𝑇 1 + 𝑟 0
3 6
4
where ℎ0 is the initial terminal descent altitude, 𝑥20 is the initial vertical velocity, and 𝑔 is the
Moon’s surface gravitational acceleration.
Next, optimal control theory is used to calculate the required Terminal Descent
propellant mass. The optimal thrust acceleration time profile can be found as:
𝑎𝑥 (𝑡) = 𝑢1 (𝑡) = 𝐿4 𝑡 − 𝐿1 Equation 5-142
𝑎𝑦 (𝑡) = 𝑢2 (𝑡) = 𝐿2 𝑡 − 𝐿3
265
where the control constants are found according to the following equations:
Equation 5-143
𝑥10 /𝑊 𝑇 𝑟
𝐿1 = ( 𝑟 ) − Δ [𝐷 (1 + 2) − 𝑥10 𝑇]
1+4
1 𝑟 𝑔
𝐿2 = [𝑇 (1 + ) 𝑥20 + (1 + 𝑟)ℎ0 − 𝑇 2 ]
Δ 2 2
𝑇 𝑟 𝑟 𝑔 𝑟
𝐿3 = [𝑇 (1 + ) 𝑥20 + (1 + ) ℎ0 − 𝑇 2 (1 + )]
Δ 3 2 2 6
1 𝑟
𝐿4 = [𝑥10 𝑇 (1 + ) − 𝐷(1 + 𝑟)]
Δ 2
T3 𝑟
where Δ = − 3
(1 + 4).
The optimal thrust acceleration equations can be integrated to give the Delta-V
imparted during Terminal Descent for the optimal descent duration (which minimizes the
touchdown velocities).
1 Equation 5-144
Δ𝑉𝑥 = 𝐿4 𝑡𝑓2 − 𝐿1 𝑡𝑓
2
1
Δ𝑉𝑦 = 𝐿2 𝑡𝑓2 − 𝐿3 𝑡𝑓
2
The total Delta-V can then be found as Δ𝑉𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚 = √Δ𝑉𝑥2 + Δ𝑉𝑦2.
From this total Delta-V, the rocket equation can be used to compute the required
Terminal Descent propellant mass.
Δ𝑉𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚 Equation 5-145

𝐼𝑠𝑝 𝑔0
Δ𝑚𝑝_𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚 = 𝑚𝑓_𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑑 (𝑒 − 1)
This propellant mass is added to the final landed mass to determine the initial Terminal Descent
mass.
266
Since the optimal thrust acceleration profile requires throttling the main engines, the
maximum optimal control thrust required must be compared to the available thrust from all
engines. To obtain the thrust history, the Terminal Descent equations of motion must be
integrated over the descent duration. The equations of motion are outlined below:
ṙ x = 𝑣𝑥 Equation 5-146
ṙ y = 𝑣𝑦
v̇ x = 𝑎𝑥
v̇ x = 𝑎𝑦 − 𝑔𝑚
T
ṁ = −
𝐼𝑠𝑝 𝑔0
where T = 𝑚𝑎 is the instantaneous thrust, 𝑎 = √𝑎𝑥2 + 𝑎𝑦2 , and the instantaneous acceleration
components can be found from the optimal acceleration profile shown in Equation 5-142.
5.3.8.2.2 Approach Phase
Next, the Approach phase burn duration, initial mass, and propellant mass are
computed. Since the Approach phase occurs relatively close to the ground, a local horizontal,
local vertical frame is assumed. The Approach phase initial position and velocity components
can be determined from the required slant range (1 km) and slant angle (30 degrees) using
simple geometry as given in the following equations:
𝑟𝑥0_𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑎𝑐ℎ = r0 cos 𝜃𝑠𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑡 Equation 5-147
𝑟𝑦0_𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑎𝑐ℎ = r0 sin 𝜃𝑠𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑡
𝑣𝑥0_𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑎𝑐ℎ = v0 cos 𝜃𝑠𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑡
𝑣𝑦0_𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑎𝑐ℎ = −v0 sin 𝜃𝑠𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑡
267
For a desired Approach phase velocity magnitude of 10 m/s (a user-provided value),
𝑣𝑥0_𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑎𝑐ℎ = 8.66 𝑚/𝑠 and 𝑣𝑦0_𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑎𝑐ℎ = −5 𝑚/𝑠. The Approach phase is characterized by
constant velocity throughout (zero acceleration).
The Approach burn duration can then be derived as:
𝑟𝑦𝑓 − 𝑟𝑦0 Equation 5-148

t f_approach =
𝑣𝑦0
During the Approach phase, the total thrust is assumed to be equal to the instantaneous
vehicle lunar weight, T = 𝑚𝑔𝑚 , to provide zero acceleration. This results in a mass flow rate
that is a non-linear function of time. The mass flow rate can be integrated and then combined
with the final Approach phase mass to derive the initial Approach phase mass, as given in the
following equation.
mf_approach Equation 5-149

𝑚0_𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑎𝑐ℎ =
1 − ln(1 + 𝑐𝑡𝑓_𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑎𝑐ℎ 𝑔𝑚 )
where 𝑐 = 1/𝑔0 𝐼𝑠𝑝 , and the final Approach phase mass is set equal to the initial Terminal
Descent phase mass. The Approach phase propellant mass can then be calculated as the
difference between the initial and final Approach phase masses.
5.3.8.2.3 Braking Burn 1
The algorithm then jumps to the design of Braking Burn 1 (e.g. the de-orbit burn) and
the free fall phase that occurs afterward (assuming there is no Braking Burn 2). This procedure
requires first obtaining an estimate of the total Descent & Landing (D&L) propellant by adding
the current solved Terminal Descent and Approach phase propellant masses to the current
estimate of the combined BB1 + BB2 propellant mass (as obtained by Newton’s method or the
secant method). Then, the BB1 burn time, final conditions (position, velocity, and mass), and
268
required propellant mass can be estimated given the initial position and velocity, the current
estimate of the total D&L propellant mass, and the current assumed number of engines. These
design results are obtained by integrating the BB1 equations of motion until either the desired
transverse velocity 𝑢𝑓_𝑑𝑒𝑠 is achieved or the final BB1 altitude is negative (in which case the
vehicle has crashed into the lunar surface). The desired transverse velocity is equal to the
horizontal velocity at the start of the Approach phase (calculated to be 8.66 m/s as described in
Section 5.3.8.2.2).
Before presenting the BB1 equations of motion, the orbital reference frame in which
they were derived must be briefly described. Figure 5-41 depicts the geometry of the Braking
Burn 1 de-orbit and descent problem. In this figure, the vehicle starts at a radius 𝑟 from the
lunar center (at an altitude ℎ0 ) in lunar orbit. The vehicle is traveling at a velocity v in the
counter-clockwise direction. The components of v are 𝑢 (in the transverse direction) and 𝑣 (in
the radial direction). The vehicle applies thrust 𝑇 in the anti-velocity direction, at thrust angle 𝜓
with respect to the radial direction. Note the thrust vector has a negative thrust angle, as
defined in the figure. The angle 𝜃 represents a position angle with respect to an arbitrary y-axis.
269
v
v
Ψ<0
u
y
r
T
θ
Figure 5-41. Geometry of the Lunar Braking Burn 1 De-orbit and Descent Problem (59)
Given this geometry, the BB1 equations of motion, adapted from Appendix B of (59),
can be derived:
𝑟̇ = 𝑣 Equation 5-150
𝑢
θ̇ = −
𝑟
𝑇 𝑢𝑣
𝑢̇ = sin 𝜓 −
𝑚 𝑟
𝑇 𝜇 𝑢2
𝑣 = cos 𝜓 − 2 +
𝑚 𝑟 𝑟
T
ṁ = −
𝐼𝑠𝑝 𝑔0
To maintain the thrust in the anti-velocity direction throughout BB1, the thrust angle
can be derived from the velocity components as follows:
𝑢 Equation 5-151
sin 𝜓 = −
√𝑢2 + 𝑣2
270
𝑣
cos 𝜓 = −
√𝑢2 + 𝑣 2
The BB1 equations of motion are integrated until either of two conditions is met: the
desired transverse velocity is met or the final altitude is negative. In any case, the code checks
whether the consumed BB1 propellant mass exceeds the total available propellant mass (and
sets a flag to indicate this).
5.3.8.2.4 Maximum Pitch-up/Free Fall
Once BB1 final conditions are obtained (for the currently assumed initial de-orbit
altitude h0 and the available number of engines), the maximum duration of the Pitch-up
maneuver attitude slew is calculated. The Pitch-up maneuver re-orients the vehicle to a vertical,
anti-gravity direction. The slew angle 𝜃𝑚𝑎𝑥 is assumed to be 90 degrees to estimate a maximum
duration for Pitch-up, which is equivalent to the maximum duration for free fall (no thrusting
applied). The maximum slew duration is found from the following equations:
Δ𝑡𝑝𝑖𝑡𝑐ℎ𝑢𝑝_𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 2Δ𝑡𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙 Equation 5-152
2𝐼𝜃𝑚𝑎𝑥
Δ𝑡𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙 = √
𝑇𝑟𝑐𝑠
where 𝐼 is the maximum vehicle transverse moment of inertia and 𝑇𝑟𝑐𝑠 is the average thrust of
the RCS thrusters.
Next the altitude change during the maximum duration pitch-up maneuver is calculated
as follows:
1 2
Equation 5-153
Δry = vy0_free_fall Δ𝑡𝑝𝑖𝑡𝑐ℎ𝑢𝑝_𝑚𝑎𝑥 − 𝑔𝑚 Δ𝑡𝑝𝑖𝑡𝑐ℎ𝑢𝑝_𝑚𝑎𝑥
2
This altitude change is added to the Approach phase initial altitude to determine a minimum
allowable final altitude for BB1 (assuming no BB2).
271
ℎmin_BB1 = ℎ0_𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑎𝑐ℎ + Δ𝑟𝑦 Equation 5-154
5.3.8.2.5 Identifying BB1 Solution
Recall that all the calculations described to this point occur within two for-loops, the
first being the de-orbit altitude loop and the second being a nested loop for the number of
engines. After the BB1 and maximum pitch-up maneuvers have been designed, the code next
checks whether the final BB1 altitude is greater than the minimum allowed final BB1 altitude. If
it is, the BB1 solution is marked as valid and the code attempts to re-do all the previous
calculations by going to the next lower the number of engines to check if a viable solution still
exists. Otherwise, the current BB1 solution is marked as invalid. If the BB1 solution is invalid on
the first iteration of the engines loop (using the maximum number of engines), the code
proceeds to the next altitude h0 in the range of allowable altitudes and performs all the
calculations again. Otherwise, for invalid BB1 solutions identified in iterations of the engines
loop after the first, the code reverts to the valid solution from the previous engines iteration and
stops checking for solutions using fewer engines.
Once outside of the engines loop, the code checks if the current assumed de-orbit
altitude h0 is equal to the maximum allowed de-orbit altitude. If it is, and the BB1 solution is still
invalid, the code prints out a warning message that the h0 design space has been searched
without finding a valid BB1 solution. The D&L design is then marked as infeasible, because all
subsequent calculations will be based on an invalid BB1 solution. In any case, if a valid BB1
solution is found during the altitude search, the code breaks out of the altitude loop, and the
required initial de-orbit altitude h0 and required number of engines are set.
272
5.3.8.2.6 Free Fall/Braking Burn 2 Altitude & Velocity Matching
Now that valid final conditions for BB1 have been found, the required duration for free
fall (FF) can be found such that the altitude and velocity at the FF/BB2 boundary match (if BB2 is
required). To do this, the free fall duration must be bounded. The minimum duration for free fall
is equal to the required pitch-up duration. The required pitch-up duration itself can be found
using the final thrust angle ψ𝑓 at the end of BB1. The maximum free fall duration (to reach the
Approach phase starting altitude) can then be solved for using the quadratic solution, given the
initial FF vertical velocity, the initial FF vertical position, and the final FF vertical position (equal
to the Approach phase initial altitude), as follows:
Equation 5-155
2
−𝑣𝑦0_𝐹𝐹 ± √𝑣𝑦0 + 2𝑔𝑚 (𝑟𝑦0_𝐹𝐹 − 𝑟𝑦𝑓_𝐹𝐹 )
𝑡𝑓_𝐹𝐹_𝑚𝑎𝑥 =
−𝑔𝑚
The maximum solution of the two from the above equation is then used as the maximum FF
duration.
Next, the algorithm proceeds to find the required free fall duration at which the FF/BB2
boundary altitude and velocity match. This is done by using the MATLAB fminbnd() function to
find the free fall duration that minimizes the FF/BB2 boundary condition cost function, shown
below:
1 2 2 Equation 5-156
𝐽 = [(𝑟𝑦0_𝐵𝐵2 − 𝑟𝑦𝑓_𝐹𝐹 ) + (𝑣𝑦0_𝐵𝐵2 − 𝑣𝑦𝑓_𝐹𝐹 ) ]
2
To do this, the free fall final conditions for a given free fall duration can be found
analytically:
𝑟𝑥𝑓_𝐹𝐹 = 𝑟𝑥0_𝐹𝐹 + 𝑣𝑥0_𝐹𝐹 𝑡𝐹𝐹 Equation 5-157
273
1 2
𝑟𝑦𝑓_𝐹𝐹 = 𝑟𝑦0_𝐹𝐹 + 𝑣𝑦0_𝐹𝐹 𝑡𝐹𝐹 − 𝑔𝑚 𝑡𝐹𝐹
2
𝑣𝑥𝑓_𝐹𝐹 = 𝑣𝑥0_𝐹𝐹
𝑣𝑦𝑓_𝐹𝐹 = 𝑣𝑦0_𝐹𝐹 − 𝑔𝑚 𝑡𝐹𝐹
The BB2 initial conditions can be found by reverse integrating the BB2 equations of
motion until the initial BB2 altitude (equal to the FF final altitude) is achieved. The BB2
equations of motion are outlined below.
ṙ x = 𝑣𝑥 Equation 5-158
ṙ y = 𝑣𝑦
v̇ x = 𝑎𝑥 = 0
v̇ x = 𝑎𝑦 − 𝑔𝑚
T
ṁ = −
𝐼𝑠𝑝 𝑔0
where the full available thrust during BB2 is applied only in the vertical direction, so that 𝑎𝑦 =
𝑇/𝑚. This vertical thrust acceleration reduces the vertical velocity under lunar gravity.
The reverse integration starts by setting the final BB2 conditions equal to the Approach
phase initial conditions. The reverse integration then proceeds from a hard-coded maximum
integration duration of 1000 seconds until the altitude equals the desired BB2 altitude. The BB2
propellant consumed is then estimated using the engine mass flow rate and solved BB2 burn
duration.
Given the optimal free fall duration, the free fall final conditions are re-computed (as
fminbnd() does not return results other than the optimized variable value and the minimized
cost function). The BB2 initial conditions are also re-computed. The final FF altitude and vertical
274
velocity are then compared to the initial BB2 altitude and vertical velocity to ensure they
actually match.
5.3.8.2.7 Propellant Mass Iteration
At this point, the propellant mass has been calculated for BB1, BB2, Approach, and
Terminal Descent. The total solved propellant mass is determined by adding the calculated
propellant masses from all D&L phases. The difference between the solved and estimated total
D&L propellant mass is then found:
δMp_err = Δ𝑀𝑝_𝑡𝑜𝑡_𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑣𝑒𝑑 − Δ𝑀𝑝_𝑡𝑜𝑡_𝑒𝑠𝑡 Equation 5-159
To reduce this difference to zero requires using a root-finding method to compute a
new estimate for the combined BB1 + BB2 propellant mass. Using this new estimate, another
iteration of the outer mass iteration loop can be executed, in which all the preceding
calculations for all D&L phases are re-done. This process is repeated until one of the following
conditions occurs: 1) the total propellant mass has converged, the maximum number of allowed
mass iterations has been reached, or a valid BB1 solution was not found during the mass
iteration (in which case the mass iteration is terminated).
Two root-finding methods are available to the re-estimate the BB1 + BB2 propellant
mass: the Newton-Raphson method, and the secant method. Newton’s method involves
calculating a new estimate of the variable to be solved for using the following equation:
𝑓(𝑥𝑛 ) Equation 5-160

𝑥𝑛+1 = 𝑥𝑛 −
𝑓′(𝑥𝑛 )
where 𝑓(𝑥) is the function whose root is sought. For the problem presented here, 𝑓(𝑥) =
𝛿𝑀𝑝_𝑒𝑟𝑟 , where 𝑥 = Δ𝑀𝑝_𝐵𝐵1_𝐵𝐵2 . The 𝑓′(𝑥) term is just the slope of the 𝛿𝑀𝑝_𝑒𝑟𝑟 , which can be
calculated as:
275
Δ𝑦 𝛿𝑀𝑝_𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑛 − 𝛿𝑀𝑝_𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑛−1 Equation 5-161
𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = =
Δ𝑥 Δ𝑀𝑝_𝐵𝐵1_𝐵𝐵2𝑛 − Δ𝑀𝑝_𝐵𝐵1_𝐵𝐵2𝑛−1
Newton’s method is the default method used at the start of the propellant mass iteration
process.
The secant method assumes the function is approximately linear in an interval [x0, x1]
around the root (i.e. a line connecting the limits of the interval crosses zero).
𝑥𝑛 − 𝑥𝑛−1 Equation 5-162

𝑥𝑛+1 = 𝑥𝑛 − 𝑓(𝑥𝑛 )
𝑓(𝑥𝑛 ) − 𝑓(𝑥𝑛−1 )
where, again, 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝛿𝑀𝑝_𝑒𝑟𝑟 and 𝑥 = Δ𝑀𝑝_𝐵𝐵1_𝐵𝐵2 .
The root-finding method in the D&L algorithm switches to the secant method only under
the following conditions: 1) a zero-crossing has occurred in δMp_err; 2) the current total
propellant mass estimate is < 0; 3) the difference 𝛿𝑚 = 𝛿𝑀𝑝_𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑛 − 𝛿𝑀𝑝_𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑛−1 is > 0 after the
first propellant mass iteration; or 4) a flag to explicitly use the secant method is set to TRUE.
5.4 GENERATING DESIGN DATA
Once a set of system configuration .m files have been generated (as described in Section
5.1.3), the next task would ideally be to run them all through the Mission and Spacecraft Sizing
(MASS) MATLAB tool. An issue is that each configuration can take up to 7.5 minutes to converge,
as identified in initial MASS tool testing. This estimate is derived by taking an average system-
iteration run time of 30 sec (to design all spacecraft subsystems and to run the Descent &
Landing design module once) and a maximum allowed number of 15 system-level iterations.
That results in (30 sec/iteration)*(15 iterations) = 450 minutes/config = 7.5 min/config. Given
7920 configurations, that would require 41.25 days of continuous run time on a single MATLAB
276
license, one configuration at a time. This amount of run time was not available and in general
seems too large. An option to reduce the total continuous run time would be to run the list of
system configurations in batches on multiple instances of MATLAB. To run all configurations in
about a day would require running on approximately 40 MATLAB instances. While multiple
instances of MATLAB (at least of the Student license used in this research) can be started, there
is a limit in computing memory available for each instance. Another alternative would be to
investigate use of MATLAB’s Parallel Processing capability to split the configuration runs among
different processors; however, that toolbox was not purchased during this research.
Thus, to generate design results for a reasonable amount of system configurations in a
reasonable run time, a decision was made to reduce the 7920 configurations into a handful of
interesting cases. The process to arrive at this reduced set is described next.
5.4.1 Selecting Configurations to Run
In the 7 subsystems available to a given spacecraft, a set of 6 trade parameters were
identified. These are:
1. ADCS RCS pressurant gas: Helium or Nitrogen
2. ADCS RCS tank material type: Metal or Composite
3. Propulsion bi-propellant engine: 9 available engines > 200 N thrust from the
Thruster/Engine database
4. Propulsion pressurant gas: Helium or Nitrogen
5. Propulsion tank material type: Metal or Composite
6. Spacecraft power source type: Solar array + battery, RPS + battery, fuel cell + battery
277
To whittle the thousands of system configurations down into a reasonable set, a Unix
script was written to search the system configuration .m files for a reduced set of trade values
per trade item listed above. The script starts off filtering all system configuration .m files by
rover power source. The script repeats the filtering process 3 times, one for each Rover power
source type (solar, RPS, and fuel cell). For the first cycle, of the available list of 5 solar cell types,
only the minimum cell efficiency and maximum cell efficiency candidates were considered
(Silicon high efficiency at 17 % and GpInP2/GaAs/Ge triple junction XTJ cells from Spectrolab at
29.3 %). For the second cycle, the available RPS types are constrained to MMRTG (delivering
125W of electrical power in total per 44.2 kg module at a system efficiency of 6.3 %) and ASRG-
850 (delivering 160W of electrical power in total per 19 kg module at a system efficiency of
32%). Note that the ASRG (Advanced Stirling Radioisotope Generator) technology is currently
not being pursued by NASA7, and so represents a futuristic option. For the third cycle, the
available fuel cell options were kept at the 2 available in the fuel cell database
(hydrogen/oxygen or H2/O2, and hydrogen/hydrogen peroxide or H2/H2O2).
Whichever Rover power system option was being filtered, the Unix script next searched
for the set of system configuration files with Lander RCS pressurant set to Helium (the reasoning
being that Helium gas has a smaller average bulk density at standard temperature and pressure
than Nitrogen). Next, of the set of system configuration files that met the Rover power and
Lander RCS pressurant filters, the subset of configurations with engine mass flow rate at the
minimum and maximum of the 9 available bi-propellant engines (> 200 N thrust), and a middle
7
NASA Glenn Research Center had been planning to develop an ASRG for flight by 2016, but discontinued
the program in 2013 (72).
278
mass flow rate were down-selected. The set of 9 available bi-propellant engines are listed below
(60) (61):
Table 5-36. Available Bi-propellant Engines for Lander Propulsion System
Max Isp Max Thrust Mdot

Model Manufacturer (sec) (N) (kg/s) Flight Status
R-4D Aerojet 315.5 490 0.158 Flight proven
HiPAT Liquid
Apogee Motor Aerojet 323 445 0.140 Flight proven
HiPAT Dual
Mode Liquid
Apogee
Thruster Aerojet 329 445 0.138 Qualified
R-42 Aerojet 303 890 0.299 n/a
Ready for
formal
qualification,
R-42DM Aerojet 327 890 0.277 TRL 6 2008
Ready for
formal
AMBR Dual qualification,
Mode Aerojet 333 623 0.191 TRL 6 2008
TR-308 Liquid
Apogee Northrop
Engine Grumman 322 470.64 0.149 Flight proven
TR-312 Liquid
Apogee Northrop Flight
Engine Grumman 325 501.72 0.157 Prototype
TR-312-100YN
Liquid Apogee Northrop Flight
Engine Grumman 330 555 0.171 Prototype
According to this table, the minimum mass flow rate engine (0.138 kg/s) is the Aerojet
HiPAT Dual Mode Liquid Apogee Thruster (flight qualified), the maximum mass flow rate engine
(0.299 kg/s) is the Aerojet R-42 (no information available on qualification status), and the middle
value mass flow rate engine (0.171 kg/s) is the Northrop Grumman TR-312-100YN Liquid Apogee
Engine (flight prototype).
279
Lastly, the Unix script further filtered the list of matching system configuration .m files
by searching for those with Lander solar cell efficiencies the same as those searched for the
Rover (Si high efficiency at 17%, and XTJ at 29.3 %).
The number of system configurations found for each of the 3 Rover power source
search cycles and associated filters is summarized in below.
Table 5-37. Filtering System Configurations into Runnable Set
Filter Criteria # Results Found

 Rover solar cell efficiency = 17% or 29.3% 48
 Lander RCS pressurant = Helium
 Lander RCS tank material type = Metal or
Composite
 Lander engine mass flow rate = min, max,
middle value
 Lander solar array cell efficiency = 17% or
29.3 %
 Rover RPS type = MMRTG or ASRG 96

Composite
middle value
29.3 %
 Rover fuel cell type = H2/O2 or H2/H2O2 96
Composite
middle value
29.3 %
Total 240
Overall, applying these search filters reduced the number of system configurations
down to 240, by keeping only Lander RCS pressurant as Helium, keeping both Lander RCS tank
material types as metal and composite, eliminating the majority of Propulsion engines and
280
avoiding Rover solar cell options with middle cell efficiencies and avoiding Rover RPS options
aside from the MMRTG and best performing ASRG. Overall, the end result of this system
configuration filtering was a list of configuration IDs for all matching configurations.
To estimate the run time for these 240 system configurations, it was decided to look at
the run time performance for the first 20 configurations in the MASS tool. After doing an initial
test run it was found that some of the designs terminated early due to infeasibility8. For 20
configuration design runs, the total run time on a single instance of MATLAB was 1 hour and 13
minutes = 73 min. So that results in 3.65 min/configuration. So, for 240 configurations, that
turns out to be (240 configurations)*(3.65 min/config) = 876 min = 14.6 hours of run time.
To aid in debugging any potential MATLAB error as a result of the automated running of
so many system configurations, to allow monitoring of the design runs (to avoid walking away
and returning hours later only to find that the runs have terminated early due to error in one of
the system configurations), it was decided to split the 240 configurations into subsets of 32
configurations each for the first 160 configurations and 40 each for the remaining 80
configurations. Thus, the configuration IDs for the 240 system configurations were also split into
subset files that could be passed directly to the MASS tool.
5.4.2 Design Runs
To reduce the total run time down from 14.6 to something achievable during a typical
work day (say 7 hours), it was decided to start two instances of the MATLAB student license and
run them in parallel. This was a very good idea, as the total run time for all 240 configurations
8
Infeasibility here is defined as some reason in which the design does not meet some requirement as
determined by MASS.
281
turned out to be 6 hours and 50 minutes. It is conceivable that the total run time could be
reduced through using more MATLAB instances or investigating the use of the MATLAB Parallel
Processing toolbox. In addition, the run time of each system iteration could be improved by
finding faster algorithms for obtaining the subsystem designs, to reduce the system iteration run
time below 30 sec per iteration.
The design run process was free of any errors due to missing parameters in the MATLAB
system configuration .m files, MATLAB syntax errors, or divergence cases (resulting in infinite
loops, if not properly checked).
Several data files are generated per system configuration (placed within a “sys_configN”
subfolder in the “Results” folder). These files per system configuration are:
 The summary of Delta-Vs that are present within the trajectory SPK file and simulation
data file
 A saved MATLAB .fig file of the MASS GUI showing plots of the total Rover mass, total
Lander mass, Rover subsystem masses, Lander subsystem masses, and Iteration run
time (in seconds) all per system-level iteration.
 A saved MATLAB .mat file containing the workspace variables used during the system
configuration design run
 A mission system configuration design log text file, containing printed results of each
subsystem design module and the Descent & Landing sizing module for each system-
level iteration.
 A system configuration iteration text file containing the subsystem mass breakdown and
total masses for Rover and Lander in each system-level iteration (to aid in reviewing
convergence)
282
Given that all these take up disk space, another initial concern in running thousands of
system configurations using the MASS tool was total disk usage. For all 240 configurations, the
total disk usage came up to 819 MB (or an average of 3.48 MB per configuration). The file with
the largest file size is the mission design log, since it prints out results for each system-level
iteration until convergence or infeasibility is detected. The largest file size for the mission design
log wound up being 7.8 MB. This file size could be reduced by finding more efficient subsystem
and Descent & Landing sizing algorithms that require fewer printed lines.
The next section describes the results obtained after running all filtered system
configurations.
6 ANALYSIS OF RESULTS
6.1 CONFIGURATION DESIGN FEASIBILITY
To process the design data (available as saved MATLAB .mat files containing workspace
variables for each system configuration), an analysis MATLAB script was written. The first step in
the analysis process was to distinguish design results between those that successfully ran until
system mass convergence (feasible designs), or those that did not run successfully and
terminated early due to some numerical or other condition (infeasible designs). If an infeasible
design condition was reached, the MASS tool was written to print out the word “infeasible” in
an output message to the mission design log file. So, a Unix egrep search was done on all
mission design log files for files that contained the word “infeasible” or not. In addition, a
“feasible” flag was set to TRUE in the MASS tool if the final iteration of a configuration was
feasible, and to FALSE otherwise.
283
The MASS tool was coded to capture 3 types of design infeasibility:
1. Telecom module: Telecom link design (either DTE links or relay links) did not have links
with > 3 dB link margin for all communication events being modeled.
2. Descent & Landing module: the propellant mass estimate for braking burns 1 and 2
during the propellant mass convergence search was negative, thereby invalidating the
design. That is, if the design run were allowed to continue, the integration of the braking
burn 1 equations of motion would operate on negative mass and would produce
unrealistic results (causing acceleration instead of deceleration during the intended
descent).
3. Descent & Landing module: the braking burn 1 design algorithm ran out of search space
for the initial de-orbit altitude h0 (reaching the maximum allowed). That is, the
algorithm could not find a starting altitude within bounds by which braking burn 1 could
be achieved with a final condition above the lunar surface (positive altitude).
The design feasibility results for the system configurations run are summarized in the
following table.
Table 6-1. System Configuration Design Feasibility Results
Case Count % of total

Feasible designs 100 41.7
Infeasible designs 140 58.3
Infeasible designs as a result of 0 0 (of all designs)
negative BB1 + BB2 propellant 0 (of all infeasible designs)
mass estimate
Infeasible designs as a result of 140 58.3 (of all designs)
exhausting BB1 h0 search space 100 (of all infeasible designs)
Out of 240 system configurations run, ~41.6% or 100 were feasible designs. Of the 140
infeasible designs, 0 were infeasible as a result of estimating negative BB1 + BB2 propellant
284
mass, while the remaining 140 were all due to the BB1 search algorithm exhausting the h0
search space. Section 6.2.3 discusses the design infeasibility results in more detail, while Section
6.2 describes the design feasibility results.
6.2 FEASIBLE DESIGN CONFIGURATIONS
6.2.1 Design Results
The characteristics of the 100 feasible designs are described in this section. The total
launch mass vs. combination run order (i.e. system configuration ID order) is shown in Figure
6-1. This figure simply depicts the logical order in which the system configuration combinations
were generated (as described in Section 5.1.3.4). According to this figure, the total converged
launch mass varied between 880.2 kg and 3262.8 kg.
Figure 6-1. Feasible design total launch mass vs. combination run order
To understand the breakdown of these feasible designs, plots of total launch mass vs.
final landed mass can studied. The first of these plots, shown in Figure 6-2, reveals two distinct
285
families: at total launch masses < 2000 kg, all the feasible designs involve the use of the medium
mass flow rate TR-312-100YN Liquid Apogee Engine (68 in total); at total launch masses above
2450 kg, all the feasible designs involve use of the R-42 high mass flow rate (32 in total). There
are no feasible designs involving use of the low mass flow rate HiPAT Dual Mode Liquid Apogee
thruster. The highest total launch mass feasible design in the TR-312-100YN family is 1799 kg,
while the lowest total launch mass feasible design in the R-42 family is 2459 kg, a difference of
660 kg.
For the R-42 feasible designs, there also appear to be several sub-families based on
other configuration characteristics. In addition, the plot shows a fairly linear relationship
between the total launch mass and the final landed mass for each engine family.
Figure 6-2. Feasible design total launch mass vs. final landed mass (by engine family)
The plot in Figure 6-3 below shows the same plot with the lander’s Propulsion tank
material marked. It can be seen that there are 72 cases using composite tanks, whereas there
are 28 cases using metal tanks. The composite tank cases span all the way from the low total
286
launch mass end to the high total launch mass end, whereas the metal tanks exist strictly
between 500 and 700 kg final landed mass.
Figure 6-3. Feasible design total launch mass vs. final landed mass (by Prop tank material type)
The plot in Figure 6-4 below shows that all rover power sources are represented in the
feasible designs. There are 24 solar-powered rover feasible designs, 28 RPS-powered rover
feasible designs, and 48 fuel-cell powered rover feasible designs. The minimum and maximum
total launch mass designs for all three rover power source cases is summarized in Table 6-2
below. The minimum total launch mass design is a fuel cell-powered rover, and the maximum
total launch mass design is an RPS-powered rover. The minimum total launch mass solar-
powered rover design is 904.8 kg, and the maximum total launch mass solar-powered rover
design is 2879.1 kg. The minimum total launch mass RPS-powered rover design is 1125.1 kg, and
the maximum total launch mass RPS-powered rover design is 3262.8 kg (which happens to be
the maximum overall total launch mass design). The minimum total launch mass fuel cell-
287
powered rover design is 880.2 kg (which happens to be the minimum overall total launch mass
design), and the maximum total launch mass fuel cell-powered rover design is 2863.6 kg.
Table 6-2. Feasible design total launch masses (min and max) for each Rover power configuration
Rover Power # Feasible Designs Minimum Total Maximum Total

Configuration Launch Mass (kg) Launch Mass (kg)
Solar 24 904.8 2879.1
RPS 28 1125.1 3262.8*
Fuel cell 48 880.2** 2863.6
* Maximum total launch mass overall; **Minimum total launch mass overall
Figure 6-4. Feasible design total launch mass vs. final landed mass (by Rover power source)
A plot of the total loaded propellant mass vs. total launch mass (by engine family) is
shown in Figure 6-5 below. This plot clearly shows two distinct curves by engine family: one
group with total loaded propellant less than ~1200 kg (for the medium mass flow rate engine
TR-312-100YN), and a second group between ~1700 and 2400 kg (for the maximum mass flow
rate engine R-42). Thus, the total loaded propellant mass is in general higher using the R-42 and
lower using the TR-312-100YN. The minimum total loaded propellant mass in the whole plot is
562.6 kg, and the maximum total loaded propellant mass is 2341.9 kg. The delta in total loaded
288
propellant mass, between the highest propellant mass TR-312-100YN case and the lowest
propellant mass case is ~500 kg.
Figure 6-5. Feasible design total loaded propellant mass vs. total launch mass (by engine family)
Another interesting plot is the propellant mass fraction vs. total launch mass, as shown
in Figure 6-6 below. The propellant mass fraction in this plot is defined as the total loaded
propellant mass (for both orbital Delta-V maneuvers and Descent & Landing) divided by the total
launch mass. The plot shows that for the medium mass flow rate TR-312-100YN engine, the
propellant mass fraction ranges from 0.64 to 0.67, whereas for the maximum mass flow rate R-
42 engine, the propellant mass fraction ranges from 0.687 to 0.718. Notice that in the R-42
family, there appear to be 2 sub-families based on other configuration characteristics.
289
Figure 6-6. Feasible design propellant mass fraction vs. total launch mass (by engine family)
The above plots of total loaded propellant mass and mass fraction vs. total launch mass
do not show the effect of engine mass flow rate according to the mass of the primary payload,
the rover. In the feasible designs, there are 5 distinct total rover masses, as summarized in Table
6-3. Case 1 is the lowest mass rover at 74.3 kg, configured for fuel cell power (H2/O2). Case 2 is
the next largest mass rover at 77.8 kg, configured for fuel cell power also, but using (H2/H2O2)
reactants. Case 3 is next at 78.1 kg, configured for Si solar array power. The next largest mass is
Case 3 at 112.6 kg, configured for RPS-power using the ASRG-850. The greatest mass rover is
Case 4 at 183 kg, configured for RPS-power using MMRTG technology.
Table 6-3. Feasible design Rover total mass summary
Case Rover total mass # Feasible Designs Rover Power Configuration

(kg)
1 74.3 24 Fuel cell-powered rovers (H2/O2)
2 77.8 24 Fuel cell-powered (H2/H2O2)
3 78.1 24 Solar-powered rover (Si High
efficiency)
4 112.6 20 RPS-powered rover (ASRG-850)
5 183.019 8 RPS-powered rover (MMRTG)
290
The effect of different Propulsion main engines on total loaded propellant mass as a
function of Rover mass can be seen in Figure 6-7. For the 5 sets of Rover masses, use of the
medium mass flow rate TR-312-100YN engine requires less propellant than use of the higher
mass flow rate R-42. Thus, for delivery of the same Rover payload, it would seem more efficient
to use the medium mass flow rate engine TR-312-100YN. However, using reduced mass flow
rate appears to work only up to a point, as there are no feasible design, low mass flow rate
HiPAT Dual Mode Liquid Apogee Engines.
Figure 6-7. Feasible design total propellant mass vs. total Rover mass
Figure 6-8 shows a plot of the final solved de-orbit altitude h0 at the start of braking
burn 1 during Descent & Landing vs. final landed mass. It can be seen that there are 2 curve
families: one using the TR-312-100YN engine with required h0 from 15 to ~67 km, and the other
using the R-42 engine requiring h0 from 42 km to 85 km. Thus, in addition to requiring less
propellant, the TR-312-100YN engine can achieve Descent & Landing from lower de-orbit
altitudes h0. The overlap between 40 km and 70 km, however, indicates that the higher mass
291
flow rate R-42 engine can be used to deliver higher final landed mass from the same de-orbit
altitude than can the lower mass flow rate TR-312-100YN engine. Also note that there appear to
be two families of required h0 for the R-42 cases, depending on other configuration
characteristics.
Figure 6-8. Feasible design solved h0 required vs. final landed mass (by engine family)
The number of engines required for all feasible designs was found to be the maximum
of 6 engines, as shown in Figure 6-9. This indicates that the maximum available thrust in each
engine case was required in each feasible design. So, per the Descent & Landing algorithm
described in Section 5.3.8.2, attempting to reduce the number of engines in these designs would
have resulted in invalid BB1 designs.
292
Figure 6-9. Feasible design solved # D&L engines required vs. combination run order
The total duration for Descent & Landing feasible designs is plotted vs. final landed mass
in Figure 6-10 below. This plot shows that the total duration varies from ~439 seconds (7.3
minutes) to ~820 seconds (13.6 minutes) for configurations using the TR-312-100YN engine, and
from ~660 seconds (11 minutes) to ~928 seconds (15.46 minutes) for configurations using the R-
42 engine.
293
Figure 6-10. Feasible design solved Descent & Landing total duration vs. final landed mass (by engine family)
The timing breakdown of the Descent & Landing phase for the feasible designs is shown
in Figure 6-11 below. From this figure, it can be seen that the BB1 duration dominates the
contribution to the total D&L duration, and that there are two curve families (corresponding to
the TR-312-100YN and R-42 engines).
The durations for the Approach phase and Terminal Descent appear to be relatively
constant for different final landed masses, as shown in the zoomed view of Figure 6-12. This plot
has a couple interesting characteristics. First, the free fall duration remains mostly below 55 sec
for final landed masses < 700 kg. This same trend is also present for final landed masses > 900
kg; however, there are 16 cases where the FF duration reaches above 75 sec. These same cases
also show a jump in BB2 burn duration. The possible distinguishing factors for these cases could
be the RCS tank material type (metal or composite), or the lander Propulsion system pressurant
gas. Further investigation shows that these cases include both RCS tank material options, and
both Helium and Nitrogen Propulsion system pressurants. Another interesting characteristic of
294
Figure 6-12 is that the BB2 duration goes from 6.3 seconds to ~39 seconds between 360 and 700
kg final landed mass, then appears to have two families in the 900 to 1100 kg range.
Figure 6-11. Feasible design solved Descent & Landing sub-phase durations vs final landed mass
Figure 6-12. Zoom of Feasible design solved Descent & Landing FF, BB2, Approach, and Terminal Descent
durations vs. final landed mass
295
Figure 6-13 below shows the required propellant mass contributions for the D&L sub-
phases BB1, BB2, Approach, and Terminal Descent. As expected, the BB1 propellant mass
contribution dominates, and there appear to be two families of curves (against corresponding to
the two engines feasible engines).
Figure 6-13. Feasible design solved Descent & Landing required propellant mass breakdown vs final landed
mass
Figure 6-14 shows a zoom of the BB2, Approach, and Terminal Descent required
propellant masses. This figure shows that the Approach and Terminal Descent phase propellant
masses steadily increase with final landed mass. The Approach phase required propellant mass
generally remain below 30 kg for final landed masses < 700 kg, and between 45 and 55 kg for
final landed masses between 900 and 1100 kg. The Terminal Descent required propellant mass
remains below 40 kg for final landed masses < 700 kg, and between 28 and 35 kg for final landed
masses between 900 and 1100 kg.
296
Figure 6-14. Zoom of Feasible design solved Descent & Landing required propellant mass breakdown vs. final
landed mass
In terms of the run time performance of the feasible designs, it can be seen from Figure
6-15, a plot of total run time vs. total launch mass, that the total configuration run time varied
from just over 3 minutes to ~7.25 minutes. Around 1800 kg total launch mass, there appear to
be 6 cases with run time above 6.5 min. Of these cases, 4 use the TR-312-100YN engine and the
others use the R-42. The 4 cases that use the TR engine are configured to use the ASRG-850
powered Rover and Lander Propulsion tanks made of Aluminum; the two cases that use the R-
42 are configured to use the fuel cell-powered (H2/H2O2) rover and lander Propulsion tanks
made of composite.
297
Figure 6-15. Feasible design total configuration run time vs. total launch mass
The total # of iterations for each configuration to converge (up to the maximum limit of
15) follows the same trend as the total configuration run time, as shown in Figure 6-16. There
were 2 cases that took the maximum # of iterations (15), and 24 cases that took the fewest # of
iterations (7). Finding cases taking the maximum # of iterations in the middle of the total launch
mass range indicates that a tool like MASS can be used to identify outliers in the design space.
298
Figure 6-16. Feasible design total # convergence iterations vs. total launch mass
The average system iteration run time per configuration vs. total launch mass is shown
in Figure 6-17. The minimum average system iteration run time was 25.9 seconds and the
maximum was 31.8 seconds. This was in family with previous estimates of the average system
iteration run time that were used to estimate the total time to run all desired system
configurations.
299
Figure 6-17. Feasible design average iteration run time vs. total launch mass
Lastly, the breakdown of the average system iteration run time per configuration can be
analyzed to understand which subsystem design modules contribute the most time. Figure 6-18
shows the average run time per subsystem design module for the rover vs. combination order.
This figure shows that the Telecom design module took the longest amount of run time,
between 9.5 and 10.5 seconds, for all feasible designs run. This was followed by the Power
design module, which in some cases took fractions of a second, and in others took between 2.8
and 3.1 seconds. All the other subsystem design modules took fractions of a second. Thus, for
the rover, the driving subsystem design modules are Telecom, followed by Power.
300
Figure 6-18. Feasible design rover average subsystem run time vs. combination run order
In terms of the lander subsystem designs, the average subsystem run time vs.
combination order is shown in Figure 6-19. This figure shows that Telecom is again the driving
subsystem design module in terms of run time, taking between 12 and 13 seconds. This is
followed by the ADCS design module, which took about 0.6 sec on average.
So, the Telecom design module’s algorithm is an area for future improvement, to reduce
the run time per call. Recall that the Telecom design module uses several nested for-loops to
identify the proper antenna size and RF power to achieve > 3 dB link margin for all
communication events modeled. This approach takes a lot of computational resources and
when multiplied hundreds or thousands of times, renders the total time to run all desired design
configurations extensive. It is conceivable that another approach to identifying a feasible
Telecom design could reduce that subsystem’s run time, and thus reduce the overall run time of
a given system configuration.
301
Figure 6-19. Feasible design lander average subsystem run time vs. combination run order
In addition to the subsystem design modules, there is also the Descent & Landing design
module. The algorithm employed also takes some time to run (until either the propellant mass
estimate converges or the search space is exhausted). This is shown in Figure 6-20 below.
According to this figure, the average Descent & Landing run times takes between 2.4 seconds to
5.35 seconds. Note that this average run time per call is less than that of the Telecom design
module but more than all the other subsystem modules in general (except for some cases where
the rover Power design takes ~3 seconds).
302
Figure 6-20. Feasible design average Descent & Landing module run time vs. combination order
To get further insight into the average Descent & Landing run time, Figure 6-21 shows a
plot of this vs. final landed mass. It can be seen that there are two clear groups, which differ by
the main engine model used. For final masses less than 700 kg, the average run time varied
between 2.4 and 5 seconds. For final masses between 900 and ~1100 kg, the average run time
varied between 3.7 and 5.4 seconds. Thus, it appears that, in general, higher final land mass
requires more run time for the Descent & Landing design module to converge in its propellant
mass estimate, but that the run time is also a function of the main engine in use.
303
Figure 6-21. Feasible design average Descent & Landing module run time vs. final landed mass (grouped by
engine family)
6.2.2 Selected Designs
Since the rover payload configurations are categorized by power source, 3 designs are of
interest: the minimum total launch mass configurations for the solar-powered rover, RPS-
powered rover, and fuel cell-powered rover. The total launch masses for these configurations
were summarized in Table 6-2 in the previous section. These designs are selected because they
represent 3 different rover missions. The solar-powered Rover, for example, can only operate at
sunlit lunar South Pole locations (or at the boundary of a sunlit and permanently-shadowed
region); the RPS and fuel-cell powered rovers, in contrast, can operate within the permanently-
shadowed craters.
A graphical comparison of the rover subsystem masses for the selected 3 rover
configurations is shown below in Figure 6-22. This figure shows that the driving masses for the
rover are from Structures and Power. The RPS-powered rover has the highest Structures and
304
Power subsystem masses, followed by the solar-powered rover, and then the fuel cell-powered
rover.
Figure 6-22. Feasible Rover Design Subsystem Mass Comparison
A graphical comparison of the Lander subsystem mass breakdown for the 3 selected
configurations is show in Figure 6-23. This figure shows that the Propulsion subsystem mass is
the driving mass for the Lander, followed by Structures and then ADCS.
Figure 6-23. Feasible Lander Design Subsystem Mass Comparison
305
The subsystem mass breakdown for these designs are summarized in Table 6-4 through
Table 6-6.
Table 6-4. Minimum mass solar-powered Rover mass breakdown (config ID = 342)
Parameter Rover Lander

Total mass (kg) 78.13 826.7
Telecom mass (kg) 2.13 5.0
CDS mass (kg) 10.5 10.5
ADCS mass (kg) 0.748 28.9
Propulsion mass (kg) n/a 636.9
Thermal mass (kg) 1.925 9.1
Structures mass (kg) 19.4 107.6
Power mass (kg) 8.646 8.6
Table 6-5. Minimum mass RPS-powered Rover mass breakdown (config ID = 6102)

Total mass (kg) 112.5 1012.6
CDS mass (kg) 10.5 10.5
Table 6-6. Minimum mass Fuel cell-powered Rover mass breakdown (config ID = 6822)

Total mass (kg) 74.3 805.96
CDS mass (kg) 10.5 10.5
306
Table 6-7. Rover subsystem characteristics of minimum total launch mass solar-powered Rover configuration
342
Rover Subsystem Description

Telecom  Relay architecture
 Cincinatti Electronics (L3) CTT-505 UHF transceiver
o 45W DC transmitter power
o 4.9W DC receiver power
o 1.85 kg transceiver mass
CDS  Software size (MB) = 818.8
 Max telemetry rate (Mbps) = 35.6
ADCS  LN-200S IMU
o Power (W) = 12
o Mass (kg) = 0.748
Thermal  Total power (W) = 40.3
Structures  Rover mobility system mass (kg) = 19.397
 Wheel diameter (m) = 0.23
 Wheel width (m) = 0.13
 Wheel actuator power (W) = 1.6
 Rover overall width (m) = 1.22
 Rover overall length (m) = 1.26
 Rover overall height (m) = 0.8
Power  Battery type = Li-ion
o Energy capacity (W-hr) = 10.0
o Charge capacity (A-hr) = 0.1
o # battery cells = 29
o Total battery mass (kg) = 0.11
o Total battery power (W) = 177.3
 Solar array cell type = Si High Efficiency
o # solar cells = 9374
o Total solar array mass (kg) = 13.3
o Total solar array power (W) = 295.5
Table 6-8. Lander subsystem characteristics of minimum total launch mass solar-powered Rover configuration
342
Lander Subsystem Description

 X-band Small Deep Space Transponder
o 15.8 W DC transmitter power
o 12.5 W DC receiver power
CDS  Software size (MB) = 1350
 Max telemetry rate (Mbps) = 142
307
o Power (W) = 12
o Mass (kg) = 0.748
 Andrews Space Star Tracker
o Total mass (kg) = 0.93
o Total power (W) = 4.4
 SSBV Space and Ground Sun Sensors
o # sensors = 6
 RCS thrusters only design
o Astrium 20N thrusters using Hydrazine
 24.6 N max thrust
 230 sec Isp
 Thruster mass (kg) = 0.395 kg
o RCS loaded propellant mass (kg) = 13.6
o # RCS tanks = 2
o Tank outer radius (m) = 0.13
o Single tank mass (kg) = 0.38
Propulsion  Propellant pressurant = Helium
 Tank material type = Composite Carbon Fiber Torayca T1000G
 Main engine = TR-312-100YN
o Isp (sec) = 330
o Max thrust (N) = 555
 Fuel tank outer radius (m) = 0.41
 Oxidizer tank outer radius (m) = 0.377
 Pressurant tank outer radius (m) = 0.185
 Total loaded propellant mass (kg) = 579.4
 Orbital DV propellant mass (kg) = 213.1
 Descent & Landing propellant mass (kg) = 320.23
 Reserve + unusable propellant mass (kg) = 46.3
Structures  Lander deck width (m) = 1.259
 Lander leg diameter (m) = 2.4
 Lander leg height (m) = 1.78
 Solar array cell type = GaInP2/GaAs/Ge Triple Junction (XTJ)
308
o Total solar array power (W) = 191
o Solar array area (m2) = 0.851
Table 6-9. Rover subsystem characteristics of minimum total launch mass RPS-powered Rover configuration
6102

o Power (W) = 12
o Mass (kg) = 0.748
 RPS type = ASRG-850
o # RPS modules = 2
o Total RPS mass (kg) = 38
o Total RPS power (W) = 320
309
Table 6-10. Lander subsystem characteristics of minimum total launch mass RPS-powered Rover configuration
6102

o 12W power
o 0.748 kg mass
o # sensors = 6
 230 sec Isp
o # RCS tanks = 2
o Per tank mass (kg) = 0.41
Propulsion  Propellant pressurant = helium
o Isp (sec) = 330
310
Table 6-11. Rover subsystem characteristics of minimum total launch mass fuel cell-powered Rover
configuration 6822

o Power (W) = 12
o Mass (kg) = 0.748
 Fuel cell type = H2/O2
o # fuel cells = 110
311
o Total fuel cell system mass (kg) = 10.6
o Total fuel cell system power (W) = 178.95
Table 6-12. Lander subsystem characteristics of minimum total launch mass fuel cell-powered Rover
configuration 6822

o 12W power
o 0.748 kg mass
o # sensors = 6
 230 sec Isp
o # RCS tanks = 2
o Single tank mass (kg) = 0.38
Propulsion  Propellant pressurant = Helium
o Isp (sec) = 330
312
A side-by-side comparison of the rover and lander masses (wet, dry, and propellant, if
applicable), power, dimensions, and other configuration parameters for these 3 configurations
are provided below in Table 6-13. The mass difference between the lightest rover (fuel cell-
powered rover at 74.3 kg) and the next heaviest rover (solar-powered rover at 78.1 kg) is 3.8 kg.
All other configuration parameters being equal, it can be seen that the additional 3.8 kg in the
rover power subsystem requires an 826.7 kg lander for the solar-powered rover vs. 805.96 kg
for the fuel cell-powered rover, or an additional 20.74 kg. The mass difference between the
solar-powered rover (at 78.1 kg) and the RPS-powered rover (at 112.6 kg) is 34.5 kg. This
additional mass requires a lander that is 185.6 kg heavier in the RPS-powered rover
configuration than in the solar-powered rover configuration.
313
Table 6-13. Comparison of Selected System Configurations
Config 342 Config 6102 Config 6822

Total Launch Mass 904.8 1125.2 880.2
(kg)
Parameter Rover Lander Rover Lander Rover Lander
Power source Solar Solar RPS Solar Fuel Cell Solar
Wet Mass (kg) 78.1 826.7 112.6 1012.57 74.3 805.96
Dry Mass (kg) 78.1 247.3 112.6 281.74 74.3 243.38
Loaded Propellant n/a 579.4 n/a 730.83 n/a 562.58
Mass (kg)
Peak Power (W) 177.3 114.6 177.3 114.6 177.3 114.6
RCS tank material type n/a Composite n/a Composite n/a Composite
Propulsion Main n/a TR-312- n/a TR-312- n/a TR-312-
Engine 100YN 100YN 100YN
Propellant Pressurant n/a Helium n/a Helium n/a Helium
Propulsion tank n/a Composite n/a Composite n/a Composite
material type
Rover Length x Width 1.26 x n/a 1.42 x n/a 1.24 x n/a
x Height (m) 1.22 x 1.41 x 0.94 x
0.81 0.95 0.56
Lander Leg Height (m) n/a 1.77 n/a 1.77 n/a 1.77
Lander Leg Diameter n/a 2.43 n/a 2.66 n/a 2.4
(m)
Plots of the MASS tool rover/lander total mass, subsystem masses, and runtime history
are provided next to illustrate how the above 3 designs converged (see Figure 6-24 through
Figure 6-26). In Figure 6-24, depicting system configuration 342, it can be seen that the lander
design converged in 7 system iterations, while the rover design converged after 3 iterations. The
entire system design took 3.1 minutes to converge, with the average run time per iteration
falling between 25.8 and 27.1 seconds. In Figure 6-25 it can be seen that system configuration
6102 converged after 9 iterations, taking 4.13 minutes. In Figure 6-26 it can be seen that system
configuration 6822 converged after 7 iterations for a lander mass close to that of Figure 6-24.
314
Figure 6-24. MASS GUI for feasible system configuration 342
315
Note that the total mass estimates for the 3 configurations in Table 6-13 do not include
any system-level margin for growth as the mission concept proceeds into design and
development. Standard practice for NASA Pre-phase A concepts is to add 30% to the system-
level mass (62). Thus, it is prudent to add this margin onto the total system launch masses for
the 3 configurations, as shown in Table 6-14. According to this table, the total system mass with
margin for the solar-powered rover configuration (ID = 342) is 1176.24 kg. For the RPS-powered
rover configuration (ID = 6102), the total system launch mass with margin is 1462.76 kg. For the
fuel cell-powered rover configuration (ID = 6822), the total system launch mass with margin is
1144.26 kg. The masses of the 3 lander configurations can be compared with the lander mass
estimates from 3 proposed lunar polar missions: Luna-Glob, Chandrayaan-2 and a NASA
International Lunar Network (ILN) concept study. The landers in these concepts are all solar-
powered. The Chandrayaan-2 lander, with a wet mass of 1230 kg, is 156 kg heavier than the
configuration 342 lander.
316
Table 6-14. Comparison of 3 Selected Configurations and Other Lunar Polar Mission Concepts
Config Config Config Russian Chandrayaan- NASA ILN

342 + 30% 6102 + 6822 + Luna-Glob 2 Mission Lunar
margin 30% 30% Lander (63) (64) Polar Rim
margin margin Concept
(65)
Solar- RPS- Fuel cell- Solar & RTG Solar- Solar-
powered powered powered powered powered powered
rover rover rover lander rover lander
Rover mass 101.53 146.38 96.59 n/a 20 n/a
(kg)
Lander wet 1074.71 1316.34 1047.75 1450 (incl. 1230 1391 (incl.
mass (kg) 19kg 19 kg
payload) payload)
Total 1176.24 1462.76 1144.26 1450 1250 1391
System
mass (kg)
Finally, the Descent & Landing phase breakdown in terms of burn time (or free fall time),
initial mass, final mass, propellant mass consumed, and position and velocity components are
given in Table 6-15 through Table 6-17 for the 3 selected designs. In Table 6-15, the solar-
powered rover system (configuration ID 342) started the de-orbit from a 16 km altitude low
lunar orbit, with an initial mass of 691.9 kg and a final landed mass of 371.7 kg. The total
propellant required is 320.3 kg for a total duration for all sub-phases of 452 seconds (or 7.53
minutes). In Table 6-16, the RPS-powered rover system (configuration ID 6102) started the de-
orbit from a 26 km altitude low lunar orbit, with an initial mass of 861.6 kg and a final landed
mass of 452.7 kg. The total propellant required is 408.9 kg for a total duration for all sub-phases
of 550 seconds (or 9.1 minutes). In Table 6-17, the fuel cell-powered rover system (configuration
ID 6822) started the de-orbit from a 15 km altitude low lunar orbit, with an initial mass of 672.9
kg and final landed mass of 362.5 kg. The total propellant required is 310.3 kg for a total
317
duration for all sub-phases of 439.8 seconds (or 7.3 minutes). In all 3 cases, the minimum
touchdown velocity components were -0.109 m/s horizontal and -1.482 m/s vertical.
Table 6-15. Descent & Landing design for system configuration 342
Phase Dur (sec) m0 (kg) mf (kg) Δmp (kg) h0 (m) vx0 (m/s) vy0 (m/s)
BB1 277.1 691.9 406.8 285.1 16,000 1671.7 0.0
Free fall 27.3 406.8 406.8 0.0 1580.9 8.66 -9.48
BB2 7.34 406.8 399.3 7.56 717.36 8.66 -53.78
Approach 85.0 399.3 382.6 16.7 500.0 8.66 -5.0
Terminal 55.3 382.6 371.7 10.9 75.0 8.66 -5.0
BB1 348.9 861.6 502.6 358.97 26,000 1666.95 0.0
Free fall 45.0 502.6 502.6 0.0 3469.3 8.66 -13.23
BB2 15.89 502.6 486.3 16.35 1229.5 8.66 -86.27
Approach 85.0 486.3 465.96 20.3 500.0 8.66 -5.0
Terminal 55.3 465.96 452.7 13.3 75.0 8.66 -5.0
BB1 269.1 672.9 395.993 276.9 15,000 1672.175 0.0
Free fall 23.995 395.993 395.993 0.0 1376.1 8.66 -9.84
BB2 6.38 395.993 389.43 6.57 673.0 8.66 -48.76
Approach 85.0 389.4 373.2 16.3 500.0 8.66 -5.0
Terminal 55.3 373.2 362.5 10.6 75.0 8.66 -5.0
6.2.3 Launch Vehicle
The capability of a launch vehicle to launch a lunar polar volatiles mission is briefly
discussed in this section. A cursory extrapolation of the payload capability of the Atlas V launch
vehicle (551 series), for example, shows that a ~5400 kg payload can be delivered to an apogee
radius equal to that of the Moon’s orbit around Earth, per the Atlas V payload user’s guide (66).
However, this is from a low Earth orbit with an inclination of 27 degrees from Cape Canaveral Air
Force Station (CCAFS) in Florida and a transfer orbit perigee altitude of 185 km. Recall that the
318
trajectory used in this research assumed a transfer orbit perigee of 150 km and an orbit
inclination of 20.95 degrees. Thus, a plane change of 6.05 degrees would be required at some
point prior to the start of the lunar transfer burn (provided by the Centaur upper stage). The
plane change Delta-V from a 150 km altitude circular low Earth orbit is 0.824 km/s, whereas
from a 185 km altitude orbit it is 0.823 km/s, a difference of only 1 m/s.
NASA has made publicly available a Launch Vehicle Performance website, provided by
its Launch Services Program, from which the payload capability to transfer from a 185 km
perigee altitude (at an orbit inclination of 20.95 degrees) to the lunar vicinity can be estimated
(67). Using this tool, a plot of payload mass vs. transfer orbit apogee altitude can be generated,
as shown in Figure 6-27 below. This plot shows the payload curve for two Atlas V variants: the
401 (4m payload fairing, 0 to 3 solid rocket boosters) and the 551 (5m payload fairing, 0 to 5
solid rocket boosters). Assuming the plot can be linearly extrapolated beyond the limit of
100,000 km perigee altitude, out to the lunar vicinity, the payload capability can be estimated.
For the Atlas V 551, the extrapolated payload capability to the Moon is 2922.3 kg. Since the total
launch mass for the heaviest lander/rover candidate design is 1462.8 kg, it seems feasible that
the Atlas V 551 can loft this payload to the Moon. Further analysis is needed to determine the
Atlas V payload launch capability to the Moon from a 150 km transfer orbit perigee instead of
185 km. This analysis can also be extended to the Delta IV and Falcon 9 launch vehicles.
319
Figure 6-27. Atlas V payload mass vs. Apogee altitude
6.3 INFEASIBLE DESIGN CONFIGURATIONS
As mentioned in Section 6.1, there were 140 infeasible designs out of the 240 that were
run. The reason for infeasibility is that the BB1 solution algorithm reached the user-defined
search limit of 100 km for the initial de-orbit altitude h0. The particular value of 100 km exists
because the GMAT trajectory design ends with the spacecraft stack entering a 100 km circular
low lunar orbit (LLO). To increase this Descent & Landing search limit to, say, 150 km would
require designing a new GMAT trajectory to target an LLO of 150 km.
The range of infeasible total launch masses ranges from ~1200 kg to just over 4000 kg,
as the plot of total launch mass vs. configuration run order shows below in Figure 6-28.
320
Figure 6-28. Infeasible design total launch mass vs combination run order
Since the reason for infeasibility in the above designs is that the Descent & Landing
design module ran out of viable h0 search space, an analysis of the D&L results was performed.
Figure 6-29 shows a plot of infeasible de-orbit altitude h0 vs. total launch mass. As expected, the
de-orbit altitude h0 sits at 100 km in all cases, as that was the upper limit of the search space. In
addition, it is interesting to note that the cases involve configurations that use all 3 available
Propulsion primary engines: the TR-312-100YN, R-42, and HiPAT Dual Mode engines. The first
two options were found in the feasible design results; however, the HiPAT engine was not. So,
this means that all HiPAT engine configurations resulted in infeasible designs. The HiPAT engine
has the lowest mass flow rate of all 3 engine options. Of the 140 infeasible designs, 80 used the
HiPAT engine, 12 used the TR-312-100YN, and 48 used the R-42.
321
Figure 6-29. Infeasible designs solved h0 vs. total launch mass
These infeasible cases also all stayed at 6 engines when the 100 km limit of h0 was
reached, per the following plot of the number of D&L engines required vs. combination run
order.
Figure 6-30. Infeasible design # engines vs. combination run order
322
The total configuration run time for all infeasible cases varied from ~1.1 minutes up to
6.84 minutes (4 cases above the 6-minute mark). This time represents the duration that the
MASS tool ran in each configuration until a design infeasibility condition was reached. The near
7 minute cases represent configurations in which several system iterations were achieved
before design infeasibility was reached. That is, the designs were considered feasible until the
very last system iteration.
Figure 6-31. Infeasible design total configuration run time vs. combination run order
When the infeasible design total configuration run time is plotted again total launch
mass, as shown in Figure 6-32, it can be seen that the total run time remains below 2.25 minutes
for all configurations with total launch mass < 2000 kg, then there is a spike just after the 2000
kg mark past 6 minutes, followed by another grouping between 3000 and 4000 kg in which the
run time varies between 2 and 5 minutes. According to Figure 6-33, the spike around 2000 kg
total launch mass involved cases reaching up to 13 iterations (2 cases) before design infeasibility
was reached.
323
Figure 6-32. Infeasible design total configuration run time vs. total launch mass
Figure 6-33. Infeasible design total # convergence iterations (until infeasibility) vs. total launch mass
The two cases reaching 13 iterations (configuration 5967 and 6111) are of interest. The
MASS GUI for both these cases are displayed below in Figure 6-34 and Figure 6-35. In both of
these cases, it appears that the iterations were on the way to converging if only there were
324
additional search space in h0. Although these cases do not represent the highest total mass
configurations, they do represent an interesting set of data points in studying the iteration
behavior of infeasible designs.
Figure 6-34. MASS GUI for infeasible system configuration 5967
325
According to Figure 6-36, a plot of total launch mass vs. final landed mass, it can be seen
that the handful of large run time cases near 2000 kg total launch mass appear to be
configurations using the TR-312-100YN liquid apogee engine and the HiPAT engine. The
infeasible designs near the high total launch mass end of the plot appear to use the R-42 high
mass flow rate engine. Most of the infeasible designs on the low total launch mass end of the
plot appear to use the HiPAT engine.
Figure 6-36. Infeasible design total launch mass vs. final landed mass (by engine family)
When the same data is plotted by groupings of the Propulsion tank material type, as
shown in Figure 6-37 below, it can be seen that the majority of infeasible designs appear to use
metal tanks (in this case Aluminum). Overall, 48 of the 148 infeasible cases (or 34.3%) involved
use of composite Propulsion system tanks, and 92 (or 65.7%) involved use of metal tanks.
326
Figure 6-37. Infeasible design total launch mass vs. final landed mass (by Prop tank material family)
Plotting the same data by Rover power source shows that all 3 power sources are
represented among the infeasible designs (fuel cell at the lower final landed mass end, and RPS
at the upper final landed mass end).
Figure 6-38. Infeasible design total launch mass vs. final landed mass (by Rover power source)
327
Finally, the MASS GUI for the highest total launch mass infeasible configuration (5782 at
4020.3 kg) is shown below. This GUI clearly shows that the total lander mass is diverging by the
time the 5th system iteration is in progress, at which point the design becomes infeasible.
7 CONCLUSIONS
The goals of the research presented in this dissertation were two-fold: 1) to evaluate
multiple candidate designs for a lunar polar volatiles rover mission, and 2) to develop a
spacecraft design tool to generate these numerous candidate designs. These objectives were
both met at the conclusion of this research. This section summarizes the overall design results,
including the performance of the design tool itself, and draws several conclusions.
In an effort to obtain multiple candidate designs for a lunar polar volatiles mission, a
design tool named the Mission and Spacecraft Sizing (MASS) tool was developed. In this tool,
subsystem design modules were built to estimate the mass and power required of each
subsystem. A science payload of 30 kg and 100 W peak power was assumed. This payload was
328
assumed to be housed on the rover, and the rover housed on the lander. The lander was
assumed to perform standard spacecraft functions as well as perform the Descent & Landing
maneuvers to soft land on the Moon.
The development of the MASS tool itself was an exercise in investigating an approach to
the multi-disciplinary design problem, as applied to a lunar lander mission. This approach
utilized a sequential design of the spacecraft subsystems, with iteration required at the system
level to attain design convergence (or not). The tool was developed in MATLAB to design a full
system (lander and rover) based on sets of system configuration inputs. These system
configurations represent different combinations of choices for specific spacecraft design
elements (i.e. subsystem technologies) or design parameters. The system configuration inputs
were defined in an Excel-based Mission and Spacecraft Definition (MASD) tool, the final output
being a set of numerous system configuration input .m files (for ingestion into the MATLAB-
based MASS tool).
Although 7920 system configuration inputs were generated, it was decided to run a
smaller subset given that the total time required to run all configurations in MASS was
extensive. This subset was identified by accepting configurations that used helium propellant for
the RCS pressurant, filtering those that used one of 3 representative bi-propellant main engines
(at low, medium, and high mass flow rate), and filtering those that used either low or high
efficiency rover power systems.
The process of defining numerous system configurations and running them through a
design tool resulted in the successful generation of numerous designs. That is, the operation of
the MASS tool demonstrated that a sequential-iterative approach can result in design
convergence. Some of the designs were infeasible (because of invalid Descent & Landing phase
329
solutions), while the remaining designs were considered feasible due to their ability to converge
in total system launch mass. The results of these design runs were analyzed to down-select from
the set of feasible designs down to 3 candidate designs: a solar-powered rover mission, an RPS-
powered rover mission, and a fuel cell-powered rover mission.
A general summary of the findings of the MASS tool design runs of the lunar polar
volatiles rover system configurations is provided next:
 Feasible designs:
o 240 system configurations were run in the MASS tool, which required almost 7
hours of run time.
o Of the 240 configurations run in the MASS tool, 41.7% were feasible (100) and
58.3% were infeasible (140).
o For the feasible designs, the total converged launch mass varied between 880.8
kg and 3262.8 kg.
o There were no feasible designs that used the low mass flow rate engine, HiPAT
Dual Mode Liquid Apogee thruster. Only the medium mass flow rate TR-312-
100YN engine and maximum mass flow rate R-42 engines had feasible system
designs.
o The low mass flow rate TR-312-100YN engine can achieve de-orbit for braking
burn 1 at lower altitudes than the high mass flow rate R-42 engine can.
o The two feasible design engines show two distinct families when total launch
mass is plotted against final landed mass: a low mass family (corresponding to
the low mass flow rate engine) and a high mass family (corresponding to the
high mass flow rate engine).
330
o Both metal and composite Propulsion tanks were featured in the feasible
designs.
o Designs for all 3 Rover power source were represented in the set of feasible
designs.
o There are 5 distinct total Rover masses in the set of feasible designs, ranging
from 74.3 kg (fuel cell powered) to 183 kg (RPS-powered).
o All feasible designs required 6 engines.
o The run time per configuration varied from ~3.1 minutes to 7.3 minutes, or 7
iterations to 15 iterations.
o The average system iteration run time varied between ~26 and 32 seconds.
o For the rover, the largest contributors to the average system iteration run time
were Telecom and Power, whereas for the Lander the largest contributors were
Telecom and ADCS. This was in general followed by the Descent & Landing
design module, which took between 2.4 and 5.4 seconds, depending on final
landed mass and the main engine in use.
 Infeasible designs:
o The infeasible designs were marked so as a result of exhausting the BB1 h0
solution search space (in many cases after up to 13 iterations). Some of these
designs would have been feasible had more search space been available, while
the rest just did not converge in total system launch mass.
o The range of infeasible non-converged total launch mass ranged from 1200 kg
to just over 4000 kg.
331
o The infeasible designs included configurations that used each of the 3 available
engine options. All low mass flow rate HiPAT engine configurations were
infeasible.
o The total run time per configuration (until design infeasibility was reached)
varied between 1.1 minutes up to 6.84 minutes (between 1 and 13 system
iterations).
o About 65.7% of the infeasible designs used metal Propulsion system tanks on
the lander, whereas 34.3% used composite tanks.
o All 3 rover power source options were present in the infeasible designs
Overall, this research has demonstrated that a space mission concept can be designed
using an automated sequential-iterative approach—that is, this approach does result in feasible
(converged) design cases. This mission & system design tool can be used to design a couple
hundred configurations within a few hours, although potentially thousands of configurations can
be designed with sufficient time and computing resources. Although thousands of
configurations may be possible, it may not be necessary to run them all to get reasonable
results, as the bounding cases in terms of technology characteristics can be used to filter out the
intermediate configurations. If it is desired to run all possible system configurations, this
suggests a need to reduce the total run time per configuration.
The ability to successfully use such a tool is directly related to both the total run time
per configuration and the fidelity of the subsystem design modules. First, the run time per
system iteration itself depends on the complexity of the algorithms used in each subsystem
design module (or other sizing module, such as Descent & Landing), as more complex modules
can translate into longer run time per module. For example, the Telecom design module
332
included several for loops that cost significant run time per system iteration. The Descent &
Landing module came in second place, in general, in terms of run time per system iteration.
Efforts to reduce the run time of each module, such as Telecom and Descent & Landing, would
be beneficial in that that more of the system configurations could be run in a given amount of
time and given set of computing resources.
Second, the fidelity of the sizing algorithms in each subsystem or landing module
determines the level of confidence in the design results. More mature algorithms are expected
to produce results with higher fidelity, whereas less mature algorithms will have more
uncertainty in the results. However, the fidelity of the sizing algorithms is also tied to the run
time, as more complex algorithms (especially those that use loops extensively) in general
require more run time. Thus, there is a balance between algorithm complexity and run time that
can and should be achieved.
Lastly, the 3 candidate designs generated by the design tool show that 3 unique
missions are possible: 1) a solar-powered rover that can explore a sunlit region at the lunar
South Pole (possibly including brief excursions into a nearby permanently-shadowed region); 2)
a radioisotope-powered rover (using an ASRG) that can exclusively explore a permanently-
shadowed region; and 3) a fuel cell-powered rover that can explore a permanently-shadowed
region. The fuel cell-powered rover, in particular, represents a new concept for a lunar polar
volatiles mission, and for a space mission in general.
333
8 FUTURE WORK
8.1 DESIGN APPROACH
The method developed in this research to select candidate lunar rover spacecraft
system designs can be generalized to any particular class of space mission. The approach can be
adopted for any landed mission. These missions could include, for example, other lunar surface
missions with different propulsive technology to reach the Moon (e.g. low-thrust trajectories to
reach low lunar orbit, or weak stability boundary methods), or lunar ascent missions (such as
lunar sample return). A lunar ascent mission would require an additional Ascent & Orbit design
module to design the ascent phase of the mission, along with a return-to-Earth trajectory
designed by some trajectory software. Similarly, a Europa lander could also be designed using
the method outlined in this research, where the mass of shielding needed to protect the
lander’s electronics from Jupiter’s intense radiation field would need to be estimated. Mars
missions with landers and rovers could also be designed using this method, but would have to
include a method for designing the Entry, Descent, and Landing (EDL) subsystem (thermal
protection system, aero-shell, parachutes, descent rockets, etc.) as well the EDL trajectory.
The approach outlined in this research could also apply to non-landed missions as well,
such as flyby missions and traditional orbital missions. In those cases, the spacecraft structure
design module would need to be re-designed to support structural loads expected in a free-
flying spacecraft. The orbital phase of such missions, in which science is typically conducted,
would also require more detail in the subsystem design modules in terms of power modes for
334
science observations, attitude control for pointing science instruments at planet ground targets,
and telecommunications links.
Apart from adapting the sequential-iterative design approach used in this research for
other deep space missions, the approach itself could be modified slightly. For example, a simpler
method of estimating subsystem masses than used in this research could be explored. In this
research, some of the subsystem design modules relied on component databases to estimate
subsystem mass (Telecom, ADCS, Propulsion, Power), whereas others relied on simpler mass
estimating relationships (CDS mass based on complexity, Thermal mass based on mass fraction),
or more complex methods (Structures sizing based on structural loads). Instead of this mixture
of mass estimating methods, all the subsystem design modules could use mass estimating
relationships (MERs) based on driving parameter inputs to estimate subsystem mass. This could
significantly reduce the run time per subsystem module, the total run time per system iteration,
and thus the total run time until convergence per system configuration. The use of MERs was
not explored in this research due to the lack of publicly available historical system and
subsystem mass data (as much of this data is proprietary or considered export-sensitive).
Alternatively, all subsystem design modules could be component-based—although this would
require maintenance of the component databases to remove obsolete technology or add newly
developed technology.
The sequential/serial-iterative approach used in this research employed one particular
subsystem design module ordering: Telecom, CDS, ADCS, Propulsion, Thermal, Structures,
Power. However, given that there are 7 subsystems modeled, they can be ordered in 7! = 5040
ways (permutation without repetition). More investigation of various subsystem orderings could
335
be done to determine if there is a converged mass dependency on order, or whether some
orderings produce the converged design in fewer system iterations.
Another improvement to the current method would be to improve the run time per
system iteration by reducing key subsystem run times. This would enable faster system
configuration design run times and so more configurations could be run in a given time period.
In this research, the Telecom and Descent & Landing design modules took the most run time. If
a way to perform the design of both these modules (along with the other subsystem design
modules) in, say, a total of 5 seconds per system iteration, then the 7920 configuration
combinations initially identified could be run on a single MATLAB instance in less than 7 days
(assuming 15 system iterations per converged design) instead of the expected 41 days.
Another way to reduce the total run time per configuration would be to investigate the
use of MATLAB’s Parallel Processing toolbox. This toolbox could potentially enable runs of
thousands of system configuration. The Parallel Processing toolbox could be combined with
calling multiple instances of MATLAB to reduce the total run time for thousands of
configurations even further.
The validity of the design results could also be assessed by comparing the design results
of certain point designs to those obtained in other tools (using the same set of
mission/spacecraft assumptions and requirements). This would help validate the correctness of
the design results and also validate the sizing algorithms used in the tools.
Finally, the overall sequential/serial subsystem design architecture could be compared
against a parallel subsystem design architecture. This would require use of a different
programming language than MATLAB that allows parallel execution of subsystem design
336
modules (such as C or C++). This comparison would help identify which method is faster in
overall run time when attempting to perform thousands of designs.
8.2 LUNAR POLAR VOLATILES MISSION
Aside from the specifics of the design approach taken in this research, additional
research can be conducted into the lunar polar volatiles mission that was explored. For example,
a more detailed characterization of the instrument payload could be performed, such as the
science observation power profile on the lunar surface to improve the rover power subsystem
design. This power profile implies that a more in-depth study of the surface mission, including
comparing different mission durations and the impact on the rover power system design, could
be performed. Also, the thermal subsystem design of the instruments could be investigated
further to ensure they can all operate in the cold environment of the permanently-shadowed
craters.
Other trajectory approaches to reaching the Moon than a chemical propulsion-driven
ballistic trajectory could also be explored. For example, use of an optimal low-thrust trajectory
could be investigated as a way to reduce the overall system mass to deliver the heaviest rover
configuration to the Moon. Another alternative could be the use of weak stability boundary
theory to produce a ballistic trajectory that takes advantage of solar and lunar gravitational
perturbations. This could reduce the Delta-V for a trajectory to the Moon by up to 222 m/s (68).
Lastly, the use of a relay satellite in a suitable orbit about the Moon could be explored
as another way for the lunar rover to communicate with the Earth. This telecommunications
architecture would require the design of the relay satellite orbit, as via a separate trajectory
design software package, or by incorporating orbital mechanics equations into the MASS tool to
337
identify the best relay satellite orbit for the lunar rover telecom equipment and relay link data
rates. Another relay option could be a relay satellite sitting in a halo orbit at the Earth-Moon
Lagrange Point 1 (L1). This type of relay satellite has been studied as pole-sitters, or satellites
that are visible from the lunar poles (69). This would also require a trajectory design for the
pole-sitting relay satellite, which would have to be incorporated into the MASS tool.
338
9 BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. National Research Council. Visions and Voyages for Planetary Science in the Decade 2013-
2022. Washington, D.C. : National Academies Press, 2011.
2. Steinfeldt, Bradley. The Multidisciplinary Design Problem as a Dynamical System. Atlanta, GA :

Georgia Institute of Technology, 2013.
3. The Behavior of Volatiles on the Lunar Surface. Watson, Kenneth, Murray, Bruce C and Brown,
Harrison. 9, s.l. : Journal of Geophysical Research, 1961, Vol. 66.
4. Stacy, N. J. S., Campbell, D. B. and Ford, P. G. Arecibo Radar Mapping of the Lunar Poles.
Science. 1997, 276.
5. LCROSS Results Released. LCROSS Mission. [Online] NASA, October 21, 2010. [Cited:
November 24, 2012.] http://lcross.arc.nasa.gov/observation.htm.
6. 'Significant Amount' of Water Found on Moon. Space.com. [Online] November 13, 2009.
[Cited: November 24, 2012.] http://www.space.com/7530-significant-amount-water-
moon.html.
7. Paige, David. Recent Results: Thermal. New Approaches to Lunar Ice Detection and Mapping
Workshop Short Course. Pasadena, CA : Keck Institute for Space Studies, 2013.
8. Zuber, Maria T., et. al. Constraints on the Volatile Distribution within Shackleton crater at the
Lunar South Pole. Nature. 2012, Vol. 486.
9. John's Hopkins Univeristy Applied Physics Lab. Gamma Ray and Neutron Spectometer.
Messenger Education and Public Outreach. [Online] [Cited: September 26, 2016.]
http://www.messenger-education.org/instruments/grns.php.
10. McClanahan, Tim. Recent Results: Neutrons. New Approaches to Lunar Ice Detection and
Mapping Workshop Short Course. Pasadena, CA : Keck Institute for Space Studies, 2013.
11. Neish, Catherine. Radar Observations at the Lunar Poles. New Approaches to Lunar Ice
Detection and Mapping Workshop Short Course. Pasadena, CA : Keck Institute for Space Studies,
2013.
12. Colaprete, Anthony. Recent Results: LCROSS. New Approaches to Lunar Ice Detection and
Mapping Workshop. Pasadena, CA : Keck Institute for Space Studies, 2013.
13. Ingersoll, Andrew. Volatiles on Airless Bodies. New Approaches to Lunar Ice Detection and
Mapping Workshop Short Course. Pasadena, CA : Keck Institute for Space Studies (KISS), 2013.
339
14. Luna, Michael. System Architecture and Mission Design for a Science Rover Mission to the
Lunar South Pole, Ph.D. Qualification Exam Paper. Los Angeles : s.n., 2012.
15. Nair, Avinash. ISRO to deliver "eyes and ears" of Chandrayaan-2 by 2015-end. The Indian
Express. [Online] May 31, 2015. [Cited: September 23, 2016.]
http://indianexpress.com/article/technology/science/sac-to-deliver-eyes-and-ears-of-
chandrayaan-2-by-2015-end/.
16. Zak, Anatoly. Lunny-Poligon. Russian Space Web. [Online] August 19, 2014. [Cited:
September 23, 2016.] http://www.russianspaceweb.com/lunny_poligon.html.
17. Surrey Space Centre. Exploration Missions. Surrey Space Centre. [Online] [Cited: September
23, 2016.] http://www.surrey.ac.uk/ssc/activity/exploration/index.htm.
18. Google Lunar X-Prize Teams. Google Lunar X-Prize. [Online] [Cited: September 23, 2016.]
http://lunar.xprize.org/teams.
19. RESOLVE Mission Architecture for Lunar Resource Prospecting and Utilization. George, J. A.,
et. al. Woodlands, TX : 43rd Lunar and Planetary Science Conference, 2012.
20. ESA strategy for human exploration and the Lunar Lander Mission. Gardini, Bruno. 422, s.l. :
Italian Astronomical Society, 2011, Vol. 82.
21. Conceptual Design Methods and Application of a Trade Space Modeling Tool for Deep Space
Missions. Jones, Melissa A. and Chase, James P. Big Sky, MT : IEEE, 2007. Aerospace Conference.
22. Hoag, Lucy M. A Declarative Design Approach to Modeling Traditional and Non-Traditional
Space Systems. Los Angeles, CA : University of Southern California, 2014.
23. Framework for the Parametric System Modeling of Space Exploration Architectures. Komar,
David, et al. San Diego, CA : AIAA, 2008. AIAA SPACE 2008 Conference & Exposition.
24. Arney, Dale Curtis. Dissertation: Rule-based Graph Theory to Enable Exploration of the Space
System Architecture Design Space. s.l. : Georgia Institute of Technology, 2012.
25. Vago, J. L. ExoMars: ESA's Mission to Search for Signs of Life. Phoenix, AZ : Planetary Science
Decadal Survey: Mars Panel Meeting, 2009.
26. Ball, Andrew J and Garry, James R. C. Planetary Landres and Entry Probes. Cambridge, UK :
Cambridge University Press, 2007.
27. Selex Galileo. Subsurface Exploration of Planetary Bodies. UK : Selex Galileo/European Space
Agency, 2010.
28. LunarVader: Development and Testing of a Lunar Drill in a Vacuum Chamber an in the Lunar
Analog Site of Antarctica. Zacny, Kris and al., et. s.l. : Journal of Aerospace Engineering, 2013.
340
29. Zacny, Kris. Email on LunarVader drill. Pasadena, CA : Honeybee Robotics, 2012.
30. Wertz, James R. Larson, Wiley J. Spacecraft Mission Analysis and Design. El Segundo, CA :
Microcosm Press, 1999.
31. Imbriale, William A. and Yuen, Editor: Joseph H. Deep Space Communications and Navigation
Series: Large Antennas of the Deep Space Network. Pasadena : NASA Jet Propulsion Laboratory,
2002. Vol. 4.
32. JPL TMOD. DSMS Telecommunications Link Design Handbook 810-005, Rev D. Pasadena : Jet
Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology, 2000.
33. Imbriale, William A. JPL Deep Space Communications and Navigation Series (DESCANSO)
Volume 4: Large Antennas of the Deep Space Network. Pasadena, CA : NASA JPL, 2002.
34. Wertz, James R., Everett, David F., Puschell, Jeffery J. Space Mission Engineering: The New
SMAD. Hawthorne, CA : Microcosm Press, 2011.
35. Fortescue, Peter, Stark, John and Swinerd, Graham, ed. Spacecraft Systems Engineering.
West Sussex, England : John Wiley & Sons, 2003.
36. Gruntman, Mike. Spacecraft Design. Los Angeles : University of Southern California, 2004.
37. Wertz, James R., editor. Spacecraft Attitude Determination and Control. Dordrecht, Holland :
D. Reidel Publishing Company, 2002.
38. De Ruiter, Anton H.J, Damare, Christopher, J and Forbes, James R. Spacecraft Dynamics and
Control: An Introduction. Chichester, West Sussex, United Kingdom : John Wiley & Sons, 2013.
39. MacDonald, Tom. Personal Email from Adcole Corporation. Sun Sensor Data. 2013.
40. Wertz, James R, editor. Spacecraft Attitude Determination and Control. Dordrecht, Holland :
D. Reidel Publishing Company, 2002.
41. Sidi, Marcel J. Spacecraft Dynamics & Control: A Practical Engineering Approach. Cambridge,
United Kingdom : Cambridge University Press, 1997.
42. Patel, Mukund R. Spacecraft Power Systems. Boca Raton, FL : CRC Press, 2005.
43. Vision and Voyages for Planetary Science in the Decade 2013-2022. Washington D.C. :
National Resarch Council/National Academies Press, 2011.
44. Haskins, Celia, ed. INCOSE Systems Engineering Handbook. San Diego, CA : INCOSE, 2011.
45. Alvidrez, Frank. USC SAE 541 Course Lecture 1 Slides. Los Angeles, CA : USC Viterbi School of
Engineering, 2012.
341
46. Volatile Analysis by Pyrolysis of Regolith for Planetary Resource Exploration. Glavin, Daniel P.,
et al. s.l. : IEEE Aerospace Conference, 2012.
47. Shearer, Chip and Tahu, George. Lunar Polar Volatiles Explorer Mission Concept Study. s.l. :
MSFC/JHUAPL, 2006.
48. Sanin, Anton. Which Spot on the Moon has the Highest Content of Hydrogen? Washington,
D.C. : Lunar and Planetary Institute: Lunar Exploration Analysis Group (LEAG), 2010.
49. Mitrofanov, I.G., et al. Hydrogen Mapping of the Lunar South Pole Using the LRO Neutron
Detector Experiment LEND. Science Magazine. 2010, Vol. 330.
50. Autonomous Landing and Hazard Avoidance Technology (ALHAT). Epp, Chirold D., Robertson,
Edward A., Brady, Tye. Big Sky, MT : Proceeding of the IEEE Aerospace Conference 2008, 2008.
51. Bate, Roger R., Mueller, Donald D. and White, Jerry E. Fundamentals of Astrodynamics. New
York, NY : Dover Publications, Inc, 1971.
52. Kok, Ibrahim. Comparison and Analysis of Attitude Control Systems of a Satellite Using
Reaction Wheel Actuators, Master's Thesis. Kiruna, Sweden : Lulea University of Technology,
2012.
53. Genta, Giancarlo. Introduction to the Mechanics of Space Robotics. New York : Springer,
2012.
54. Sarafin, Thomas P. Spacecraft Structures and Mechanisms. Torrance, CA : Microcosm Press
and Kluwer Academic Publishers, 1995.
55. efunda.com. Plate Theory Calculator. efunda.com. [Online] [Cited: September 16, 2016.]
https://www.efunda.com/formulae/solid_mechanics/plates/calculators/CCCC_PUniform.cfm.
56. Patnaik, Surya N., Hopkins, Dale A. and Halford, Gary R. Integrated Force Method Solution to
Indeterminate Structural Mechanics Problems. Brook Park, OH : NASA, 2004.
57. Barbir, Frano. PEM Fuel Cells. London, UK : Elsevier Academic Press, 2005.
58. Optimal Descent Guidance Logic to Achieve a Soft Lunar Touchdown, Proceedings of the AIAA
Guidance, Navigation, and Control Conference. Lee, Alan Y. Portland, OR : NASA JPL, 2011.
59. Parsley, Joseph. Near-Optimal Feedback Guidance for an Accurate Lunar Landing.
Tuscaloosa, AL : University of Alabama, 2012.
60. Aerojet. Aerojet 2011-H-4232 Datasheet. Redmond, WA : Aerojet, 2011.
61. Northrop Grumman. Northrop Grumman Bipropellant Engines and Thrusters. Northrop
Grumman Capabilities. [Online] [Cited: January 15, 2013.]
342
http://www.northropgrumman.com/Capabilities/PropulsionProductsandServices/Pages/Biprop
ellantEnginesAndThrusters.aspx.
62. Resource Management and Contingencies in Aerospace Concurrent Engineering, AIAA-2012-

5273. Karpati, Gabriel, et al. Pasadena, CA : AIAA Space 2012 Conference & Exposition, 2012.
63. Zak, Anatoly. Luna Glob Lander. Russian Space Web. [Online] October 8, 2015. [Cited:
October 6, 2016.] http://www.russianspaceweb.com/luna_glob_lander.html.
64. Wikipedia. Chandrayaan-2. Wikipedia. [Online] [Cited: October 6, 2016.]

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chandrayaan-2.
65. Chavers, Greg, et al. Robotic Lunar Landers for Science and Exploration. Huntsville, AL : NASA
MSFC/JHUAPL, 2010.
66. United Launch Alliance. Atlas V Payload User's Guide. Centennial, CO : United Launch
Alliance, 2010.
67. NASA. Performance Query. Launch Vehicle Performance Website. [Online] [Cited: October 6,
2016.] https://elvperf.ksc.nasa.gov/Pages/Query.aspx.
68. An Investigation into Critical Aspects of a New Form of Low Energy Lunar Transfer, the
Belbruno-Miller Trajectories, AIAA-92-4581-CP. Krish, V., Belbruno, E. A. and Hollister, W. M.
Hilton Head Island, SC : AIAA, 1992.
69. Multibody Orbit Architectures for Lunar South Pole Coverage. Grebow, Daniel J., Ozimek,
Martin Ti. and Howell, Kathleen C. 2, s.l. : Journal of Spacecraft and Rockets, 2008, Vol. 45.
70. Wikipedia. Orbit of the Moon. Wikipedia. [Online] July 17, 2008. [Cited: October 4, 2016.]
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orbit_of_the_Moon.
71. Roncoli, Ralph B. Lunar Constants and Models Document. Pasadena : JPL D-32296, 2005.
72. C. N. Guiar, F. L. Lansing. Antenna Pointing Systematic Error Model Derivations. Pasadena :
Jet Propulsion Laboratory, 1986.
73. Wikipedia. Multi-Mission Radioisotope Thermoelectric Generator. Wikipedia. [Online] [Cited:

September 30, 2012.] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multi-
Mission_Radioisotope_Thermoelectric_Generator.
74. Space Radioisotope Power Systems: Multi-Mission Radioisotope Thermoelectric Generator.

[Online] U.S Department of Energy (DoE), 2006. [Cited: October 1, 2012.]
http://www.ne.doe.gov/pdffiles/MMRTG_Jan2008.pdf.
75. NASA Glenn Technology. www.nasa.gov. [Online] NASA Glenn. [Cited: October 16, 2012.]
http://www.nasa.gov/centers/glenn/technology/fuel_cells.html.
343
76. H2O2-Based Fuel Cells for Space Power Systems. Luo, Nie, et al. 3, s.l. : Journal of Propulsion
and Power, 2008, Vol. 24.
77. NASA. Stirling Converter Technology. Radioisotope Power Systems. [Online] NASA. [Cited:
September 13, 2016.] https://solarsystem.nasa.gov/rps/asrg.cfm.
344
10 APPENDICES
APPENDIX A: CHARACTERISTICS OF THE MOON
Appendix A1: Lunar Orbital Characteristics
In the design of a simple patched conic trajectory to the Moon, the Moon’s orbit is
usually assumed circular with a radius of rm = 384,400 km. In the real world, however, the
Moon’s orbit is somewhat eccentric. In fact, the Moon’s orbital elements vary over time as a
result of perturbations from various sources (Sun, planets, etc.). The following is a description of
the classical orbital elements of the Moon’s orbit about the Earth. Figure 10-1 illustrates the
Moon’s orbital geometry.
 Semi major axis: the mean semi-major axis of the Moon’s orbit about Earth is
am = 384,400 km, resulting in a mean sidereal period of 27.317 days, varying by as much as 7-hrs
due to solar perturbations. The period of the Moon about the Earth with respect to the Sun,
known as the synodic period, is almost 2 days longer at 29.531 days. As such, the synodic period
is the time between full Moons as viewed from Earth or the time between lunar sunrises as
viewed from the lunar surface.
 Eccentricity: the mean eccentricity of the Moon’s orbit about Earth is em =
0.0549, varying over a period of 31.8 days due to solar perturbations.
 Inclination: the mean inclination of the Moon’s orbit about Earth with respect to
the ecliptic plane is nearly constant at 5.13 degrees, varying between 4.99 degrees and 5.3 deg.
However, given that the Earth’s equator is inclined 23.45 degrees with respect to the ecliptic,
the Moon’s inclination with respect to the Earth’s equator will vary between a maximum of 5.13
345
+ 23.45 = 28.58 degrees (when the ascending node aligns with the direction of vernal equinox)
and a minimum of 23.45 – 5.13 = 18.32 degrees (when the descending node aligns with vernal
equinox).
 Longitude of the Ascending Node: This variation, oscillating between ±13
degrees relative to the vernal equinox, occurs with a period of 18.6 years.
 Argument of Perigee: the lunar line of apsides, and thus argument of perigee,
rotates a full 360 degrees within the mean orbit plane every 8.9 years.
Figure 10-1. Moon Orbital and Equatorial Inclination (70)
The Moon is gravitationally locked in its orbit about the Earth. This results in a
synchronous rotation of the Moon. That is, the Moon rotates 360 degrees about its axis in
nearly the same time it completes one full orbital revolution about the Earth (the sidereal orbital
period). This means that the same side (the near side) always faces the Earth, while the opposite
side (far side) is not visible from Earth.
346
At any given time, only 50% of the surface of the Moon is visible from Earth. However, a
phenomenon known as lunar libration allows about 59% of the Moon’s surface to be seen from
Earth. Libration is an apparent “rocking motion” that affects the amount of the lunar surface
visible from the Earth over time. This apparent lunar libration has three components:
1) A libration in latitude due to the ~6.7 degrees inclination of the Moon’s equator
with respect to its orbital plane. That is, at one point in time the lunar North Pole is tipped
toward Earth, and two weeks later the lunar South Pole is tipped toward Earth. This
geometry is shown in Figure 10-2.
Figure 10-2. Lunar Libration in Latitude (71)
2) A libration in longitude due to the Moon’s orbital eccentricity, wherein 8.16
degrees around each limb of the Moon is visible as a result of the Moon’s uniform rotation
about its axis while in its orbital motion it speeds up at perigee and slows down at apogee.
That is, in the time the moon rotates a full 90 degrees, it has traveled less than 90 degrees
around its orbit. This allows an observer on Earth to see a little bit of the “far side” of the
moon, as depicted in Figure 10-3.
347
Figure 10-3. Lunar Libration in Longitude (71)
3) There is also a physical diurnal libration, in which an observer on Earth views the
Moon from different angles as the Earth rotates. Over a period of 12 hours, the observer
can see almost 2 degrees more of the moon at its limbs (71). This geometry is shown in
Figure 10-4.
Figure 10-4. Physical diurnal libration of Moon as a result of Earth’s rotation (71)
Appendix A2: Lunar Surface Environment
As previously mentioned, the Moon is in synchronous rotation about the Earth, i.e. the
rotation period of the Moon about its axis is the same as its sidereal orbital period of 27.31 days,
as a result gravitational tidal forces between the Earth and Moon. In contrast, the average
length of the Moon’s solar day is the synodic period of 29.531 days. This means that most of the
Moon is bathed in sunlight for approximately half the synodic period, or 14.77 days, a little over
2 weeks. Due to the tilt of 1.543 degrees of the Moon’s axis relative to the ecliptic plane,
348
however, there are regions at the poles that are either bathed in continuous sunlight or
experience continuous shadow. For example, the rim of Shackleton crater at the lunar south
pole experiences sunlight for 80% of the lunar day.
The Moon has only 1.2% the mass of the Earth within a diameter only 27.25% that of
the Earth. Using Newton’s law of gravity, the Moon therefore has surface gravitational
acceleration of 1.62 m/s2 at the lunar equator. This is approximately 1/6th that of the Earth’s
surface gravitational acceleration of 9.81 m/s2. The lunar gravity field, however, is not totally
uniform, as a consequence of lunar mass concentrations, i.e. “mascons”, beneath the surface.
These are due in part to the presence of dense basaltic lava flows within some of the giant
impact basins. The non-uniform lunar gravity field can have significant influence on the orbit of
any spacecraft orbiting the Moon.
The Moon has an extremely thin atmosphere, technically known as a surface boundary
exosphere. This thin atmosphere has a total estimated mass of gases of only 104 kg and a mean
atmospheric pressure of 3x10-15 bar (where 1 bar = 100,000 Pascals = 0.987 atm). As such, for
most intents and purposes, the environment at the Moon’s surface can be considered a
vacuum. The gases in the thin atmosphere come mostly from outgassing from rocks on the lunar
surface and possibly from the lunar interior. These gases are quickly lost to space either due to
energy imparted by solar heating or the magnetic field of the solar wind (for ionized particles).
The following is a list of the gases detected in the thin lunar atmosphere either by Earth-based
spectrometers or instruments on spacecraft: Hydrogen, Helium-4, Sodium, Potassium, Radon-
222, Polonium-210, Argon-40, Oxygen (O2), Methane (CH4), Nitrogen (N2), Carbon monoxide
(CO), Carbon dioxide (CO2). The hydrogen and helium most likely originate from the solar wind,
while argon is likely from the lunar interior (53).
349
As a consequence of the thin atmosphere and the long synodic day, the temperature of
the lunar surface varies widely in both time (from day to night) and location. The average
surface temperature during the day is ~107 degrees Celsius, reaching up to 280 degrees Celsius
at noon on the equator. During the lunar night, the average temperature is -153 degrees Celsius
and can reach as low as -233 degrees Celsius in the permanently-showed polar regions. Below
the surface, the temperature is relatively constant. For example, at 1 m below the surface the
temperature is a constant -35 degrees Celsius. During the lunar day, any objects on the lunar
surface are heated more due to the ground emitting infrared radiation as a result of solar
heating, than due to heating from the Sun itself (53). As for geothermal activity, there has been
photographic evidence of small-scale volcanic activity. If confirmed, this may suggest warm
magma near the surface that could provide a useful energy source for landed surface assets.
The Moon currently lacks a global magnetic field since it does not have an internal
dynamo at its core. Thus, the weak magnetic field that is present at the surface, from 3 nT to
0.33 µT, is local to the crust and may be an effect of giant impacts that occurred on the opposite
side of the Moon.9 There is also a weak external magnetic field at 5-10 nT that comes from the
solar wind.
There are three main types of terrain of the Moon: the relatively flat plains called lunar
maria, lunar highlands, and cratered regions. The lunar near side is covered in area 31.2% by
lunar mare, whereas the far side is bereft of lunar mare at only 2.6%. The lunar mare regions are
thought to be ancient basaltic lava, containing the elements iron, titanium and magnesium.
9
The Earth’s magnetic field, in contrast, ranges from 30-60 µT at the surface, several hundred times
stronger.
350
These ancient plains are believed to have formed by the impact of giant meteoroids that formed
large impact basins. The large mountains found along the periphery of the impact basins are
thought to be the impact rims. The lack of an atmosphere and active geology renders most of
the lunar surface as well preserved. The largest impact crater on the Moon, which is also the
largest in the solar system, is the South Pole Aitken basin on the lunar far side. It has a diameter
of 2240 km and a depth of 13 km.
The lunar surface is covered with a well-mixed layer of soil and rocks called regolith. The
regolith soil consists of pulverized rock grains that resulted from ancient meteoroid impacts.
Using the specimens acquired during the Apollo 11 mission, the grain size distribution is typically
less than 20 µm up to 270 µm. In the lunar mare plains, the regolith layer thickness varies
between 3-5m, whereas in the lunar highlands it is 10-20m. Below this regolith layer lies a layer
of highly fractured bedrock. The regolith itself consists of the following elements: Sulfur, Iron,
Magnesium, Manganese, Calcium, and Nickel. These elements are typically bound in oxides. Of
good source of oxygen is the mineral ilmenite (FeTiO3), typically found in the lunar mare plains.
Other useful elements such as carbon, hydrogen, helium and nitrogen in the regolith were likely
deposited by the solar wind.
The dust grains themselves are electrically charged. This allows them to adhere to
almost anything and can be a hazard for both robotic vehicles, equipment, and astronauts. For
example, the Apollo astronauts reported that lunar dust was brought onboard the lunar
excursion module (LEM) after extravehicular activities (EVAs). The dust consists mostly of silicon
dioxide glass (SiO2) created during ancient meteoroid impacts. Since the dust particles have
jagged shapes, they easily interlock and can pose a health hazard for lunar astronauts if
breathed in. In addition, the charged dust particles fly on parabolic arcs if disturbed and raised
351
from the ground. Disturbance sources can range from rocket engines during landing, rover
wheels, meteoroid impacts, solar ultraviolet radiation, and astronaut boots. Thus, electrostatic
devices on future robotic and crewed lunar missions may be needed to prevent the lunar dust
from contaminating mechanisms and being breathed in by astronauts.
In general, the lunar surface has good bearing capacity for heavy vehicles, habitats, and
other structures. The cohesive bearing strength if 300 Pa on the surface and 3 kPa at 0.2m depth
(53). This is good news for future lunar exploration, although this could make mining and other
construction activities somewhat difficult.
As previously mentioned, it is thought that after its formation the Moon received large
amounts of water from comet impacts. The liquid and solid water at the lunar surface quickly
evaporated. In addition, sunlight splits the water into hydrogen and oxygen, which easily escape
due to the Moon’s weak gravity. It is believed, however, that trapped water ice exists at the
lunar poles in permanently-shadowed craters (see Section 3.1.1 for details).
Radiation on the lunar surface is another concern for lunar vehicles and astronauts. The
thin atmosphere does not provide any protection against direct sunlight, the solar wind, or
cosmic rays. The lack of a global magnetic field also allows radiation through. It turns out that
lunar regolith, however, does provide good radiation protection. Solar wind can only penetrate
about a micron, solar flares can penetrate up to 1 cm, and cosmic rays can penetrate up to a few
meters. Thus, any future lunar habitats will likely need to employ lunar regolith for radiation
protection.
Lastly, although the Moon lacks plate tectonics, moonquakes have been detected. Only
a few moonquakes up to 4 on the Richter scale have been measured. This seismic activity is
attributed to gravitational tidal forces and secondary effects of impacts. Since the Moon itself
352
provides low damping, any seismic activity that does occur can be felt over long distances. Some
have suggested this the good seismic propagation of waves allows for a form of communication
between points on the Moon. However, seismic activity can also lead to collapsed crater walls
and landslides (53).
APPENDIX B: SUBSYSTEMS
Appendix B1: Telecommunications
The uplink communications data rate (direct-from-Earth) depends on the need to
receive the ground-specified spacecraft commands, and a navigation ranging signal from Earth.
The downlink communications data rate (for a direct-to-Earth link) depends on the need to
transmit the following types of data: spacecraft health and safety (H&S) telemetry, science or
user-data, and a re-transmitted ranging signal (offset from the received ranging signal by a pre-
determined ratio).
The downlink data rate can be computed from the telemetry sampling frequency 𝑓𝑠
(samples/sec) times the number of bits per sample 𝑛, to derive the required bits per second
(bps).
𝑅 = 𝑓𝑠 𝑛 Equation 10-1
The sampling frequency (for a digitized signal) must at a minimum meet the Nyquist
criterion, which is a sampling rate twice that of the highest frequency component in the signal.
Following this criterion allows for a theoretical reconstruction of the source analog signal. Other
system considerations, however, limit the sampling frequency to be 2.2 times the maximum
input frequency (30).
353
In addition, the analog signal amplitude must be converted to a digital sample word,
represented by a number of bits per sample 𝑛. For example, an analog-to-digital conversion
process splits the total expected range of the amplitude signal ΔA into M=2n quantization levels.
This results in a quantization step size of ΔV = ΔA/M. The maximum quantization error can then
be found as ±0.5ΔV. Thus, the higher the number of bits per sample (the larger the number of
quantization levels), the lower the quantization error (and more accurate the digital data).
However, the number of bits per sample also depends on the type of mission data: e.g. gray-
scale image data might need 8 bits per sample to properly distinguish shades of gray. The
number of bits per sample also determines the data precision.
To determine the spacecraft health and safety telemetry data rate, the number of
signals N being monitored must be considered. These signals can consist of data such as
voltages, temperatures, currents, status flags, and other derived sensor signals (spacecraft
quaternions, rates, accelerations, position, velocity, etc.). Each of these signals may be sampled
at a different rate, depending on how quickly the data is expected to change (and this sampling
rate can be ground-commandable). Next the number of bits per sample for each signal must be
considered. Finally, we simply add all the data rates for each signal to determine the total health
and safety telemetry data rate.
To determine the command uplink data rate, we must consider the capability of the
ground station or relay satellite and the duration over which the command data must be sent to
the spacecraft. The command uplink rate is usually pretty low for a typical spacecraft.
To size the antenna system onboard the spacecraft, the link budget for the downlink
path from the spacecraft to the ground station must be determined. To do this requires use of
the well-known link equation:
354
𝐸𝑏 𝑃𝑡 𝐿𝑙 𝐺𝑡 𝐿𝑠 𝐿𝑎 𝐺𝑟 Equation 10-2
=
𝑁0 𝑘𝑇𝑠 𝑅
where Pt is the spacecraft transmitter power, Ll is the line loss from the transmitter to antenna,
Gt is the transmit antenna gain, Ls is the propagation space loss, La is the atmospheric
attenuation transmission path loss, Gr is the ground station receiver gain, k is Boltzmann’s
constant, Ts is the system noise temperature of the receiving antenna, and R is the data rate (for
downlink in this case). The result Eb/N0 represents the ratio of received energy-per-bit to noise
density. Typically, an Eb/N0 between 5 and 10 is sufficient to receive data with limited error.
The product of the spacecraft transmitter power, transmitter to antenna line loss, and
transmitter antenna gain is also known as the effective isotopic radiated power, or EIRP:
𝐸𝐼𝑅𝑃 = 𝑃𝑡 𝐿𝑙 𝐺𝑡 Equation 10-3
The same EIRP from a transmitting antenna can be produced using either a low-gain high power
antenna system, or a high-gain low power system.
The transmitting antenna gain Gt, can be calculated from the following equation.
4𝜋𝜂𝐴 Equation 10-4

𝐺𝑡 =
𝜆2
The above equation is for the peak gain. However, the transmitting antenna may be
slightly pointed off from the desired direction such that strength of the beam reaching the
receiving antenna is reduced. In other words, the antenna pointing error leads to reduced
antenna gain. The following equation is an estimate of the gain reduction due to pointing error:
𝑒 2 Equation 10-5
𝐿𝜃 = −12 ( )
𝜃
For DSN antenna pointing, a good rule of thumb is that the pointing error should be 10% of the
3-dB (half-power) antenna full beam-width (72).
The propagation space loss can be calculated from the following equation:
355
𝜆 2 Equation 10-6
𝐿𝑠 = ( )
4𝜋𝑆
where 𝑆 is the propagation distance.
For the atmospheric transmission path loss La, the worst-case atmospheric attenuation
is accounted for assuming the signal passes through the most atmosphere. In reality, the DSN
ground stations (in Goldstone, CA, Madrid, Spain, and Canberra, Australia) vary in altitude from
just over 0.6 to 1.1 km. To simplify the atmospheric transmission path loss, the DSN ground
stations can be assumed to be all at sea level.
The system noise temperature Ts is the sum of two noise sources: those originating
outside the receiver antenna system and those originating within the receiver antenna system.
Noise originating outside the receiver antenna system is known as the antenna noise
temperature Tant. Such noise sources include galactic noise, noise from local weather, solar noise
in the main beam or a sidelobe, Earth noise in a sidelobe, human-made noise, local buildings
and objects, and blockage items in the way of the antenna such as booms and feeds. Noise
originating within the receiver antenna system is caused by transmission lines and filters
(characterized by Lr), and the low-noise amplifier (characterized by the noise figure F).
The system noise temperature can be found using the following equation:
𝑇0 (1 − 𝐿𝑟 ) 𝑇0 (𝐹 − 1) Equation 10-7
𝑇𝑠 = 𝑇𝑎𝑛𝑡 + ( )+( )
𝐿𝑟 𝐿𝑟
The first term is the noise external to the receiving antenna, the second is the
transmission line and filter loss, and the third is the low noise amplifier loss in the receiver. The
parameter T0 is a reference temperature, usually taken as the 290 K.
The link equation itself can be expressed in terms of decibels by taking 10*log10(Eb/N0).
This expands the equation into the following (each term has units of decibels):
356
𝐸𝑏 Equation 10-8
= 𝐸𝐼𝑅𝑃 + 𝐿𝑠 + 𝐿𝑎 + 𝐺𝑟 + 228.6 − 10 log10 𝑇𝑠 − 10 log10 𝑅
𝑁0
In addition to the link equation, one must consider how the signal is modulated and
coded. In modulation, the signal containing data is processed onto a carrier wave. The wave
characteristics that can be modified are amplitude, phase, frequency, and polarization.
Demodulation is the reverse process, where the original signal is deduced from the received
signal. There are many modulation techniques, depending on the application. For digital
modulation, the three general types of modulation are amplitude shift keying (ASK), frequency
shift keying (FSK), and phase shift keying (PSK).
For spacecraft transmitters, two common modulation techniques are binary phase shift
keying (BPSK) and Quadriphased Phase Shift Keying (QPSK). BPSK transmits a binary 0 by setting
the carrier wave phase to 0 deg, and transmits a binary 1 by setting the phase to 180 deg. In
QPSK, four phases are available (0 deg, 90 deg, 180 deg, and 270 deg). Each phase option
transmits two bits.
The DSN exclusively uses coherent digital modulation. Deep space spacecraft have
commonly used binary phase shift keying (BPSK) modulation on the subcarrier for maximum
power capture. Other bandwidth efficient methods have recently been employed, such as QPSK
and offset QPSK.
In demodulating a received signal, the energy per bit (Eb) must be larger than the noise
spectral density (N0). Thus, the required Eb/N0 is specified at a desired bit error rate (BER). The
BER is the probability that an erroneous bit will be received. A typical BER is 1e-5. Often, extra
parity bits are added to the digital signal to allow the receiver to perform limited error
correction, when bit errors caused by noise or interference are present. A famed error
357
correction technique is convolutional coding with Viterbi decoding. In this technique, two error
correction bits are added for each data bit to be transmitted. Since the actual data content is ½
the transmission rate, the coding is termed rate-1/2 convolutional code. When the signal is
received, the demodulated signal data is stored in memory as sequences using the Viterbi
algorithm. The stored sequences are compared with other coded sequences until the most likely
transmitted sequence is found. Viterbi decoding has the advantage of reducing the required
Eb/N0, thereby reducing the required transmission power (30). Another coding technique is
Reed-Solomon coding. In this scheme, the binary signal is coded using a 255-bit code with 32
parity bits (the actual data is encoded in 223 bits). The DSN can accommodate several error
correction codes. Examples include (7, ½) convolutional code with frame-based Reed-Solomon
(255, 223) coding with Viterbi decoding, (15, 1/6) convolutional code, and Turbo codes.
As previously mentioned, the modulation scheme and error coding determines the
required signal to noise ratio (Eb/N0) for a desired bit error rate (BER). For the current rover
mission, a BER of 1e-6 can be achieved at a required Eb/N0 of 5 dB when using BPSK and QPSK
plus R-1/2 Viterbi decoding. Note that the theoretical minimum Eb/N0 possible, known as the
Shannon limit, is -1.6 dB. At any Eb/N0 below this limit, no error-free links can occur (at any data
rate). This is related to the Shannon-Hartley theorem, which determines the maximum data rate
that can be achieved over a transmission with bandwidth B, as shown in the following equation.
𝐶 Equation 10-9
𝑅𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝐵𝑙𝑜𝑔2 (1 + )
𝑁
where B is the transmission channel bandwidth and C/N is the carrier-to-noise power ratio. In
practice, the Shannon limit cannot be reached because of increased complexity in the coding
scheme.
358
Appendix B2: Power
The following sections describe some important aspects of the various power sources
studied in this research, as well as some of the fundamental operational principles.
Solar Arrays
One important consideration in solar array design is the effect of temperature. Consider
low-temperature circuits for a solar array on a rover operating in permanently shadowed
regions (PSRs) at the lunar South Pole (such a rover would could have brief forays into the PSRs
and then return to sunlight areas to recharge the batteries). Such low-temperature circuits
would eliminate the need for isotope heaters, which can result in overheating during launch.
Temperatures within lunar PSRs do not exceed 100 K (-173 C), based on recent LRO Diviner data.
It is known that some semiconductor devices have improved performance down to
temperatures of ~83 K (-190 C), the temperature of liquid nitrogen. The reason is that at such
low temperature, these devices have reduced leakage current and susceptibility to latch-up, as
well as higher operating speed (42).
Radioisotope Power Systems
A radioactive power system (RPS) provides power using the heat of isotopic decay to
generate electricity. An RPS has the potential to provide continuous power throughout a
mission’s operational life. In cases where there is no peak power load, this can even be
accomplished without the need for a battery system. A primary disadvantage, however, is that
electronics near RPS systems require extensive radiation shielding (42).
359
The mass of a radioisotope decays exponentially according to the half-life, T1/2. Since the
decay heat is proportional to the isotopic mass, the thermal power will also decay exponentially,
according to the following equation.
−0.7𝑡 Equation 10-10

𝑇1/2
𝑃(𝑡) = 𝑃0 𝑒
In an RPS system, either a thermoelectric converter (TEC) or dynamic alternator is used
to generate electricity from the heat source. The amount of electrical power generated can be
determined from the conversion efficiency. This efficiency is defined as the ratio of electrical
power produced to thermal power from decay.
RTGs have been used on several NASA missions, from Apollo, Viking, Voyager, Galileo,
Cassini, and Pluto New Horizons. NASA has recently been investing in the development of
advanced radio-isotope power systems with higher efficiency power conversion. Higher
efficiency power conversion requires less radio-isotope fuel than the previous generation of RTG
and improves the specific power10.
The MMRTG program began in June 2003, when the U.S. Department of Energy (DoE)
awarded Boeing the MMRTG contract (through its Rocketdyne Propulsion and Power Division)11.
Boeing and its partner Teledyne Energy Systems developed the MMRTG design based on the
SNAP 19 RTGs, which powered NASA’s Pioneer 10 and 11 spacecraft, as well as the Viking 1 and
2 Mars landers (73).
10
The current practical RPS specific power limit appears to be 10 W/kg.
11
Pratt & Whitney later acquired Rocketdyne Propulsion and Power.
360
The MMRTG can operate in the environment of space as well as the surface of a
planetary body or moon. The MMRTG is powered by 8 plutonium-238 dioxide general purpose
heat source (GPHS) modules, carrying a total of 4.8 kg of Pu-238 dioxide. The MMRTG employs
solid state PbTe/TAGS12 thermoelectric couples to convert the decay heat into electricity. At the
beginning of life, the MMRTG can generate ~2 kW thermal power. The MMRTG can generate a
minimum of 125 W electrical power at 28 V DC (direct current) at the beginning of life, which is
reduced to 100 W after a design life of at least 14 years (74). The MMRTG has a mass of 43 kg
and has a specific power of 2.9 W/kg. It is packaged in a cylindrical structure with radiator fins,
having dimensions of 64 cm diameter (fin tip to fin tip), and a length of 66 cm.
Fuel Cells
A fuel cell provides power by converting the energy of a chemical reaction into
electricity. The reactants consist of fuel (such as hydrogen gas) and oxidizer (such as oxygen
gas), which are separated by an electrolyte. The fuel reacts at the anode and the oxidizer at the
cathode. As long as fuel and oxidizer are supplied the fuel cell does not run out of energy. As a
result, a typical fuel cell can generate several watts of power (and maintain constant voltage) for
several days or even several weeks.
In 1839, Sir William Grove discovered the fundamentals of fuel cell physics—that
gaseous reactants can produce electricity.13 Over a century passed before an English engineer by
12
Previous space-qualified RTG technology used SiGe thermoelectric couples; however, these are no
longer produced (65).
13
Swiss scientist Christian F. Shoenbein is also sometimes credited with an independent discovery of this
principle.
361
the name of Francis T. Bacon developed the first fuel cell (generating 6 kW) during the 1950s.
The first practical fuel cells, however, were developed for the U.S. Space Program. For example,
fuel cells were used in the Gemini manned space program of the early 1960s and also during the
Apollo program, most famously on the manned lunar rovers. Later, fuel cells were adapted for
use on the U.S. Space Shuttles (as alkaline fuel cells had water management problems). Fuel
cells were also considered in place of batteries for the International Space Station.
Fuel cells are typically categorized by the type of electrolyte that separates the anode
from the cathode. Examples of types of fuel cells are described in the following table.
Table 10-1. Fuel Cell Types (57)
Fuel Cell Type Electrolyte Catalyst on Example Application

Electrodes
Alkaline Fuel Cells 85% potassium Nickel, Silver, Apollo and Space
(AFC)14 hydroxide (KOH) at Metal Oxides or Shuttle missions
high temperature Noble Metals (aqueous alkaline).
operation (250 C) This fuel cell type is
35-60% KOH for lower easily poisoned by the
temperature presence of CO2 in
operation (< 120 C) either fuel or oxidant
Polymer Electrolyte Thin (<50 μm) solid Platinum on First used on the
Membrane or Proton proton conductive porous carbon. Gemini missions.
Exchange Membrane polymer membrane at Typical platinum Currently, considered
Fuel Cells (PEMFC) 60-80 C operating loadings are 0.3 the future of space
temperature mg/cm2 fuel cells
Phosphoric Acid Fuel ~100% phosphoric Platinum Commercial ground-
Cells (PAFC) acid contained in SiC based power
matrix at 150-220 C generation
operating temperature
Molten Carbonate Combination of Alkali Noble metal Pre-commercial stage
Fuel Cells (MCFC) (Li, Na, K) carbonates catalysts typically for ground power
in a LiAlO2 matrix at not required
600-700 C operating
temperature
14
A lightweight alkaline fuel cell technology has been recently developed by United Technologies
Corporation for NASA
362
Fuel Cell Type Electrolyte Catalyst on Example Application
Electrodes
Solid Oxide Fuel Cells Solid, non-porous Precious-metal Pre-commercial stage
(SOFC) metal oxide (Y2O3 with catalyst not for ground power
ZrO2) at 800-1000 C needed due to
operating temperature high temperature
Most of the fuel cells in the above table utilize hydrogen as the fuel and oxygen as the
oxidizer and produce water as a byproduct. 15 Other hydrogen-rich fuels such as alcohols
(methanol, ethanol) and hydrocarbons can be used. In the direct methanol fuel cell (DMFC),
pure methanol mixed with steam is used as the fuel. Methanol is easier to store than hydrogen
as it has a higher energy density. Oxidizers other than pure oxygen or oxygen in air are also
being considered.
Research is currently being conducted on regenerative fuel cell (RFC) technology. This
technology takes advantage of the fact that a fuel cell reaction is reversible—e.g. in a hydrogen-
oxygen fuel cell, the water byproduct can be turned back into reactants via electrolysis. In an
RFC, however, separate units are required to generate electricity and electrolyze the water.
Such a system could be very useful in a long-duration mission given input electricity from
another power source operating at low electrical loads. RFCs were not considered for this
research as they were considered beyond the scope of the project. RFCs could, however, be the
subject of future research for lunar rover applications.
Of all the fuel cell types described previously, PEM technology is considered the most
useful for spacecraft. For instance, the NASA Glenn Research Center is currently studying
15
The SOFC utilizes oxygen in air and a variety of fuels, even carbon monoxide
363
PEMFC, RFC, and SOFC technology for launch vehicles, interplanetary spacecraft, planetary
surface power, aircraft propulsion and other ground-based use (75). The PEMFC is currently
regarded as better suited for spacecraft applications as it provides several benefits over other
fuel cell types: improved safety and reliability, longer life, lower mass, more power, and
potentially lower cost (42). Given these advantages, PEM fuel cells are considered a viable,
state-of-the art technology for the lunar mission in this research.
PEM fuel cells use a solid polymer membrane as the electrolyte. The electrodes are
constructed of porous carbon containing a platinum catalyst. The hydrogen/oxygen PEM
typically operates at low temperatures of ~80 C, which reduces warm-up time. A disadvantage is
the expensive platinum catalyst, which is needed to separate hydrogen gas into protons and
electrons. Another potential downside is the large tank volume needed to store enough
compressed hydrogen gas, given hydrogen’s low energy density.
To be able to properly size a fuel cell power system some fundamental theory is needed,
although it is a bit involved. In a hydrogen-oxygen PEM fuel cell, electrochemical reactions take
place simultaneously at the anode and the cathode. At the anode, incoming hydrogen gas is
ionized:
H2 → 2H + + 2e− Equation 10-11
The two free electrons can then travel from the anode through the electrical circuit to
the load and then to the cathode. Meanwhile, the hydrogen ions migrate from the anode to the
cathode through the electrolyte that separates them. At the cathode, the incoming oxygen
combines with the hydrogen ions (protons) and returning electrons to form water (either as a
liquid or gas):
364
1 Equation 10-12
O + 2H + + 2e− → H2 O
2 2
Thus the overall hydrogen-oxygen fuel cell reaction is:
1 Equation 10-13
H2 + 2 O2 → H2 O + heat
The input (thermal) energy into a hydrogen-oxygen reaction is defined by the reaction
enthalpy Δ𝐻 (kJ/mol). This reaction enthalpy is the difference between the heats of formation
of products and reactants:
k m Equation 10-14
ΔH = ∑ ni hf,products,i − ∑ nj hf,reactants,j
i=1 j=1
where ni are the number of moles of each product and nj are the number of moles of each
reactant, per the chemical equation.
For the hydrogen-oxygen reaction, the reaction enthalpy is then:
1 Equation 10-15
ΔH = hf,H2 O − hf,H2 − hf,O2
2
The heat of formation of water at 25 C and atmospheric pressure is -286.02 kJ/mol (for
liquid water). The negative value means that the reaction is exothermic (generates heat). The
heat of formation of elements is defined to be zero. Thus, the reaction enthalpy for a hydrogen-
oxygen reaction is simply the heat of formation of water. This water can be in liquid form if the
exact amount of reactants is consumed and the water is allowed to cool to standard conditions
(25 C and atmospheric pressure). If there is excess oxygen, the water product will be in the form
of vapor mixed with the residual oxygen, at a lower heat of formation.
365
Since every chemical reaction produces some entropy Δ𝑆, not all of the reaction
enthalpy in a fuel cell can be converted into electricity. The entropy is the difference between
the entropies of formation of the products and the entropies of formation of the reactants. The
reduction in reaction enthalpy as a result of entropy creation (an irreversible process) is known
as the Gibbs free energy. In a fuel cell, the Gibbs free energy is the amount of reaction enthalpy
that can be converted into electricity.
Δ𝐺0 = Δ𝐻 − 𝑇Δ𝑆 Equation 10-16
The theoretical voltage produced by the fuel cell is dependent on the Gibbs free energy
as follows:
Δ𝐺0 Equation 10-17

E0 = −
𝑛𝐹
where 𝑛 is the number of electrons per molecule of fuel (H2 in this case), and 𝐹 is Faraday’s
constant (96,485 Coulombs/mol).
Note that the Gibbs free energy is a function of temperature, implying that increasing
temperature lowers the theoretical cell potential. Also consider that enthalpy and entropy are
also functions of temperature, as they depend on the specific heat at constant pressure (itself a
function of temperature).
The reaction enthalpy and entropy as functions of temperature can be found from the
following equations, where the reference temperature is 298.15 K (25 C).
T Equation 10-18
h(T) = h(Tref ) + ∫ cp dT
Tref
T cp
s(T) = s(Tref ) + ∫ dT
Tref T
366
The specific heat at constant pressure (J/mol-K) of a gas is a function of temperature. An
empirical relationship is:
cp (T) = a + bT + cT 2 Equation 10-19
Integrating Equation 10-18 yields the following expressions for the reaction enthalpy
and entropy as a function of temperature.
2 32
(T 2 − Tref ) (T 3 − Tref ) Equation 10-20
Δ𝐻 = Δ𝐻𝑟𝑒𝑓 + Δ𝑎(𝑇 − 𝑇𝑟𝑒𝑓 ) + Δb + Δc
2 3
2
𝑇 (T 2 − Tref ) Equation 10-21
Δ𝑆 = Δ𝑆𝑟𝑒𝑓 + Δ𝑎 ln + Δb(𝑇 − 𝑇𝑟𝑒𝑓 ) + Δc
𝑇𝑟𝑒𝑓 2
where the coefficients Δ𝑎, Δ𝑏, and Δ𝑐 are the differences of the respective coefficients for
products and reactants:
k m Equation 10-22
Δa = ∑ ni aproduct,i − ∑ nj areactant,j
i=1 j=1
k m
Δb = ∑ ni bproduct,i − ∑ nj breactant,j
i=1 j=1
k m
Δc = ∑ ni cproduct,i − ∑ nj creactant,j
i=1 j=1
For the hydrogen/oxygen fuel cell, the differences in these coefficients are:
1 Equation 10-23
Δa = aH2 O − aH2 − aO2
2
1
Δb = bH2 O − bH2 − bO2
2
1
Δc = cH2 O − cH2 − cO2
2
367
The reaction Gibbs free energy is also a function of pressure, according to the Nernst
equation:
ni
∏ki=1 Pproduct,i Equation 10-24
ΔG = ΔG0 + RT ln ( m ni )
∏j=1 Preactant,j
where ΔG0 is the Gibbs free energy at operating temperature, R is the gas constant (8.314 J/mol-
K), T is the operating temperature (K), and 𝑃𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡,𝑖 and Preactant,j are the partial pressures of
the products and reactions, respectively.
Incorporating the above gives the equilibrium, or reversible, cell voltage:

ni
∏m
j=1 Preactant,j
Equation 10-25
Eequil = E0 + RT ln ( k ni )
∏i=1 Pproduct,i
For the hydrogen/oxygen fuel cell, this equation becomes:
1/2 Equation 10-26

PH2 PO2
Eequil = E0 + RT ln ( )
PH2 O
The above theory has been described using hydrogen/oxygen fuel cells as the example.
Other fuel/oxidizer pairs have been considered for space applications. For example, researchers
at the University of Illinois have recently proposed a hydrogen/hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) fuel
cell as a potential power source for space applications (76). In such a fuel cell, hydrogen gas is
ionized (losing 2 electrons) and migrates through the electrolyte to the cathode (as is the case
with hydrogen/oxygen fuel cell). The electrons travel through the electrical circuit to the load
and then to the cathode. At the cathode, an aqueous solution of hydrogen peroxide (H2O2)
combines with the returning electrons (undergoing a reduction reaction) and dissociates into
hydroxyl ions (OH-).
368
H2 O2 + 2e− → 2OH − Equation 10-27
The hydroxyl ions then combine with the hydrogen ions at the cathode to produce
water.
2OH − + 2H + → 2H2 O Equation 10-28
The overall reaction is thus:
H2 + H2 O2 → 2H2 O Equation 10-29
For this research, both the hydrogen/oxygen PEMFC and hydrogen/hydrogen peroxide
PEMFC are considered as the two PEM fuel cell technologies to be sized and traded.
Last in the theory of fuel cells is the dependence of voltage on current. At zero current
(when no load is applied), the fuel cell voltage will be the open circuit voltage. This voltage is
less than the theoretical equilibrium voltage due to some inherent voltage losses. Once a load is
applied and current is drawn, the cell voltage drops even further. The sources of voltage loss in a
fuel cell are:
 Activation polarization loss: the voltage difference, or over-potential, from equilibrium
needed to activate the electrochemical reaction. These losses occur at both anode and
cathode; however, the oxidizer reduction at the cathode requires higher over-potential
than the fuel oxidation reaction.
 Fuel cross-over loss and internal currents: although the electrolyte is not electrically
conductive and is impermeable to reactant gases, a small amount of fuel may diffuse
from the anode to cathode through the electrolyte, and some electrons may also find a
pathway through the electrolyte.
 Concentration polarization loss: Concentration gradients are established as a reactant is
consumed by an electrode, which results in voltage loss. Since reactant concentration at
369
the catalyst surface of an electrode depends on current density, reactant concentration
will increase with current density. The reactant surface concentration reaches zero
when the consumption rate goes beyond the allowable diffusion rate. In theory, at this
point no more current density can be produced.
 Ohmic (resistive) polarization loss: the electrolyte has some internal resistance to ion
flow, and fuel cell components also have some internal resistance to electron flow.
The net current density from both cathode and anode reactions is related to the
difference, or over-potential, between the cell potential and an equilibrium potential (as derived
from the Nernst equation). At the cathode the over-potential is negative. As such, the activation
polarization loss can be expressed as a function of current from the Butler-Volmer equation.
RT 𝑖 + 𝑖𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟 Equation 10-30

ΔVact = Eequil − E = ln ( )
αF 𝑖0
where T is the oxidizer temperature (K), α is the cathode charge transfer coefficient, F is
Faraday’s constant, 𝑖 is the fuel cell current density (A/cm2), 𝑖0 is the exchange current density,
and 𝑖𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟 is the fuel cross-over current.
The charge transfer coefficient α is the portion of electrical energy used to activate the
electrochemical reaction. The exchange current density 𝑖0 corresponds to the rate constant in a
chemical reaction. It is the current density generated at equilibrium (when there is zero net
current density) by both oxidation of fuel at the anode and reduction of the oxidizer at the
cathode simultaneously within the fuel cell. It depends on reactant concentration, temperature,
and electrode surface properties. In particular, the exchange current density i0 depends on the
metal catalyst in the electrode. For example, for platinum (Pt) catalyst, i0 = 5e-4 A/cm2; for
nickel (Ni) catalyst i0 = 6e-6 A/cm2; for silver (Ag) catalyst = 4e-7 A/cm2.
370
An increase in fuel cell operating temperature reduces the theoretical equilibrium
voltage (by reducing the Gibbs free energy). However, voltage losses are also a function of
temperature. Increasing fuel cell temperature should result in higher activation polarization
loss, assuming a constant exchange current density. In reality, however, the exchange current
density itself increases with temperature, thereby reducing the activation polarization loss. The
reduction in losses more than compensates for the reduction in equilibrium voltage so that
higher voltages are realizable in practice. As a result, in an actual fuel cell, elevated temperature
increases voltage performance.
The concentration polarization voltage loss is a function of current density, limiting
current density, and the number of electrons n transferred at the electrode surface:
RT 𝑖𝐿 Equation 10-31
ΔVconc = ln ( )
nF 𝑖𝐿 − 𝑖
This equation suggests that as the cell current density approaches the limiting current
density, there would be a large concentration polarization voltage loss and hence large drop in
cell voltage. In practical fuel cells, however, this limiting current density is almost never reached,
as the current density is typically not uniform over the entire porous electrode area. In other
words, some electrode regions would reach the limiting current density whereas others would
not.
The limiting current density can be found by equating the reactant flux (mol/s) at an
electrode from Faraday’s law to the reactant flux from the concentration gradient at steady
state (Fick’s law of diffusion). Fick’s law is modified by assuming zero reactant concentration at
the catalyst surface. Thus the limiting current density can be found from (57):
371
nFDCB Equation 10-32
iL =
δ
where 𝐷 is the diffusion coefficient (cm2/s) of the reacting species (say hydrogen gas), CB is the
bulk concentration (mol/cm3) of the reactant, and δ is the diffusion distance (cm). For a
hydrogen/oxygen fuel cell, limiting current density is on the order of 1200 – 2000 mA/cm2. The
above equation states that the limiting current density is equal to the rate of maximum reactant
supply by diffusion.
The fuel cell also experiences ohmic (resistive) voltage losses as a result of electrolyte
resistance to ion flow, and resistance to electron flow in fuel cell electronics and electrical
contacts. This voltage loss depends on the total cell internal resistance R i . The most significant
are ionic and contact resistances, which yield an internal resistance typically between 0.1 and
0.2 Ωcm2. The ohmic voltage loss can be expressed by Ohm’s law as:
ΔVohmic = iR i Equation 10-33
The resultant cell potential is the equilibrium potential reduced by the various voltage
losses.
Ecell = Eequil − ΔVact − ΔVconc − ΔVohmic Equation 10-34
The above equation describes the fuel cell voltage polarization curve as a function of
current density (contained within the various voltage losses). When no power load is applied
(zero current density), the fuel cell voltage is the open circuit voltage. This open circuit voltage is
less than the equilibrium voltage due to internal currents and fuel-cross-over current. On the
other end of the polarization curve, the short-circuit current density (when cell voltage reduces
to zero) is represented by the limiting current density.
372
The maximum possible theoretical energy conversion efficiency of the fuel cell can be
found as:
Δ𝐺 𝐸𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑙 Equation 10-35

η= =
Δ𝐻 𝐸𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑜𝑛𝑒𝑢𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑙
where the thermo-neutral potential—the maximum potential if all the reaction enthalpy could
be converted to electricity—can be found from:
Δ𝐻 Equation 10-36
𝐸𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑜𝑛𝑒𝑢𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑙 = −
𝑛𝐹
For a hydrogen/oxygen fuel cell, the maximum theoretical efficiency is 83 % at standard
temperature and pressure (25 C and 1 atmosphere). This corresponds to a theoretical cell
equilibrium potential of 1.23 V. Various voltage losses, however, as discussed in previous
paragraphs, reduce this potential to less than 1 V. Since the energy conversion efficiency is a
function of cell voltage, which in turn is a function of cell current density, the efficiency can run
as high as 80% for low currents in some fuel cells. The efficiency also typically reduces to 40-60%
as current draw increases (30).
A representative fuel cell voltage polarization curve for a hydrogen/oxygen fuel cell is
shown in the following figure. The operating temperature and pressure are 60 C and 1
atmosphere, respectively. In this example, note that the open circuit voltage is less than 1 V and
corresponds to an efficiency of 64%. The per cell power density (W/cm2) reaches a maximum at
a high current density (1.46 A/cm2) and thus at low voltage and low efficiency.
373
Fuel cell voltage polarization curve, efficiency, power density
1.4
Voltage
Power density
1.2
Efficiency
Voltage (V) and Power density (W/cm2)

1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6
i current density (A/cm2)
Figure 10-5. Example H2/O2 fuel cell voltage polarization curve
Recall that the mass flow rate of reactants, and hence the total mass of reactants, is a
linear function of the fuel cell current. In other words, less total reactant mass is required at low
currents, whereas more total reactant mass is required at high currents. As previously
mentioned, the total fuel cell stack mass depends on the total number of cells required. The
total number of cells depends on the selected fuel cell operating current and voltage, such that
it can also be expressed as inversely proportional to the fuel cell power density (operating
current density times operating voltage).
As shown in Figure 10-5, the fuel cell power density peaks at high current. As a result,
the total number of fuel cells is minimized at high current. However, the total reactant mass is
large at high current and is known to dominate the total fuel cell system mass. Therefore,
although high power density may mean fewer fuel cells, it means greater total mass as a result
of higher total reactant mass. As such, low total reactant mass and low fuel cell stack mass are
typically at odds. Nevertheless, an optimal current density and voltage can be found to minimize
374
the total fuel cell system mass. This is depicted in Figure 10-6 for a representative
hydrogen/oxygen fuel cell system. In this example, the total power requirement is 500 W and
the fuel cell operating temperature is 60 C; the pressure of reactants and product are 1
atmosphere for both. At these conditions, the minimum total system mass is achieved at very
low current (correspondingly high voltage) and hence low power density. The disadvantage is
many fuel cells are needed to deliver the total required system voltage and current.
4
x 10 Total fuel cell system mass vs. current density
4.5
3.5
Total system mass (kg)
2.5
1.5
0.5
0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6
i current density (A/cm2)
Figure 10-6. Example H2/O2 fuel cell system mass vs. current density
375

Systems Engineering and Missio

Uploaded by

Document Informationclick to expand document information

Document Informationclick to expand document information

Copyright:

Available Formats

Systems Engineering and Missio

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Systems Engineering and Missio

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

SYSTEMS ENGINEERING AND MISSION DESIGN OF A LUNAR SOUTH POLE ROVER MISSION:

A NOVEL APPROACH TO THE MULTIDISCIPLINARY DESIGN PROBLEM WITHIN A SPACECRAFT

SYSTEMS ENGINEERING PARADIGM

Michael Edward Luna

A Dissertation Presented to the

Copyright 2016 Michael Edward Luna

I would like to dedicate this research to my parents.

constant source of advice and feedback on my research, guiding me toward a comprehensive

research as a systems problem. I am also thankful to all of my Committee members: Professors

Joseph Kunc, Mike Gruntman, Theodore Sweetser, and Najmedin Meshkati.

List of Tables .................................................................................................................................. vii

List of Figures .................................................................................................................................. xi

2 Research Problem .................................................................................................................... 5

3 State of the Art......................................................................................................................... 7

3.1 Lunar Science Missions ........................................................................................ 7

4.1 Overview ............................................................................................................ 70

5.1 Overall Mission and System Design Process .................................................... 100

6.1 Configuration Design Feasibility ...................................................................... 283

8 Future Work ......................................................................................................................... 334

8.1 Design Approach .............................................................................................. 334

Appendix A: Characteristics of the Moon ................................................................... 345

Table 3-1. Descent Imagers on Planetary Landers/Probes ............................................................ 27

Table 3-2. Surface Imagers/Cameras on Planetary Landers .......................................................... 27

Table 3-3. Microscopic Imagers on Planetary Landers .................................................................. 28

Table 3-4. Ground penetrating radar on Planetary Landers .......................................................... 28

Table 3-5. IR spectrometers on Planetary Missions ...................................................................... 28

Table 3-6. Mass spectrometers on Planetary Missions ................................................................. 29

Table 3-7. Neutron spectrometers on Planetary Missions ............................................................ 30

Table 3-8. Robotic arms on Planetary Missions ............................................................................. 30

Table 3-10. DSN Near-Earth Frequency Capability ........................................................................ 39

Table 3-11. DSN Deep Space Frequency Capability ....................................................................... 39

Table 3-12. Summary of Attitude Control Methods ...................................................................... 54

Table 3-13. Spacecraft Power System Technology Options .......................................................... 66

Table 3-14. Power system options considered in this research .................................................... 69

Table 4-1. Lunar Polar Vehicle Science Objectives (42) ................................................................. 73

Table 4-3. Requirements for Spacecraft Design Tool .................................................................... 76

Table 4-4. Comparison of C, C++, MATLAB Attributes ................................................................... 80

Table 4-5. Science Traceability Matrix (Science Objective 1) ........................................................ 87

Table 4-6. Science Traceability Matrix (Science Objective 2) ........................................................ 88

Table 4-7. Science Traceability Matrix (Science Objective 3) ........................................................ 89

Table 4-8. Science Traceability Matrix (Science Objectives 4 and 5) ............................................. 90

Table 4-9. Science Instrument Mass and Power Summary ........................................................... 91

Table 4-10. Example Science Modes.............................................................................................. 92

Table 5-1. GMAT Satellite Key Parameters .................................................................................. 102

Table 5-15. Subsystem “Trade” Parameters ................................................................................ 133

Table 5-17. Transponder Database .............................................................................................. 153

Table 5-18. Antenna Database..................................................................................................... 154

Table 5-19. RF Amplifier Mass/Power/Efficiency Database ........................................................ 155

Table 5-21. Modern Spacecraft Attitude Control Methods ......................................................... 174

Table 5-22. Star Tracker Database ............................................................................................... 177

Table 5-23. Sun Sensor Database................................................................................................. 178

Table 5-24. IMU/IRU Database .................................................................................................... 178

Table 5-25. Reaction Wheel Database Subset ............................................................................. 191

Table 5-28. Propulsion Engine Database Subset ......................................................................... 208

Table 5-30. Historical Rover dimensional data ............................................................................ 224

Table 5-31. Secondary Battery Database ..................................................................................... 243

Table 5-32. Solar Cell Database ................................................................................................... 246

Table 5-34. Solar array specific power options ............................................................................ 250