NUCLEI
NUCLEI
NUCLEI
• Nuclear fission is a process in which a heavy atomic nucleus splits into two smaller nuclei, known as fission
products, along with the emission of neutrons and a large amount of energy.
• This splitting occurs when the heavy nucleus absorbs a neutron and becomes unstable, triggering the
fission reaction.
Steps of Nuclear Fission
• A neutron is absorbed by a heavy nucleus like uranium-235, which makes the nucleus unstable. This absorption
can be triggered by a slow (thermal) neutron, as slow neutrons are more easily captured by heavy nuclei.
• The uranium-235 nucleus turns into uranium-236, which is highly unstable.
• The uranium-236 nucleus immediately splits into two smaller nuclei, releasing additional neutrons. The exact
products of the split can vary, but they are always smaller, highly energetic, and radioactive.
• Typically, 2 or 3 neutrons are released in the process. These neutrons are called fast neutrons and can go on to
cause further fission reactions.
• A large amount of energy is released in the form of kinetic energy of the fission fragments, gamma radiation,
and heat. This energy originates from the mass defect between the original uranium-235 nucleus and the
products formed.
• On average, about 200 MeV (million electron volts) of energy is released in each fission event.
Energy Released During Nuclear Fission
The energy released during a fission reaction can be calculated using the mass defect and Einstein’s mass-energy
equivalence equation:
Chain Reaction:
A chain reaction occurs when the neutrons produced in fission cause additional fission reactions in nearby nuclei. This
process can either be controlled or uncontrolled:
• To carry nuclear fusion in a bulk material, the temperature of the material has to be raised to 106 K, so that the
colliding nuclei have enough energy due to their thermal motion and they can penetrate the coulomb barrier. This
process is called thermonuclear fusion.
FUSION AS A SOURCE OF ENERGY IN SUN AND STARS
• At extremely high temperatures which exist in interior of sun and stars, protons fuse together to form helium nuclei,
liberating a huge amount of energy.
Proton-proton cycle. The thermonuclear reactions in a proton-proton cycle take place in the following sequence :
• For the fourth reaction to occur, the first three reactions must occur twice so that two light helium nuclei ( 32𝐻𝑒) may
combine to form a normal helium nucleus ( 42𝐻𝑒).
• Then the net reaction will be
• Thus four protons combine to form one helium nucleus with the liberation of 26.7 MeV of energy.
Controlled thermonuclear fusion
• Controlled thermonuclear fusion refers to the process of replicating the energy-generating reactions that power stars,
like the Sun, here on Earth in a controlled manner. Unlike the uncontrolled fusion reactions in hydrogen bombs,
controlled fusion aims to harness the energy for peaceful purposes, such as electricity generation.
Conditions for Controlled Thermonuclear Fusion:
Achieving controlled fusion is extremely difficult because it requires overcoming the electrostatic repulsion between
positively charged nuclei. The conditions needed for controlled fusion are:
1.High Temperature:
1. Temperatures of about 100 million Kelvin are required for fusion to occur, which is much higher than the
temperature in the core of the Sun.
2. These high temperatures provide the nuclei with enough kinetic energy to overcome the Coulomb barrier (the
repulsive force between the positively charged nuclei).
2.High Pressure or Density:
1. High pressure or density is necessary to increase the frequency of collisions between the nuclei, ensuring a higher
likelihood of fusion reactions occurring.
3.Confinement of Plasma:
1. At these high temperatures, matter exists in the form of plasma—a hot, ionized gas of nuclei and electrons.
2. To achieve controlled fusion, the plasma must be confined for a sufficiently long time to allow enough fusion
reactions to occur. The two main methods of confinement are:
1. Magnetic Confinement (used in tokamaks and stellarators).
2. Inertial Confinement (used in laser-driven fusion experiments).
Applications of Nuclear Fusion:
1.Fusion in Stars:
• Fusion reactions power the Sun and other stars. The energy produced by fusion in the Sun's core is
radiated outward, eventually reaching Earth as sunlight. This energy drives life on Earth and powers the
planet's climate system.
2.Nuclear Fusion for Energy Production:
• Fusion is considered a potential future energy source because it offers several advantages over current
energy sources:
1. Abundant Fuel: The fuel for fusion (such as deuterium from seawater) is abundant and widely
available.
2. No Long-Lived Radioactive Waste: Fusion reactions produce little or no long-lived radioactive
waste compared to nuclear fission.
3. No Greenhouse Gas Emissions: Fusion does not produce carbon dioxide or other greenhouse
gases, making it a clean energy source.
• Fusion reactors are currently in the experimental stage, with projects like ITER (International
Thermonuclear Experimental Reactor) aiming to demonstrate the feasibility of fusion as a practical
energy source.
3.Thermonuclear Weapons:
• Fusion reactions are used in thermonuclear weapons (hydrogen bombs). These bombs use a fission
reaction to create the extremely high temperatures and pressures needed to trigger fusion. The fusion
reaction then releases an enormous amount of energy, making thermonuclear weapons far more
powerful than atomic bombs based on fission.