THE CELL

Cell Definition

“A cell is defined as the smallest, basic unit of life that is responsible for all of life’s processes.”
Cells are the structural, functional, and biological units of all living beings. A cell can replicate itself
independently. Hence, they are known as the building blocks of life.

What is a Cell?

A cell is the structural and fundamental unit of life. The study of cells from its basic structure to the
functions of every cell organelle is called Cell Biology. Robert Hooke was the first Biologist who
discovered cells.

All organisms are made up of cells. They may be made up of a single cell (unicellular), or many cells
(multicellular). Mycoplasmas are the smallest known cells. Cells are the building blocks of all living
beings. They provide structure to the body and convert the nutrients taken from the food into energy.

Who discovered cells?

 Robert Hooke discovered the cell in 1665. Robert Hooke observed a piece of bottle cork under
a compound microscope and noticed minuscule structures that reminded him of small rooms.
Consequently, he named these “rooms” as cells.
 Later Anton Van Leeuwenhoek observed cells under another compound microscope with
higher magnification. This time, he had noted that the cells exhibited some form of movement
(motility). As a result, Leeuwenhoek concluded that these microscopic entities were “alive.”
Eventually, after a host of other observations, these entities were named as animalcules.
 In 1883, Robert Brown, a Scottish botanist, provided the very first insights into the cell
structure. He was able to describe the nucleus present in the cells of orchids.

Characteristics of Cells

Following are the various essential characteristics of cells:

 Cells provide structure and support to the body of an organism.

 The cell interior is organized into different individual organelles surrounded by a separate
membrane.

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  The nucleus (major organelle) holds genetic information necessary for reproduction and cell
growth.
 Every cell has one nucleus and membrane-bound organelles in the cytoplasm.
 Mitochondria, a double membrane-bound organelle is mainly responsible for the energy
transactions vital for the survival of the cell.
 Lysosomes digest unwanted materials in the cell.
 Endoplasmic reticulum plays a significant role in the internal organization of the cell by
synthesizing selective molecules and processing, directing and sorting them to their appropriate
locations.

Cell Theory

Cell Theory was proposed by the German scientists, Theodor Schwann, Matthias Schleiden, and Rudolf
Virchow. The cell theory states that:

 All living species on Earth are composed of cells.

 A cell is the basic unit of life.
 All cells arise from pre-existing cells.

Types of Cells

Cells are similar to factories with different departments that work towards a common objective. Various
types of cells perform different functions. Based on cellular structure, there are two types of cells:

 Prokaryotes
 Eukaryotes

Cell Structure
The cell structure comprises individual components with specific functions essential to carry out life’s
processes. These components include- cell wall, cell membrane, cytoplasm, nucleus, and cell organelles.
Read on to explore more insights on cell structure and function.

The cell has a definite shape of its type with a few exceptions like amoeba, leucocytes, etc. Various
shapes like oval, spherical, polyhedral, columnar, cylindrical, stellate and several others are found in
plant as well as in animal cells. Normally the size may vary from 0.5 to 20 μ and very exceptionally up
to 200-300 mm as in the case of plant fibres and latex cells.

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Cell Membrane

 The cell membrane supports and protects the cell. It controls the movement of substances in and
out of the cells. It separates the cell from the external environment. The cell membrane is present
in all the cells.
 The cell membrane is the outer covering of a cell within which all other organelles, such as the
cytoplasm and nucleus, are enclosed. It is also referred to as the plasma membrane.
 The cell membrane also protects the cellular component from damage and leakage.
 It forms the wall-like structure between two cells as well as between the cell and its
surroundings.
 Plants are immobile, so their cell structures are well-adapted to protect them from external
factors. The cell wall helps to reinforce this function.

Cell Wall

 The cell wall is the most prominent part of the plant’s cell structure. It is made up of cellulose,
hemicellulose and pectin.
 The cell wall is present exclusively in plant cells. It protects the plasma membrane and other
cellular components. The cell wall is also the outermost layer of plant cells.
 It is a rigid and stiff structure surrounding the cell membrane.
 It provides shape and support to the cells and protects them from mechanical shocks and
injuries.

Cytoplasm

 The cytoplasm is a thick, clear, jelly-like substance present inside the cell membrane.
 Most of the chemical reactions within a cell take place in this cytoplasm.
 The cell organelles such as endoplasmic reticulum, vacuoles, mitochondria, ribosomes, are
suspended in this cytoplasm.

Nucleus

 The nucleus contains the hereditary material of the cell, the DNA.
 It sends signals to the cells to grow, mature, divide and die.
 The nucleus is surrounded by the nuclear envelope that separates the DNA from the rest of the
cell.

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  The nucleus protects the DNA and is an integral component of a plant’s cell structure.

Cell Organelles

Cells are composed of various cell organelles that perform certain specific functions to carry out life’s
processes. The different cell organelles, along with its principal functions, are as follows:

Cell Organelles and their Functions

• Nucleolus: The nucleolus is the site of ribosome synthesis. Also, it is involved in controlling
cellular activities and cellular reproduction.
• Nuclear membrane: The nuclear membrane protects the nucleus by forming a boundary
between the nucleus and other cell organelles.
• Chromosomes: Chromosomes play a crucial role in determining the sex of an individual. Each
human cells contain 23 pairs of chromosomes.
• Endoplasmic reticulum: The endoplasmic reticulum is involved in the transportation of
substances throughout the cell. It plays a primary role in the metabolism of carbohydrates,
synthesis of lipids, steroids and proteins.
• Golgi Bodies: Golgi bodies are called the cell’s post office as it is involved in the transportation
of materials within the cell.
• Ribosome: Ribosomes are the protein synthesizers of the cell.
• Mitochondria: The mitochondrion is called “the powerhouse of the cell.” It is called so because
it produces ATP – the cell’s energy currency.
• Lysosomes: Lysosomes protect the cell by engulfing the foreign bodies entering the cell and
help in cell renewal. Therefore, they are known as the cell’s suicide bags.
• Chloroplast: Chloroplasts are the primary organelles for photosynthesis. It contains the pigment
called chlorophyll.
• Vacuoles: Vacuoles store food, water, and other waste materials in the cell.

PROKARYOTIC CELL
Prokaryotic cells are single-celled microorganisms known to be the earliest on earth. Prokaryotes
include Bacteria and Archaea. The photosynthetic prokaryotes include cyanobacteria that perform
photosynthesis.

A prokaryotic cell consists of a single membrane and therefore, all the reactions occur within the
cytoplasm. They can be free-living or parasites.

Characteristics of Prokaryotic Cell

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Prokaryotic cells have different characteristic features. The characteristics of the prokaryotic cells are
mentioned below.

1. They lack a nuclear membrane.

2. Mitochondria, Golgi bodies, chloroplast, and lysosomes are absent.
3. The genetic material is present on a single chromosome.
4. The histone proteins, the important constituents of eukaryotic chromosomes, are lacking in
them.
5. The cell wall is made up of carbohydrates and amino acids.
6. The plasma membrane acts as the mitochondrial membrane carrying respiratory enzymes.
7. They divide asexually by binary fission. The sexual mode of reproduction involves conjugation.

Prokaryotic Cell Structure

A prokaryotic cell does not have a nuclear membrane. However, the genetic material is present in a
region in the cytoplasm known as the nucleoid. They may be spherical, rod-shaped, or spiral. A
prokaryotic cell structure is as follows:

1. Capsule– It is an outer protective covering found in the bacterial cells, in addition to the cell
wall. It helps in moisture retention, protects the cell when engulfed, and helps in the attachment
of cells to nutrients and surfaces.
2. Cell Wall– It is the outermost layer of the cell which gives shape to the cell.
3. Cytoplasm– The cytoplasm is mainly composed of enzymes, salts, cell organelles and is a gel-
like component.
4. Cell Membrane– This layer surrounds the cytoplasm and regulates the entry and exit of
substances in the cells.
5. Pili– These are hair-like outgrowths that attach to the surface of other bacterial cells.
6. Flagella– These are long structures in the form of a whip, that help in the locomotion of a cell.
7. Ribosomes– These are involved in protein synthesis.
8. Plasmids– Plasmids are non-chromosomal DNA structures. These are not involved in
reproduction.
9. Nucleoid Region– It is the region in the cytoplasm where the genetic material is present.
A prokaryotic cell lacks certain organelles like mitochondria, endoplasmic reticulum, and Golgi bodies.

Components of Prokaryotic Cells

The prokaryotic cells have four main components:

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 1. Plasma Membrane- It is an outer protective covering of phospholipid molecules which
separates the cell from the surrounding environment.
2. Cytoplasm- It is a jelly-like substance present inside the cell. All the cell organelles are
suspended in it.
3. DNA- It is the genetic material of the cell. All the prokaryotes possess a circular DNA. It directs
what proteins the cell creates. It also regulates the actions of the cell.
4. Ribosomes- Protein synthesis occurs here.
5. Some prokaryotic cells possess cilia and flagella which helps in locomotion.

Prokaryotic Cell Diagram

The prokaryotic cell diagram given below represents a bacterial cell. It depicts the absence of a true
nucleus and the presence of a flagellum that differentiates it from a eukaryotic cell.

Prokaryotic Cell Diagram illustrates the absence of a true nucleus

EUKARYOTIC CELL
Eukaryotic cells have a nucleus enclosed within the nuclear membrane and form large and complex
organisms. Protozoa, fungi, plants, and animals all have eukaryotic cells. They are classified under the
kingdom Eukaryota.

They can maintain different environments in a single cell that allows them to carry out various
metabolic reactions. This helps them grow many times larger than the prokaryotic cells.
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Characteristics of Eukaryotic Cells
The features of eukaryotic cells are as follows:

1. Eukaryotic cells have the nucleus enclosed within the nuclear membrane.
2. The cell has mitochondria.
3. Flagella and cilia are the locomotory organs in a eukaryotic cell.
4. A cell wall is the outermost layer of the eukaryotic cells.
5. The cells divide by a process called mitosis.
6. The eukaryotic cells contain a cytoskeletal structure.
7. The nucleus contains a single, linear DNA, which carries all the genetic information.

Structure Of Eukaryotic Cell

The eukaryotic cell structure comprises the following:

Plasma Membrane

 The plasma membrane separates the cell from the outside environment.
 It comprises specific embedded proteins, which help in the exchange of substances in and out of
the cell.

Cell Wall

 A cell wall is a rigid structure present outside the plant cell. It is, however, absent in animal
cells.
 It provides shape to the cell and helps in cell-to-cell interaction.
 It is a protective layer that protects the cell from any injury or pathogen attacks.
 It is composed of cellulose, hemicellulose, pectins, proteins, etc.

Cytoskeleton
 The cytoskeleton is present inside the cytoplasm, which consists of microfilaments,
microtubules, and fibres to provide perfect shape to the cell, anchor the organelles, and stimulate
the cell movement.

Endoplasmic Reticulum
 It is a network of small, tubular structures that divides the cell surface into two parts: luminal
and extraluminal.

Endoplasmic Reticulum is of two types:

 Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum contains ribosomes.

 Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum that lacks ribosomes and is therefore smooth.

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Nucleus

 The nucleoplasm enclosed within the nucleus contains DNA and proteins.
 The nuclear envelop consists of two layers- the outer membrane and the inner membrane. Both
the membranes are permeable to ions, molecules, and RNA material.
 Ribosome production also takes place inside the nucleus.

Golgi Apparatus

 It is made up of flat disc-shaped structures called cisternae.

 It is absent in red blood cells of humans and sieve cells of plants.
 They are arranged parallel and concentrically near the nucleus.
 It is an important site for the formation of glycoproteins and glycolipids.

Ribosomes
 These are the main site for protein synthesis and are composed of proteins and ribonucleic acids.

Mitochondria

 These are also known as “powerhouse of cells” because they produce energy.
 It consists of an outer membrane and an inner membrane. The inner membrane is divided into
folds called cristae.
 They help in the regulation of cell metabolism.

Lysosomes
 They are known as “suicidal bags” because they possess hydrolytic enzymes to digest protein,
lipids, carbohydrates, and nucleic acids.

Plastids
These are double-membraned structures and are found only in plant cells. These are of three types:

 Chloroplast that contains chlorophyll and is involved in photosynthesis.

 Chromoplast that contains a pigment called carotene that provides the plants yellow, red, or
orange colors.
 Leucoplasts that are colorless and store oil, fats, carbohydrates, or proteins.

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