GLY 208

ENVIRONMENTAL GEOLOGY

COURSE NOTES

2021/2022 ACADEMIC SESSION

 SURFACE PROCESSES

TOPIC ONE : TERRESTIAL EROSION

Preamble

On one hand, the internal processes of the earth, driven by the earth’s internal heat, are
responsible for the mountain building.

On the other hand, the earth’s external processes driven by the solar energy and gravity
are responsible for the levelling of mountains. For example, the mean elevation of the
continent is about + 840 m and that of the ocean is about - 3800 m, thus indicating
constancy in transferring of materials from land to the oceans

The solar energy drives the water cycle to generate and move fresh water system that
acts through erosion and drainage activities to erode the elevated continents. In addition,
gravity tugs constantly downward on every mass of material everywhere on earth,
causing mass movement.

In the process of subsequent transportation of erosion and mass wasting materials to the
ocean, sedimentation of water bodies sometimes lead to flooding.

The term erosion is derived from the Latin word “erosio”, meaning “to gnaw away”. In
general terms, soil erosion implies the removal of soil by various agents including water,
over and through the soil profile, wind, ice, or gravitational pull. Soil erosion can also be
explained as the detachment and transportation of soil particles by the erosive forces of
wind and water. Soil detached and transported away is often deposited at some other
places. While soil erosion can be controlled, it is almost impossible to be completely
stopped.

Definition: Soil erosion occurs when soil is removed through action of water, wind or
glacier at a rate greater than it is formed

Soil erosion is a natural process that involves loosening of soil particles and subsequent
transportation.
Agents of erosion: Terrestrial erosion can be by water, wind or ice. Coastal and marine
erosion are associated with coastal processes

I. WATER EROSION

There are three types of erosion

a. Splash erosion: The loosening of soil particles by rain-drops impact is called splash
erosion. Rain drops have tremendous impact in loosening soil particles as rain
drops strike the land sometimes with surprising force. Splash erosion generally
takes place in two stages. The first stage involves filling of pore spaces within soils
to increase the pore water pressure thereby loosening the soil particles, while the
subsequent rain drops splashed away the loosened particles . Splash erosion is
closely related to rain drops size.
b. Sheet erosion: Process by which shallow thin sheets of water flowing across the
soil surface carry the dislodged soil particles. The effects of sheet erosion are often
hard to notice because the thin layers of soils are gradually removed at uniform
rate. Hence, the significant degradation of land is not perceived until after some
years.
c. Rill erosion: Concentration of sheet flow into tiny channels called rills results in rills
erosion. Rills are small but well defined channels that are few centimeters deep
and can develop both vertically and horizontally.
d. Gully erosion: Enlargements of rills due to increase in turbulence and velocity of
rills down slope results in deep cuts within the soils to form gullies. Gullies are also
formed due to convergence of several rills. Erosion process resulting from
formation of gullies is termed gully erosion.
e. Channel erosion: Channel erosion is due to erosive actions of natural channels
(streams and rivers). This occurs when stream bank vegetation is disturbed or
when velocity of flow in stream increases. Natural streams banks vegetation and
lithology are usually at equilibrium with the quantity and velocity of normal run-
off of their watersheds. Alteration of the watershed run-off quantity and velocity
through removal of vegetation, increase in impervious surface areas lead to
alteration of existing equilibrium of the stream leading to channel erosion.
Common points of channel erosion are locations of bridges, storm drains or
culverts. Repair of eroded stream channel is difficult and costly.
Development of Rill and Gully Erosion
Prolonged Effects of Sheet Erosion
Soil erosion caused by rain

Erosion at the edge of a road, caused by rain

Effects of Severe Gully Erosion in Auchi
Factors of Erosion Potentials

The principal factors that determine the erosion potential of any site are climate, soil
characteristics, topography and land cover.

a. Climate

Climate influences erosion potential both directly and indirectly.

i. Direct influence: Erosivity and Rainfall

Direct influence is based on the erosive power of rain (erosivity) which is

determined by rainfall intensity (mm of rain per hour) and droplet kinetic energy.
Erosivity is the ability of rainfall to cause detachment and transportation of soil
materials by run-off. The higher the rainfall intensity and droplets sizes the greater
the erosivity. A highly intense rainfall of short duration can produce far more
erosion than a long duration rainfall of low intensity.

ii. Indirect influence: Climatic region and Vegetation

Indirect influence of climate is based on the direct influence of typical vegetation
within each climatic region on erosion potential. Dry and cold climate produce less
vegetation, hence more susceptible to erosion than wet climate that produce
much vegetation

b. Topography:

Slope length and steepness

Slope length and steepness are critical factors in the evaluation of erosion
potential of any site. These factors determine the velocity of run-off and its erosive
power. Long continuous slope allows run-off to build-up momentum. Erosion
potential is closely related to slope steepness. Generally, the longer and steeper
the slope, the greater is the erosion potential. The following slope category can
be used as a guide for evaluating erosion potential
 The base of a slope is more susceptible to erosion than the top due to the fact
that run-off is more concentrated and has more momentum at the base than the
top.

Table 1: Categorization of Slope Gradient For Evaluation of Erosion

Potential (Goldman et al (1986)

Slope Gradient Erosion potential

0% - 7% Low – Moderate

7% - 15% (< 30m length) Moderate – High

> 15% High – very High

c. Soil Characteristics

Soil characteristics are other major factors that determine soil erodibility. Soil
erodibility is an estimate of the ability of soil to resist erosion. The soil
characteristics that affect erosion are: texture, structure, organic matter content.

i. Soil texture

Soil texture refers to the size and properties of the soil particles. Soil particles can
be divided into three broad classes; sand, silt and clay. Erosion resistance of soil
is affected by the structure, permeability, texture and organic matter contents of
the soil.

Coarse-grained soils are high in sand contents and are generally permeable
leading to high infiltration of run-off and great reduction in erosion. On the other
hand, fine-grained soils are rich in silts and clay and less permeable. However,
clayey soils are cohesive and soil particles together, hence clayey soils are also
resistant to erosion despite their low permeability.

Texturally, silt is the most important particle size class when erosion resistance is
evaluated. The higher the silt content, the more susceptible is the soil, because
silt – sized particles are small enough to reduce permeability of a soil and are
easily carried by run – off.

Other textural factors that strongly affect the soil erosion resistance are Coefficient
of Uniformity (Cu) and Plasticity Index (P.I)

 Coefficient of Uniformity (Cu): Cu is one of the parameters derived from

grain size distribution curve of soils to reflect the range of mixture of
particles sizes. (Cu =D60/D10). Well graded soils contain a wide range of
particle sizes ranging and characterized by high Cu > 15. Poorly Graded
soils have narrow range of particle sizes and characterized by low C u < 5.
Moderately graded soils have moderate range of particle sizes and
characterized by moderate Cu 5 < CU < 15. Cu values have been used for
evaluation of erosion potential as follows:

Table 2. Classification of Soil Erodibility Based on Coefficient of Uniformity

Cu Soil Type Description Erodibility Erosion

Resistance
> 15 Well Graded Less Erodible soils, Low High

5 - 15 Moderated Graded Average Erodible soils Moderate Average

<5 Poorly Graded More Erodible soils High Low

D60= Diameter at which 60% of the soil by weight is finer

D10 = Diameter at which 10% of the soil by weight is finer

 Plasticity Index (PI): PI is a reflection of level of cohesion of clayey soils.

Soils with high PI are classified as having high plasticity indicating
satisfactory erosion resistance, while soils with low PI are classified as
having low plasticity indicating poor erosion resistance. Hence, highly plastic
soils are classified as low erodible soils, while non-plastic soils are high
erodible soils
 Table 3. Classification of Soil Erodibility Based on Coefficient of Uniformity

PI Plasticity Soil Erodibility Erosion Resistance

Description
> 17 Highly plastic Low erodible Low Satisfactory
soil
7 - 15 Medium Moderate Moderate Average
Plastic erodible soil

3 -7 Low Plastic Highly High Poor

erodible

0 -3 Non-Plastic Highly Hugh Very Poor

erodible

ii. Soil structure

Soil structure is the arrangement of soil particles into aggregates. Soils structures
affect the soil ability to hold water. Compacted soils are generally more resistant
to erosion than less compacted soils of similar lithology. Meanwhile, compacted
soils can cause high run–off that can trigger off erosion in area with less compacted
soils.

iii. Organic matter

Organic matter also tends to improve soil structure and increase permeability of
soils causing reduction in run-off and erosion potential

In summary low erodibility means low erodible soils, which offers high resistance
to erosion and are characterized by low erodibility factor K
 d. Ground cover

This refers to vegetal and other surface treatment. The effects of land cover are
to:

 Shield the soils from rainfall impacts

 Slows the rate of run-off

 Hold soil particles together

 Maintain soil capacity to hold water

Plant and residue cover protects the soil from rain drop impact and splash, tend
to slow

Ability of plant or residue effectiveness in reducing erosion depends on the type,

extent and quantity of cover.

Sources of Erosion

Erosion is caused both by natural processes and human induced activities.

i. Natural Causes: The natural causes of erosion are the due to natural effects of
climate, topography and soil properties. Other natural factors include hydrology
in the form of underground flow and surface run-off.
ii. Human induced Causes: The major human induced activities that are primary
sources of erosion are agriculture, logging, mining and construction. Although
agriculture produces the largest percentage of the total sediments load,
construction activities cause the most concentrated form of erosion.
Effects of Erosion

The effects of erosion can either be on-site or off-site. The on-site are apparent and could
be observed at the site of the erosion, while off-site effects occur outside the erosion site
but may have significant environmental impact.

a. On-site effects: The on-site effects include:

i. Loss of reproductive farmland
ii. Undermining of structures such as bridges
iii. Washing out of road pavements and fence rows
iv. Soil degradation
v. Clogging of waterways and reservoirs with sediments
vi. Decrease in water holding capability of soils and consequent increase in draught
susceptibility

b. Off-site effects: These include:

i. Excessive sedimentation of down-stream reservoirs leading to reduction in storage
capacity.
ii. Impair the quality of streams and reservoirs water by increasing the turbidity and
suspended solids. This may destroy water supplies for human, animal, and other
wildlife consumption, as well as feeding and nesting habitats
iii. Increase in turbidity within a stream or reservoir environment leads to decrease in
photosynthetic activity with a subsequent potential decrease in the available free
oxygen necessary to support aquatic life.
iv. Nitrogen and phosphates from fertilizers carried by run-off may cause excessive
algae growth, depletion of oxygen leading to direct toxicity to aquatic organisms.
v. Lake degradation
vi. Siltation of navigation channels
Methods of Erosion and Sediment Control

In view the fact that most concentrated erosion problems are caused by construction
activities, the following are highly recommended to control erosion and reduce sediment
loss during construction:
i. Fit development to the terrain: When development is tailored to the natural
contours of the land, little grading is necessary and erosion potential is reduced.
Hence, the following precaution must be adopted:
 Alignment of streets and road especially in steep slope terrain must be
along the natural contours and not across.
 Grading within slopes if necessary must be kept minimal.

ii. Time Grading and Construction: Grading of site can be carried out in stages to
minimize areas exposed to erosion and can be done mostly in dry season or
period of lower erosion potential.
iii. Vegetal Cover
Vegetation is the most effective form of erosion control, hence natural vegetation
of sites, if adequate, should be maintained as much as possible as re-establishing
of vegetation can be difficult and may not be effective as natural ones.In addition,
denuded areas must be vegetated as soon as possible.
iv. Run-off and Drainage controls: Run-off and drainage can be controlled as follows:
 Diversion of run-off: Run-off must be diverted away from denuded area or
on cut/fill slopes
 Effective drainage channels: Expected increase in run-off volume due to
development, such as creating impervious surfaces and rooftops, should be
adequately considered in designing channels sizes that can withstand the
peak flows
 Drainage channels must also be lined with concrete to prevent erosion of
the soil and the channel beds. Moreover, use of gravel or rock riprap may
be considered to reduce run-off velocities within the channel
  Drainage outlet protection: Outlet protections should be made to prevent
erosion around constructed drainage channel way outlets and at discharge
of channels into natural drainages, by reducing the velocity of run-off..
Lined apron; riprap, and rock apron are commonly used for this purpose.
v. Sediment retention structures
Erosion cannot be completely ruled out during construction, hence sediment
retention structures are therefore necessary to minimize sediment loss from the
site, prevent turbidity of the water and serve as backup measure for the erosion
control of the site. Sediment basin, sediment barrier (Straw bales filter fences) and
sediment traps are commonly used for this purpose
vi. Minimization of slope length and steepness: Slope length and steepness is one the
major factors that affects erosion potential of site, hence run-off velocity can
reduced to minimize erosion

Universal Soil Loss Equation (USLE)

From measurements of soil erosion over many years, Scientists have developed an
equation to predict soil erosion loss by water. This equation is called the Universal Soil
Loss Equation (USLE). The factors in the equation are simply numerical values that
represent the physical processes leading to erosion. The USLE shows directly the effects
of these factors, and so it is a good teaching tool. The USLE is;
A= R * K * LS * C * P
𝐴 = 𝑅 ∗ 𝐾 ∗ 𝐿𝑆 ∗ 𝐶 ∗ 𝑃
Where;
A= average annual soil loss (expressed in tons/acre)
R= erosivity index or rainfall erosion index (hundreds of foot-ton-inches per acre per
hour (100ft.tons/acre x in/hr)
K= soil erodibility factor (tons/acre per unit of R)
LS = slope length (L) and steepness factor (S) (dimensionless)
C= vegetative cover factor (dimensionless)
P= erosion control practice or roughness factor (dimensionless)
For metric unit
A = 2.24 (R * K * LS * C * P) tonnes/hectare (t/ha)
R = R*1.7 (107 J/ha *mm/hr) or (MJ/ha*mm/hr
K =K*0.132 (t/ha)/ (107 J/ha *mm/hr) or (t/ha)/ (MJ/ha*mm/hr)
Parameter Unit
R = Rainfall erosivity factor 𝑴𝑱. 𝒎𝒎
𝒉𝒂. 𝒉. 𝒚𝒓
K = Erodibility factor 𝒕. 𝒉
𝑴𝑱. 𝒎𝒎
LS = Topographic factor
C= Crop management factor
P = Conservation practice factor
Where:
𝑴𝑱 = 𝒎𝒆𝒈𝒂𝒋𝒐𝒖𝒍𝒆; 𝒎𝒎 = 𝒎𝒊𝒍𝒍𝒊𝒎𝒆𝒕𝒆𝒓𝒔; 𝒉𝒂 = 𝒉𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒂𝒓𝒆; 𝒉 = 𝒉𝒐𝒖𝒓𝒔; 𝒚𝒓 = 𝒚𝒆𝒂𝒓

Erodibility factor K is a function of geology, while topographical factor is a function of

geomorphology. Both are peculiar to each location, hence elucidated below.

a. Soil Erodibility Factor

K –Factor

The Soil Erodibility Factor (K) is an estimate of the ability of soils to resist erosion, based

on the physical characteristics of each soil. Two energy sources are considered to erode

the soil and the erodibility factor is defined by the soil ability to resist these sources;

the surface impact of the rain droplets and the shearing stress of the horizontal

runoff (FAO 1996).

Texture is the principal characteristic affecting erodibility, but structure, organic matter

and permeability also contribute. Generally, soils with faster infiltration rates, higher levels
of organic matter and improved soil structure have a greater resistance to erosion. Soil

erodibility factor

i. Soil Textural Classification

The sizes of particles that make up a soil vary over a wide range to include sand/gravel,
silt and clay. Based on the particle size predominating, soil sample can be classified
texturally. Common grain-size classification are MIT, WRB, USCS, AASTHTO and USDA
classification systems. However, the USDA system is widely adopted for erosion
evaluation

PARTICLE PARTICLE SIZES (mm)

NAME
MIT USDA WRB
Boulder ≥ 200
Cobble 60 – 200
Gravel 2 – 60

Sand 0.06 – 2.0 0.05 – 1.0 0.063 – 2.0

Silt 0.002 – 0.06 0.002 – 0.05 0.002 –

0.063
Clay 0.0002 – 0.002 < 0.002 < 0.002
Fine coloids ≤ 0.0002
 USDA WRB
Name of soil
separate Diameter limits Diameter limits
(mm) classification) (mm) classification)

Clay less than 0.002 less than 0.002

Silt 0.002 – 0.05 0.002 – 0.063

Very fine sand 0.05 – 0.10 0.063 – 0.125

Fine sand 0.10 – 0.25 0.125 – 0.20

Medium sand 0.25 – 0.50 0.20 – 0.63

Coarse sand 0.50 – 1.00 0.63 – 1.25

Very coarse sand 1.00 – 2.00 1.25 – 2.00

WRB: World Reference Base (Soil Classification adopted by International Union of Soil
Sciences)
 Chart for Textural Classification

ii. K Nomograph

A reliable method to estimate soil erodibility value for a site is the nomograph method

which was elaborated by Wischmeier and Smith (1978). This method requires data from

particle size distribution analysis to determine the percentages sand, very fine sand, silt

and clay.

∗ ∗
The Chart K Values are in ( )
∗ . ∗

The K-value in SI units = 0.1317K

Determination of K values should be based on the soil exposed during the critical rainfall

months. K values vary from topsoil to the subsoil; samples of various soil types including

fill materials on a site should be analyzed to obtain effective data which reflects

homogeneity of the site.

K factor Nomograph by Wischmeier and Smith (1978)
 ∗ ∗
K usually ranges from 0.02 to 0.69 ( )
∗ . ∗

∗ ∗
In SI unit K*= 0.1317K ( )
∗ ∗

∗ ∗ 𝒕.𝒉𝒓
In SI unit K*= 0.1317K ( )=
∗ ∗ 𝑴𝑱.𝒎𝒎

𝑴𝑱 = 𝒎𝒆𝒈𝒂𝒋𝒐𝒖𝒍𝒆; 𝒎𝒎 = 𝒎𝒊𝒍𝒍𝒊𝒎𝒆𝒕𝒆𝒓𝒔; 𝒉𝒂 = 𝒉𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒂𝒓𝒆; 𝒉 = 𝒉𝒐𝒖𝒓𝒔; 𝒚𝒓 = 𝒚𝒆𝒂𝒓

Another type of Nomograph for determination of K directly in SI unit is shown below

Soil Erodibility K Chart in SI Unit (Institute of Engineers, Singapore, 2013)
https://www.pub.gov.sg/Documents/SoilErodibility.pdf
 b. Length-Slope (LS)

This describes soil loss from the combined effect of slope length and slope gradient. The

steeper and longer the slope of a field, the higher the risk for erosion.

Slope length is the distance of overland flow to the nearest diversion or channel, while

slope gradient is the ratio of horizontal to vertical height expressed in percentages.

Length-slope factor can be determined from LS Nomograph as shown below

 c. Rainfall erosivity factor
R – Factor
Rainfall erosivity factor also called rainfall erosion index represent the energy available to

move sediment during a rain storm. The kinetic energy of the rain can be considered as

the potential rainfall energy available to be transformed into erosion. An iso-erodent map,

showing areas of equal erosion potentials in a region or country, is used to show rainfall

index for a region.

In Nigeria, rainfall erosivity factor, R, of the Revised Universal Soil Loss Equation (RUSLE)

was estimated from daily rainfall amounts of the coastal, humid forest, savanna, semi-

arid and arid zones of Nigeria using data from 17 locations, which spanned 10–33 years.

The results were used to develop monthly and annual iso-erodent maps. Mean

monthly EI30 ranged from 600 to 3200 MJ mm ha− 1 h− 1 whereas the annual values

ranged from 3000 to 27,000 MJ mm ha− 1 h− 1 from the arid to the coastal zones.

a. Othe factors

Other USLE factors are soil cover factor (C) and erosion control practice factor (P). The

soil cover factor is defined as the ratio of soil loss from land under specified crop

conditions to the corresponding loss from tilled, bare soil. The erosion control practice

factor (P) is defined as the ratio of soil loss with a given surface condition to soil loss with

up-and-down plowing.

for construction sites.

Iso-erodent map of Nigeria
 II. WIND EROSION
Wind erosion takes place when air pressure overcomes the force of gravity on surface
particles. Wind velocity generally ranges from < 1- 11 km/hr. for light wind, 39 – 61
km/hr. for strong wind, 62-117 km/hr. for gales. Wind, depending on velocity, turbulence,
frequency and duration, can thus exert same kind of force on particles on land surface
as a river current exerts on its bed.
Wind erosion generally involves detachment, transportation, and deposition of loose
topsoil or sand by the action of wind. Wind erosion is common in deserts, where sand is
blown about because there are few plants to hold the soil in place, and there is no rain
to bind the soil particles together.
Movement of particle by wind is saltation, the bounding and jumping movements of grains
in the air. Saltating grains can rise to height of 0.5 – 2 m. The falling primary saltating
grains induces secondary saltation of other grains that are pushed forward leading to
surface creep. Also, large saltating sand grains hitting on the ground results into blowing
away of fine particle.

When winds encounter any obstructions, the velocity is naturally reduced, resulting in
deposition of transported sands. Once sands accumulation takes place, they themselves
obstruct the wind movement and the load is deposited. These are aeolian deposits,
especially sand mounds. One important feature of the deposit is that the sand particles
are arranged according to their size and weight. The finer dust particles are carried for
long distances and are ultimately deposited elsewhere.
Wind erosion of sand dune

Types of wind erosion: There are three types of wind erosion, namely: deflation,
attrition and abrasion.

a. Deflation
This process involves blowing away of dust and silt particles by turbulent winds leading
to lowering of land surfaces. The process is common in dry plains and deserts where
vegetation is sparse. Deflation can lead to formation of basin – like depressions, called
“Dust Bowls”. Also, deflation by blowing away of fine particles in heterogeneous deposits
of gravel, sand and silt eventually leads to accumulation of coarse sand/gravel over long
period to form desert pavement.

b. Attrition
Attrition by wind takes place when the suspended loads carried by the wind collide against
each other. The greater the velocity and turbulence of the wind and the length of transit,
the greater is the effect of attrition. In the process, sand particles become finer and
spherical.
 c. Abrasion/Sand Blasting
When the wind is armed with blown sand, it can effectively wear away and shape solid
rock surfaces by the constant impact of the grains. Abrasion is usually more pronounced
on the weaker portion of rock outcrops, such as enlargement of discontinuities to form
rock pinnacles. Differential abrasion of alternating horizontal soft and hard rocks results
in hard rocks forming resistant caps over the soft rock to form zeugers.

Environmental Impact of wind erosion

Wind erosion may create adverse operating conditions in the field. Crops can be totally
ruined so that costly delay and reseeding is necessary - or the plants may be sandblasted
and set back with a resulting decrease in yield, loss of quality, and market value.
Soil drifting is a fertility-depleting process that can lead to poor crop growth and yield
reductions in areas of fields where wind erosion is a recurring problem. Continual drifting
of an area gradually causes a textural change in the soil. Loss of fine sand, silt, clay and
organic particles from sandy soils serves to lower the moisture holding capacity of the
soil. This, in turn, increases the erodibility of the soil and compounds the problem.
The removal of wind-blown soils from fence rows, ditches, roads and from around
buildings is a costly process.