SKILLS

FOR LIFE

Creativity
Copyright © [2022] Inter-American Development Bank. This work is licensed under a
Creative Commons IGO 3.0 Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives (CC-IGO BY-NC-ND
3.0 IGO) license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/3.0/igo/legalcode) and
may be reproduced with attribution to the IDB and for any non-commercial purpose. No
derivative work is allowed.

Any dispute related to the use of the works of the IDB that cannot be settled amicably shall
be submitted to arbitration pursuant to the UNCITRAL rules. The use of the IDB’s name
for any purpose other than for attribution, and the use of IDB’s logo shall be subject to a
separate written license agreement between the IDB and the user and is not authorized as
part of this CC-IGO license.

Note that link provided above includes additional terms and conditions of the license.
The opinions expressed in this publication are those of the authors and do not necessarily
reflect the views of the Inter-American Development Bank, its Board of Directors, or the
countries they represent.

2 SKILLS
FOR LIFE
 Authors
Carolina Cuesta
MEd, MSc. Purdue University
is a Fulbright Scholar and a Ph.D. student in Learning Design
and Technology at Purdue University. Her research interests
center around how to foster creativity and innovation in
learning environments. She holds a Master’s degree in
Education from Purdue University and a Master’s degree
in Science, Technology, and Innovation Management from
the University of Antioquia in Colombia. Carolina has been
teaching Entrepreneurship and Innovation for 5 years.

Brad Hokanson Ph.D

University of Minnesota
is the Mertie W Buckman Professor of Design Education
at the University of Minnesota. His research focuses on the
development of creativity in learners. He received his Ph.D. in
Instructional Technology from the University of Minnesota.

“I never made one of my discoveries through the

process of rational thinking.”

Albert Einstein, 1879–1955, Theoretical Physicist

3 SKILLS
FOR LIFE
 Abstract
Creativity is a critical human 21st-century skill that
allows us to produce novel and valuable ideas.
Creative ideas are original and make a unique
contribution to any field, but also, they help to solve
complex problems that humanity is continuously
facing. Creativity is essential at the individual level
to solve problems on the job and in daily life. At the
societal level, creativity can lead to new scientific
findings, new movements in art, and new inventions.
Corporations and governments are frequently looking
to support and encourage developing creativity as
a driver for innovation to promote technological
development and economic growth. Educational
institutions play a crucial role in this development and
in fostering creative thinking. This brief will discuss
how creativity has been conceptualized and will
share some strategies to foster creativity in a learning
environment and the workplace. Also, it will discuss
how technology impacts creativity development.

4 SKILLS
FOR LIFE
1. Introduction
People often use the metaphor of “thinking outside the box” to refer to being creative, thinking
differently, and generating ideas. It is believed that the term was coined in the 1970s or 80s by a group
of consultants, who challenged their clients to draw nine dots on a piece of paper and then connect the
dots without lifting the pencil using only four straight lines.

Still, with connecting nine dots, does it mean that I am more creative?
4
If so, how can we go to get to Mars, ride a jetpack to the Moon, or
2 end starvation from connecting nine dots? What does it mean to be
creative?

Historically, the innovations that humanity has developed are often

1 described as a creative breakthrough. Creativity has often been
related to coming from great minds. When we think of creativity,
innovation, and invention, we think about great artists and scientists,
3 such as Vincent van Gogh, Mozart, or Albert Einstein. These are people
who have made significant contributions to humankind in terms of
knowledge, techniques, technology, and innovation.

But, if creativity is linked to the greatest minds in humanity, what about the rest of us? What about those
of us who are not great artists or scientists? Can we be creative? If so, how?

Today, all challenges nowadays are more complex. The future is unpredictable, and we must prepare
ourselves to face this uncertainty. Thus, creativity becomes a necessary skill to develop toward solving
complex problems in the future. As a result of these concerns, international institutions like the World
Economic Forum (2018) and the OECD (2013, 2018) highlight the importance of creativity as one essential
skill in the labor market in the 21st century and expresses the importance of promoting creativity in
classrooms as a necessary competence to develop in students to improve educational quality.

Creativity is a competency that can be developed, fostered, taught, and learned. Therefore, we all have
the potential to be creative. In this brief, we will discuss what creativity is from different perspectives
and theories, how we can measure creativity, and the possibilities to foster creativity in learning and
work environments.

5 SKILLS
FOR LIFE
2. Everybody talks about creativity,
but what is creativity?
There have been several debates related to the definition of creativity in the literature. However, most
researchers and theorists agree that creativity involves developing a novel, useful, effective, original,
valuable product, idea, or solution (Cropley, 2011; Hennessey & Amabile, 2010; Runco & Jaeger, 2012).

Creativity is not limited to the artistic fields, as most people believe but also occurs in areas such as
science, business, engineering, manufacturing, technology, medicine, administration, and education
(Cropley, 2011). Given that creativity can be developed in all fields, it can be explained from different
perspectives and models.

Creativity Theories and Models

In addition to the different approaches to defining creativity, various models have been developed to
help us understand it and foster it (see Table 1), like the Four P model (Rhodes, 1961); the Four C model
(Kaufmand & Beghetto, 2009); and The Five A model (Glave nu, 2013), among others.

Table 1.
Models of creativity

Model Components
Four P Person, Process, Product, and Press
model

Big-c (historical creative accomplishments of the individual)

Four C Pro-c (professional accomplishments with years of experience)
model little-c (The product or idea developed might be valuable to others), and
mini-c (the creative act or product is new and original for the individual himself)

Five A Actor, Action, Artifact, Audience, and Affordance

model

6 SKILLS
FOR LIFE
One of the most used models to understand creativity is the Rhodes’s (1961) Four-P model. In this
model, creativity can be conceptualized from the perspective of the creative person (a set of personal
characteristics), the creative product (artifacts or results of a process), the creative process (creative
thinking), and the creative press that is the pressure of environmental factors that can influence positively
or negatively creativity development (Cropley, 2011; Kozbelt, 2011).

These models can guide practitioners and researchers to learn more about how to foster creativity
in different settings. For example, to improve teaching for creativity, facilitate problem solving in any
domain, and enhance economic development (Gruszka & Tang, 2017).

The Creative Person

To explain creativity from the person’s perspective, we need to consider individual aspects and
characteristics that make her/him different from others, such as cognitive processes, personality, ability,
thinking style, attitude, and behavior, self-concept, and even idiosyncratic behavior (Kandler et al., 2016;
Runco & Kim, 2011).

Sawyer (2012), in his book Explaining creativity: The science of human innovation, makes and historical
evaluation of how several researchers have argued about the possible different personality traits and
skills that a creative person exhibits. Here are some traits and aspects of a creative person:

Self-confidence
Flexible assertiveness,
Verbal Metaphorical
decision and belief in
Fluency thinking oneself as
making
being creative

The ability to
Independence Tolerance of internally Openness to
of judgment ambiguity visualize experience
problems

Atraction of Willingness to
High energy Autonomy
complexity take risks

7 SKILLS
FOR LIFE
However, there is no guarantee that if a person shares the same characteristics as a highly creative
person, they will also be creative without an appropriate environment that supports creativity (Runco &
Kim, 2011). Personality traits are just one piece of the puzzle. Researchers have identified a large number
of traits or attributes associated with high levels of creativity. However, creativity does not seem to
be the result of one personality trait in particular but the mix of individual and environmental factors
(Sawyer, 2012).

The Creative Process

There are mixed theories about how the creative process works. Some authors argue that once you
have a creative idea, your creative process is done. But research on the creative process explains that
creativity tends to happen in a sequence of steps and take place over time, and that most of the creativity
occurs while doing the work (Sawyer, 2012).

One of the first models of the creative process is the Wallas (1926) four-stage model. This model is still
the most popular used to explain the creative process. It entails Preparation (gathering information
and problem finding), Incubation (take a step back from the process, the unconscious thought process
happens), Illumination (generation of ideas for creative solutions), Verification (evaluation and analysis
of ideas - enhancing).

Preparation Incubation Illumination Verification

8 SKILLS
FOR LIFE
The Creative Product
The creative product is the result of the creative process, which additionally includes palpable and
observable artifacts such as paintings, novels, buildings, and inventions. Creative ideas can later be
concretized into tangible forms, like, designs or patents (Plucker & Guo, 2018), or intangible results such
as methods, laws, or protocols.

A few measures have been developed to assess creative products involving experts in specific domains,
such as art, engineering, chemistry, and design, among others (Runco & Kim, 2011). Yet, there is no
general measure that can be used to assess all creative products.

Sawyer (2012, 2019) for example, explains that Jazz it is a mixture of other kinds of music. It is dynamic
and changes with new influences and ideas, and past experiences of the artist, to finally create a unique
sound and composition. Only experts in Jazz can assess the creativity of the compositions. That is why
learning is strongly related to creativity.

What we create is associated with our past experiences, and that makes our creations unique because
our life experiences are unique (Sawyer, 2012, 2019).

The Creative Press (Environment)

The term creative press refers to the ecological environment and the factors that can influence creative
behavior. Studies of press factors have demonstrated that there are supportive and inhibiting aspects
of the environment, such as resources, policies, cultural, organizational, and social factors (Runco &
Kim, 2011).

Other Models
Other models, like the componential models, explain how specific components, or elements, work
together to produce the creative behavior, evidencing that multiple component must come together for
creativity to occur (Sternberg, 2011).

Researchers on creativity agree creativity is not a singular phenomenon. It involves different complex
components and characteristics (Table 2) that interact with each other; these components concern
cognition, knowledge, personality, motivation, and the environment. The use of creativity models can
allow policymakers and educators to have a framework to understand better and develop educational
programs and policies to foster creativity.

9 SKILLS
FOR LIFE
Table 2.
Summary of componential creativity models and theories

Creativity
Characteristics
Theories
This “systems” approach to creativity highlights the interaction of the
The systems individual (who draws upon information in a domain and transforms or
model of creativity extends it via cognitive processes, personality traits, and motivation), domain
(Csikszentmihalyi, (a culturally defined symbol system that preserves and transmits creative
products to other individuals and future generations), and the field (people
1964, 1988) who control or influence a domain that evaluates and selects new ideas).

The componential
Creativity is the confluence of intrinsic motivation, domain-relevant skills,
theory of creativity and creativity-relevant skills.
(Amabile, 1983)

This theory distinguishes the importance of the domain (the body of

The Theory of Multiple knowledge about a particular subject area) and the field (the context
Intelligences (Gardner, in which this body of knowledge is studied and elaborated, including the
1983) persons working with the domain). Both are important to the development,
and ultimately, the recognition of creativity.

Creative work evolves over long periods. A person’s knowledge, purpose,

The evolving systems
and affect grow over time, amplify deviations that an individual encounter,
approach to creative and lead to creative products. It is purposeful work and there is a constant
work (Gruber, 1988) interplay among purpose, play, and chance.

They suggest that five resources (intellectual styles, knowledge, personality,

motivation, and environmental context) contribute to creativity. Creative
The investment theory people are willing and able to “buy low and sell high” in the realm of ideas.
Buying low means pursuing ideas that are unknown or out of favor but that
of creativity (Lubart & have growth potential. Often, when these ideas are first presented, they
Sternberg, 1995) encounter resistance. The creative individual persists in the face of this
resistance, and eventually sells high, moving on to the next new or unpopular
idea.

Creativity is across domains: The APT Model is based on the metaphor of a

The Amusement Park large amusement park. There are initial requirements that, to varying degrees,
Theoretical Model (APT) are necessary to creative performance in all domains (e.g., intelligence,
(Baer & Kaufman, 2005) motivation). The first level (initial requirements) is very general, and each
subsequent level gets more and more domain-specific. By the final level
(microdomains), the theory is very domain-specific.

Source: Adpated from Sternberg R. J. (2011). Componential models of creativity. In Runco, M.

A., & Pritzker, S. R. (Eds.). Encyclopedia of creativity. Academic Press.
10 SKILLS
FOR LIFE
3. Assessment and measurement
As discussed, creativity is a broadly used term. There is a range of creativity definitions, perspectives,
and assessments. Sometimes, “creativity” is used to specify a personal characteristic, a cognitive
process, or used as a descriptor of objects or ideas. Therefore, there is also a broad range of methods to
evaluate it and assess it. For example, some self-assessments are used to measure creativity as personal
characteristics. Creative behaviors and divergent thinking tests are used to measure everyday creativity
by assessing multiple cognitive processes, and tests like the Consensual Assessment Technique (CAT)
are used to evaluate the creativity of an object or idea.

Creativity measures can be classified into several types, depending upon their aim and content. Most
are psychometric methods, they measure mental attributes, behavior, and performance. Yet, there is no
single best measure for creativity, and every assessment has its strengths and limitations depending on
its use (Kaufman et al., 2008).

Since creativity combines cognitive, emotional, and environmental factors that interact dynamically,
researchers have been developing tests, scales, and ratings to measure these intrinsically human factors
(Kanlı, 2020). Psychometric measurements of the creative person and process, measures cognitive
factors like problem solving, idea generation, idea evaluation, flexibility, analogical thinking, associative
thinking, and divergent thinking. The summary table made by Kanlı, (2020) as an adaptation form
Kaufman et al., (2008) can help practitioners, educators, and policy makers to evaluate and design
effective creativity assessments for different areas of study and industries (see Table 3).

11 SKILLS
FOR LIFE
Table 3.
Brief overview of creativity assessments

Type of Examples Advantages Disadvantages

Assessment
Well-researched
Process-based
Torrance Tests of having years of May only tap limited
assessment (e.g.,
Creative Thinking research data aspects of creativity
divergent thinking tests)
available

Group Inventory for Creativity is rated by

Person-based
Finding Creative a teacher, peer, or Questions about validity
assessment (e.g.,
Talent or other parent who knows and reliability
Assessment by others)
instruments the individual.
Person-based Asking someone to People can be subjective
Quick, cheap, and
assessment rate his or her own about their level of
has high face validity
(e.g., Self-assessment) creativity creativity
Product-based Allows for very
assessment (e.g., Having experts rate domain-specific Time consuming and
Consensual assessment a creative product information about expensive
technique) creativity,
Source: Kanlı (2020). Adapted from Kaufman, J. C., Plucker, J. A., & Baer, J. (2008). Essentials of creativity assessment (Vol. 53).
John Wiley & Sons.

Despite this broad range of possible cognitive factors to measure, one of the most used tests to measure
creativity are divergent thinking tests. Divergent thinking is a thought process used to generate creative
ideas by searching for many possible solutions. Here, some examples and descriptions of some of the
most used tests:

Torrance Test of Creative Thinking (TTCT)

One divergent thinking test that is highly utilized in research, academic, and training areas is the
Torrance Test of Creative Thinking (TTCT) (Torrance, 1974). Although divergent thinking is an important
indicator of creativity, it is just one part of the creative process (Four P model). In this test, the individual
produces as many responses to verbal or figural stimuli as possible (generate ideas). The test is scored
according to the concepts of originality (the ability to produce novel and unusual ideas), fluency (the
ability to generate many ideas), flexibility (the ability to move fluidly between different representations
or categories) and elaboration (the ability to develop ideas fully).

12 SKILLS
FOR LIFE
Consensual Assessment Technique (CAT)
EThe Consensual Assessment Technique (CAT) assesses creativity products (Amabile, 1982). The CAT is
a method of assessing creative performance that can be used in any domain and it is recognized as one
of the most effective tools for measuring creative work. It is based on the idea that the best measure of
the creativity of a work of art, a theory, or any other artifact is the combined assessment and opinions of
experts in that particular field.

Creativity Checklist (Ratings by Peers, Teachers, or Supervisors)

The Creativity Checklist that assesses the creative process (Proctor & Burnett, 2004). The Creativity
Checklist is composed of characteristics thought to be indicative of a creative person, both cognitive
and dispositional traits in 9 scales: fluent thinker, flexible thinker, original thinker, elaborative thinker,
intrinsically motivated student, curious/immersed in topic, risk taker, imaginative/intuitive, and engages
in complex tasks/enjoys a challenge.

Creative Behavior Inventory (CBI): Self-Reported Creative Activities

The creative behavior inventory (CBI) assesses how creative the person is through self-reported creative
activities (Hocevar, 1981). The Creative Behavior Inventory (CBI), initially developed by Hocevar, was one
of the first self-assessments of creative behavior and accomplishment to be widely used in research (Silvia
et al., 2012). CBI measures creativity in domains such as literature, music, crafts, art, math, and science,
and performing arts.

13 SKILLS
FOR LIFE
4. Nurturing Creativity skills
Much of the existing research in creativity is focused on individual, psychological, and/or personality
variables. However, despite its importance, these variables often do not offer practical advice to
educators (Beghetto, 2010).

Support for Creativity in a Learning Environment (SCALE)

The intentional design of learning environments that foster creativity is fundamental to support
creativity. For example, Richardson and Mishra (2018) developed the Support for Creativity in a
Learning Environment (SCALE), an instrument designed to assess how a learning environment supports
student creativity. This tool provides educators with specific examples for the support of creativity in a
learning environment. It consists of three categories: physical environment, learning climate, and learner
engagement (Richardson & Mishra, 2018).

Physical Environment
The space of the learning environment itself should be open, containing furniture that is flexible to allow
multiple spaces to work on. Also, teachers should have a variety of rich resources and materials for the
student to use.

Learning Climate
The relationship between teacher and student, among students, plays an integral role in support of
creativity. It is suggested that the learning climate be an open atmosphere in which students communicate
freely, accept, and discuss new ideas, trust each other, and support taking risks. Where opportunity
exploration, originality, and cooperation between teachers and students are valued.

Learner Engagement
This includes the actual tasks that students are involved in. Some tasks that support creativity involve
active learning where the focus of learning is the process, not the product. Also, all members of the
environment are seen as co-learners and co-teachers. Open-ended tasks that involve choice or focus
on authentic problems. Pedagogical practices like inquiry or discovery-based learning support student
creativity, especially when tasks are relevant and exciting.

The SCALE is an informal instrument that could be completed in one sitting in 10-20 minutes (Table 4). It
will allow educators to reflect on the elements that can support creativity at a certain time in a learning
environment (Richardson & Mishra, 2018).

14 SKILLS
FOR LIFE
Table 4.
SCALE instrument

SCALE Component Rating

Physical Environment
A variety of resources/supplies are available and accessible to students. 0 1 2 3
Examples of student work appear in the space. 0 1 2 3
A variety of workstations or areas are available to students. 0 1 2 3
The furniture allows for multiple arrangements and configurations. 0 1 2 3
Learning Climate
Students are involved in discussions among themselves, with or without the teacher, that deepen
their understanding.
0 1 2 3
The students are caring, respectful, and value differences. 0 1 2 3
The teacher is a facilitator, co-learner, explorer, or inquirer with students. 0 1 2 3
Mistakes, risk-taking, and novel ideas are valued or encouraged. 0 1 2 3
Learner Engagement
Students are involved in tasks that are open-ended and/or involve choice. 0 1 2 3
Students are involved in activities that may include inquiry, project based learning, or
interdisciplinary tasks.
0 1 2 3
Students use multiple perspectives/viewpoints/ways of knowing or various modes of
investigation/problem solving.
0 1 2 3
Students demonstrate interest in or enthusiasm for the activity beyond being "on task." 0 1 2 3
Students spend time developing ideas for deeper understanding and/or reflecting on their learning. 0 1 2 3
Students work at their own pace and/or time is used flexibly. 0 1 2 3
Source: Richardson, C., & Mishra, P. (2018). Learning environments that support student creativity: Developing the SCALE. Thinking
Skills and Creativity, 27, 45–54. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tsc.2017.11.004

Scoring the SCALE:

• 0 No Evidence - No evidence for the item. The • 2 Moderate Evidence - Moderate evidence of the
item was not observed. item. Multiple but not the majority of students
are involved. The item is observed for a limited
• 1 Minimal Evidence - Minimal evidence for the amount of time.
item. This may include only one or two students
involved in the item or a minimal amount of time • 3 High Evidence - High evidence of the item.
spent on the item. The item is infused throughout the
environment with the majority of students
involved in or much time spent on the item.

15 SKILLS
FOR LIFE
Other pedagogical approaches to teach creativity include a variety of strategies where the environment
is less structured, includes more hands-on activities, and multiple learning ways. Additionally, the
development of creativity can also be accomplished at a modest cost and while integrated into traditional
subjects of learning. For example, according to Plucker and Guo (2018), using these strategies could
help educators design interventions to foster creativity:

Play- and Game-Based Interventions

Play-oriented or game-based approaches can support creativity development for people of all ages. For
example, Russ (2014) suggested that pretend play may provide practice for solving real-problems and
processing emotions. Pretend play involves the use of fantasy, symbolism, make-believe, and expression
of emotion to compose stories or narratives, generate ideas, and practice analogical and divergent
thinking (Russ, 2014). In the game-based approach, educators must consider several factors, including
game selection and how games align with their teaching and students learning goals.

Developing Creative Ideation

Ideation, or divergent thinking, refers to generating multiple responses or solutions to a problem. It is a
key creativity indicator (Runco, 2010). Therefore, seeking unknown or divergent answers to challenges
is key to develop creative thinking. Divergent thinking training is a widely used intervention to enhance
the number and quality of students’ ideas and can be used for different domains. For example, math
teachers can show students how to solve problems using nontraditional methods so risk taking is
encouraged (Luria et al., 2017).

Fostering Creative Attitudes

Most creative achievements result from hard work and considerable time rather than a brief flash of
insight. Unfortunately, many people still believe that being creative is part of some mystical phenomenon
inspiration while ignoring the intentionality and choice behind the creative act. A creative attitude
develops in a creative environment which leads then to creative thinking. The stronger the creative
environment, the more creative attitudes can be developed and displayed by the people in that
environment (Jamali, 2020). Therefore, teachers, administrators, and policymaker’s need to design
creative environments to develop creative attitudes in their students and population. Hence their beliefs
about creativity can influence society’s beliefs about creativity.

16 SKILLS
FOR LIFE
Creative Modeling
According to Yi et al., (2015), modeling generally appears to have a positive effect on artistic creativity
and divergent thinking. Many human behaviors, including creativity, are learned by observing an
appropriate model. Evidence supporting these effects of creative modeling comes from a variety of
sources, including classroom-based instruction (Yi et al., 2015). By demonstrating creativity (creative
work produced by others), educators can establish a creative environment that could inspire students to
take risks, generate novel ideas, and enhance their self-expression (Beghetto & Kaufman, 2014).

In addition to the pedagogical approaches mentioned above, instructional strategies like project-based
learning and problem-based learning used to find solutions to real-world problems are effective ways
to develop creativity. Consequently, designing learning activities that include creativity as a learning
goal can foster creative thinking in the classroom. An example is, diversifying assessment standards
and presentation media (using different tools and ways for presenting content and evaluating it) and
practicing negotiated assessment to design creative ways to assess (involve the students in the course/
training evaluations design).

Enhancing Creativity with Technology

Digital technology has impacted on how humans now live, work, think, communicate, and create (Zhao,
2012). Using different technologies, such as digital devices, applications, and social media, allows people
to see new opportunities to solve complex problems of 21st century society (Plucker & Guo, 2018).
However, the interaction between learning, technology, and creativity is still unclear in terms of effective
tool design, knowledge, and practices for practitioners to use in the classroom to help students develop
digitally creative skills and design learning experiences to foster creativity (Mishra & Henriksen, 2018;
Zhao, 2012).

According to Guo and Woulfin (2016), technology can get students and teachers to engage with
information in different ways, allowing for a better understanding of complex data. Another benefit of
using technology in the classroom is the enhancement of communication and collaboration in creative
activities. With mobile devices’ proliferation, students can engage in interactive and collaborative
problem-solving in complex, authentic classroom practices, such as in a simulated problem context
(case-based learning, problem-based learning).

There is a calling from the academic community (Henriksen et al., 2021), to policymakers, educators,
and international institutions to continue discussing how technology can enhance creativity. Henriksen
et al., 2021 states that it is vital to do more classroom-based empirical research and participatory or
action research to create greater cohesion between research, policy, and practice.

17 SKILLS
FOR LIFE
5. Implications
In a rapidly changing world, generating and evaluating ideas to develop new knowledge and creating
social and economic value is imperative for advancing a knowledge-based economy and revindicating
some countries’ innovation weaknesses. Despite the importance of supporting creativity development
in society, researchers have noted that school systems still function in traditional ways, with restrictive
practices for teachers and students, such as fixed curriculum, linear single answer assessments, and
structured and rigid content that could limit creative thinking (Collins & Halverson, 2018). Therefore,
countries worldwide have been evaluating educational policies and developing policies to foster
creativity and creativity related skills (Henriksen et al., 2018). For example, some the countries, such
as Australia, Bulgaria, the Czech Republic, Finland, and Slovakia, have included creativity into their
curriculum policies as an educational outcome or essential skill needed for students (see Table 5).

Table 5.
International Educational Policies for Creativity

Country Policy
The Australian Curriculum (ACARA, n.d.) is the most important set of policy frameworks. It
stipulates the minimum curriculum for F-10 students in learning areas (subject disciplines),
Australia cross-curriculum priorities, and general capabilities. Importantly, one of the seven General
Capabilities for F-10 is Critical and Creative Thinking.
The term “creativity” did not appear officially within educational law until 2016 when the New
Pre-School and School Education Law came into action. There, the term creativity appears
Bulgaria in article 77, expressing the key competencies expected by Bulgarian students, such as
competence #8: cultural awareness and competence for expression via creativity.
In the Czech national curricular advisory document, creativity and creative activities in the
curriculum (2013) for elementary schools are associated primarily with artistic performance
Czech (Art Education, Music Education, Dancing Education, etc.). Creativity is implemented in the
Republic supplementary domains of Ethical Education, Film and Audio-visual Education, Dancing, and,
in a cross-curricular theme, Personal and Social Education. In students’ creative activities, the
emphasis is put on artistic production in educational domains.
The National Core Curriculum (NCC) guides the Finnish compulsory basic education for
students aged 7–15 (FNBE 2016). It provides a uniform foundation for education providers to
Finland create local school-level curricula, thus enhancing educational equality. The NCC recognizes
creativity as one element of learning, which receives 80 mentions on 473 pages.
The State Education Program (SEP) is the key national curriculum document, and its updated
version has been implemented in schools since 2015. The SEP states the aims or expected
Slovakia outcomes of school education, lists the compulsory topics for school subjects, and defines the
required competencies of students. Creativity is present in this document, and the principles of
active and creative education are characterized in the SEP.

Source: Adapted. Henriksen et al., (2018). Creativity and technology in education:

An international perspective. Technology, Knowledge and Learning, 23(3), 409-424. 18 SKILLS
https://doi.org/10.1007/s10758-018-9380-1 FOR LIFE
Creativity is a necessary and crucial skill to respond effectively to change (Shen, 2012), and education has
a central role in fostering creativity and creative practices. Education systems will need to:

Adapt to the changes, aspirations and anxieties about the role of creativity in our wider society, not
only in realizing personal learning potential in an enriching curriculum, but also in raising achievement,
skill and talent for economic innovation and wealth creation (Loveless, 2007, p. 5).

In a broader sense, countries can develop creative industries by nurturing creativity skills. One of the
earliest efforts in this direction was the widely hailed Cox Review Report from the United Kingdom. The
Cox Report (2005) outlined several different efforts the UK government could use to stimulate the creative
industries, such as design, arts, digital media, and advertising, among others.

More importantly, all countries must be creatively competitive, including those within the Latin American
region. Although different countries have different conditions, resources, and industries, all share a need
for the improvement of creative skills of their population. To do so, two key concepts are critical to advance
creativity on a national basis. First, educators and employers should create environments that encourage
creative expression, behavior and thinking. Second, creativity should be taught in schools, particularly
creative problem-solving and divergent thinking.

Without a clear idea of the goal of creativity in policy, it is not easy to cultivate it in teachers and students.
Yet, teachers are essential to infusing it into practice (Hall & Thomson, 2005). Consequently, it is vital for
the Latin American and the Caribbean region to evaluate policies and discuss creativity as an engine to
develop innovation and economic growth.

19 SKILLS
FOR LIFE
References
Amabile, T. (1982). Social psychology of creativity: A consensual Hennessey, B. A., & Amabile, T.M. (2010). Creativity. Annual Review of
assessment technique. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, Psychology, 61, 569 98. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.093008.100416
43, 997–1013. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.43.5.997
Henriksen, D., Creely, E., Henderson, M., & Mishra, P. (2021). Creativity
Amabile, T. (1983). The social psychology of creativity: A and technology in teaching and learning: a literature review of the
componential conceptualization. Journal of Personality and Social uneasy space of implementation. Educational Technology Research
Psychology, 45(2), 357-376. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.45.2.357 and Development, 69, 2091-2108.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s11423-020-09912-z
Baer, J., & Kaufman, J. C. (2005). Bridging generality and specificity:
The amusement park theoretical (APT) model of creativity. Roeper Henriksen, D., Henderson, M., Creely, E., Ceretkova, S., ernochová, M.,
Review, 27(3), 158-163. https://doi.org/10.1080/02783190509554310 Sendova, E., ... & Tienken, C. H. (2018). Creativity and technology in
education: An international perspective. Technology, Knowledge and
Beghetto, R. A. (2010). Creativity in the classroom. In James C. Learning, 23(3), 409-424. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10758-018-9380-1
Kaufman, & Robert J. Sternberg (Eds). The Cambridge handbook of
creativity (pp. 447-461). Cambridge University Press. Hocevar, D. (1981). Measurement of creativity: Review and critique.
Journal of Personality assessment, 45(5), 450-464.
Beghetto, R. A., & Kaufman, J. C. (2014). Classroom contexts for https://doi.org/10.1207/s15327752jpa4505_1
creativity. High ability studies, 25(1), 53-69.
https://doi.org/10.1080/13598139.2014.905247 Jamali, U. (2020). Fostering creativity using robotics among gifted
primary school students. Gifted and Talented International, 34(1-2),
Collins, A., & Halverson, R. (2018). Rethinking education in the age of 71-78. https://doi.org/10.1080/15332276.2020.1711545
technology: The digital revolution and schooling in America. Teachers
College Press. Kandler, C., Riemann, R., Angleitner, A., Spinath, F. M., Borkenau, P., &
Penke, L. (2016). The nature of creativity: The roles of genetic factors,
Cropley A. J. (2011). Definitions of Creativity. In Mark A. Runco, & personality traits, cognitive abilities, and environmental sources.
Steven R. Pritzker (Eds.). Encyclopedia of Creativity (Second Edition) Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 111(2), 230–249.
(pp. 511-524). Academic Press. https://doi.org/10.1037/pspp0000087
https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-375038-9.00066-2
Kanlı, E. (2020). Assessment of Creativity: Theories and Methods.
Csikszentmihalyi, M. (1988). Society, culture, and person: A systems In Pooja Jain (Ed.). Creativity-A Force to Innovation. (pp 1-21).
view of creativity. In R. J. Sternberg (Ed.) The nature of creativity (pp. IntechOpen. https://doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.93971
325–339). Cambridge University Press.
Kaufman, J. C., & Beghetto, R. A. (2009). Beyond big and little: The
Egan, A., Maguire, R., Christophers, L., & Rooney, B. (2017). four c model of creativity. Review of General Psychology, 13(1), 1-12.
Developing creativity in higher education for 21st century learners: https://doi.org/10.1037/a0013688
A protocol for a scoping review. International Journal of Educational
Research, 82, 21–27. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijer.2016.12.004 Kaufman, J. C., Plucker, J. A., & Baer, J. (2008). Essentials of creativity
assessment (Vol. 53). John Wiley & Sons
Gardner, H. (1983). The theory of multiple intelligences. Heinemann.
Kozbelt (2011). Theories of Creativity. In Mark A. Runco, Steven R.
Gl veanu, V. P. (2013). Rewriting the language of creativity: The Five Pritzker (Eds.). Encyclopedia of Creativity (Second Edition) (pp. 473-
A’s framework. Review of General Psychology, 17(1), 69-81. 479). Academic Press. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-375038-9.00223-5
https://doi.org/10.1037/a0029528
Lubart, T. I., & Sternberg, R. J. (1995). An investment approach to
Gruber, H. (1988). The evolving systems approach to creative work. creativity: Theory and data. In Steven M. Smith, Thomas B. Ward, &
Creativity Research Journal, 1(1), 27-51. Ronald A. Finke (Eds.). The creative cognition approach, (pp 269-302).
https://doi.org/10.1080/10400418809534285 Massachusetts Institute of Technology.

Gruszka-Gosiewska, A., & Tang, M. (2017). The 4P’s creativity model Luria, S. R., Sriraman, B., & Kaufman, J. C. (2017). Enhancing equity
and its application in different fields. In Lisa Min Tang, Christian in the classroom by teaching for mathematical creativity. ZDM, 49(7),
Werner (Eds.). Handbook of The Management of Creativity and 1033-1039. https://doi.org/ 10.1007/s11858-017-0892-2
Innovation: Theory And Practice (pp 51-71). World Scientific.
Mishra, P., & Henriksen, D. (2018). Creativity, technology & education:
Guo, J., & Woulfin, S. (2016). Twenty-first century creativity: An Exploring their convergence. Springer International Publishing.
investigation of how the partnership for 21st century instructional
framework reflects the principles of creativity. Roeper Review, 38(3), OECD. (2013). OECD Skills Outlook 2013: First results from the survey
153-161. https://doi.org/10.1080/02783193.2016.1183741 of adult skills. OECD Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1787/9789264204256-en

Hall, C., & Thomson, P. (2005). Creative tensions? Creativity and basic OECD. (2016). Innovating Education and Educating for Innovation: The
skills in recent educational policy. English in Education, 39(3), 5-18. Power of Digital Technologies and Skills.
https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1754-8845.2005.tb00621.x https://doi.org/10.1787/9789264265097-en

20 SKILLS
FOR LIFE
Plucker, J. A. & Guo, J. (2018). Creativity: Definitions, Interventions,
and Assessments. In J. L., Roberts, T. F., Inman, & J. H. Robins (Eds.).
Introduction to Gifted Education (pp. 299-320). Prufrock Press.

Proctor, R. & Burnett, P. (2004). Measuring cognitive and

dispositional characteristics of creativity in elementary students.
Creativity Research Journal, 16(4), 421-429.
https://doi.org/10.1080/10400410409534553

Rhodes, M. (1961). An analysis of creativity. The Phi Delta Kappan,

42(7), 305-310. Retrieved June 22, 2021, from
http://www.jstor.org/stable/20342603

Richardson, C., & Mishra, P. (2018). Learning environments that

support student creativity: Developing the SCALE. Thinking Skills and
Creativity, 27, 45–54. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tsc.2017.11.004

Runco, M. A. (2010). Divergent thinking, creativity, and ideation. In

J. C. Kaufman & R. J. Sternberg (Eds.), The Cambridge handbook of
creativity (pp. 413–446). Cambridge University Press.
https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511763205.026

Runco, M. A., & Jaeger, G. J. (2012). The Standard Definition of

Creativity. Creativity Research Journal, 24(1), 92–96.
https://doi.org/10.1080/10400419.2012.650092

Runco, M. A., & Kim, D. (2011). The four Ps of creativity: Person,

product, process, and press. In Mark A. Runco, Steven R. Pritzker
(Eds.). Encyclopedia of Creativity (Second Edition) (pp. 534-537).
Academic Press. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-375038-9.00102-3

Russ, S. (2014). Pretend play in childhood: Foundation of adult

creativity. American Psychological Association.

Sawyer, K. (2012). Explaining Creativity: The science of human

innovation. Oxford University Press.

Sawyer, K. (2019). The creative classroom: Innovative teaching for

21st-century learners. Teachers College Press.

Shen, T. L. (2012). Inspiring the creativity and imagination of

university students during creative curriculum by teaching design.
Procedia-Social and Behavioral Sciences, 45, 615-620.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2012.06.599

Silvia, P. J., Wigert, B., Reiter-Palmon, R., & Kaufman, J. C. (2012).

Assessing creativity with self-report scales: A review and empirical
evaluation. Psychology of Aesthetics, Creativity, and the Arts, 6(1), 19-
34. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0024071

Sternberg R. J. (2011). Componential models of creativity. In Runco,

M. A., & Pritzker, S. R. (Eds.). Encyclopedia of creativity (pp. 226-230).
Academic Press. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-375038-9.00040-6

Torrance, E. P. (1974). The Torrance Tests of Creative Thinking: Norms-

Technical Manual Research Edition - Verbal Tests, Forms A and B -
Figural Tests, Forms A and B. Personnel Press.

Wallas, G. (1926). The art of thought. Harcourt Brace.

World Economic Forum. (2018). The Future of Jobs Report 2018.

Centre for the New Economy and Society.
https://doi.org/10.1177/1946756712473437

Zhao, Y. (2012). World class learners: Educating creative and

entrepreneurial students. Corwin Press.

21 SKILLS
FOR LIFE
SKILLS
FOR LIFE

21st Century Skills is an initiative led by

the InterAmerican Development Bank
(IDB) that brings together public and
private sector stakeholders. The initiative
strengthens learning ecosystems to equip
Latin American and Caribbean citizens
with transversal skills.

https://clic-skills.iadb.org/en/
[email protected]