UNITED KINGDOM

Overview
https://www.britannica.com/place/United-Kingdom
United Kingdom, island country located off the northwestern coast of mainland
Europe. The United Kingdom comprises the whole of the island of Great
Britain—which contains England, Wales, and Scotland—as well as the
northern portion of the island of Ireland. The name Britain is sometimes used
to refer to the United Kingdom as a whole. The capital is London, which is
among the world’s leading commercial, financial, and cultural centres. Other
major cities include Birmingham, Liverpool, and Manchester in England,
Belfast and Londonderry in Northern Ireland, Edinburgh and Glasgow in
Scotland, and Swansea and Cardiff in Wales.

Land
The United Kingdom comprises four geographic and historical
parts—England, Scotland, Wales, and Northern Ireland. The United Kingdom
contains most of the area and population of the British Isles—the geographic
term for the group of islands that includes Great Britain, Ireland, and many
smaller islands. Together England, Wales, and Scotland constitute Great
Britain, the larger of the two principal islands, while Northern Ireland and the
republic of Ireland constitute the second largest island, Ireland.
Apart from the land border with the Irish republic, the United Kingdom is
surrounded by sea. To the south of England and between the United Kingdom
and France is the English Channel. The North Sea lies to the east. To the west
of Wales and northern England and to the southeast of Northern Ireland, the
Irish Sea separates Great Britain from Ireland, while southwestern England,
the northwestern coast of Northern Ireland, and western Scotland face the
Atlantic Ocean. The capital, London, is situated on the tidal River Thames in
southeastern England.

Languages
Of the surviving languages, the earliest to arrive were the two forms of Celtic:
the Goidelic (from which Irish, Manx, and Scottish Gaelic derive) and
Brythonic (from which the old Cornish language and modern Welsh have
developed).

Modern English is derived mainly from the Germanic dialects spoken by the
Angles, Saxons, and Jutes (who all arrived in Britain in the 5th century CE)
and heavily influenced by the language of the Danes (Vikings), who began
raiding the British Isles about 790 and subsequently colonized parts of
northern and eastern England.

Flag
https://www.royal.uk/union-jack
The Union Flag, or Union Jack, is the national flag of the United Kingdom.

It is so called because it combines the crosses of the three countries united

under one Sovereign - the kingdoms of England and Wales, of Scotland and
of Ireland (although since 1921 only Northern Ireland has been part of the
United Kingdom).

The flag consists of three heraldic crosses.

The cross of St George, patron saint of England since the 1270's, is a red
cross on a white ground. After James I succeeded to the throne, it was
combined with the cross of St Andrew in 1606.

The cross saltire of St Andrew, patron saint of Scotland, is a diagonal white

cross on a blue ground.
The cross saltire of St Patrick, patron saint of Ireland, is a diagonal red cross
on a white ground.

This was combined with the previous Union Flag of St George and St Andrew,
after the Act of Union of Ireland with England (and Wales) and Scotland on 1
January 1801, to create the Union Flag that has been flown ever since.

The Welsh dragon does not appear on the Union Flag. This is because when
the first Union Flag was created in 1606, the Principality of Wales by that time
was already united with England and was no longer a separate principality.

The Union Flag was originally a Royal flag. When the present design was
made official in 1801, it was ordered to be flown on all the King's forts and
castles, but not elsewhere.

It is today flown above Buckingham Palace, Windsor Castle and Sandringham

when The Queen is not in residence.

The Royal Arms of Scotland (Lion Rampant) is flown at the Palace of

Holyroodhouse and Balmoral when The Queen is not in residence.

On news of a Royal death, the Union Flag (or the Royal Arms of Scotland
(Lion Rampant) where appropriate) is flown at half-mast.

The Royal Standard is never flown at half-mast, as the Sovereign never dies
(the new monarch immediately succeeds his or her predecessor).

The flying of the Union Flag on public buildings is decided by the Department
for Culture, Media and Sport at The Queen's command.

The Union Flag is flown on Government buildings on days marking the

birthdays of members of the Royal Family, Commonwealth Day, Coronation
Day, The Queen's official birthday, Remembrance Day and on the days of the
State Opening and prorogation of Parliament.

The term 'Union Jack' possibly dates from Queen Anne's time (r. 1702-14), but
its origin is uncertain.

It may come from the 'jack-et' of the English or Scottish soldiers, or from the
name of James I who originated the first union in 1603.
Another alternative is that the name may be derived from a proclamation by
Charles II that the Union Flag should be flown only by ships of the Royal Navy
as a jack, a small flag at the bowsprit; the term 'jack' once meant small.
Roman Invasion
https://www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/timeline/ironage_timeline_noflash.shtml

Late summer 55 BC
Roman general Julius Caesar raids south east England
After conquering Gaul (modern France and Belgium), Julius Caesar crossed
the Channel with two legions - about 10,000 men - probably to carry out
reconnaissance and send a warning to the British allies of Gaulish tribes.
Local tribes contested his landing on the beach at Deal near Dover, but their
war chariots were driven back and they subsequently sought a truce. Caesar
returned to the continent for the winter after bad weather damaged his fleet
and prevented cavalry reinforcements arriving.

Summer 54 BC
Julius Caesar launches a full-scale invasion of England
Julius Caesar invaded Britain for the second time with five legions - about
25,000 men - and won a series of battles before his fleet at Deal was once
again wrecked by storms. This delay allowed the British to regroup under
Cassivellaunus, ruler of the Catuvellauni tribe. He waged an effective guerrilla
war before his betrayal by rival tribes handed Caesar victory. An impending
rebellion in Gaul forced him to withdraw, never to return, but Britain was now
within Rome's sphere of influence.

50 BC - AD 43
Very large settlements known as 'oppida' emerge
The settlements known as 'oppida’ (from Latin, meaning an administrative
centre) were usually very large sites, sometimes defined by rivers or long
ditches and banks. Many are associated with centres of tribal power, trade
with the Roman world and rich burials. Examples include Colchester, St
Albans and Silchester in southern England. By the time of the Roman
invasion, they could be found as far north as Stanwick in Yorkshire. No oppida
are known in Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland.

Early summer AD 43
Emperor Claudius orders the invasion of Britain
An army of four legions and approximately 20,000 auxiliaries, commanded by
senator Aulus Plautius, landed at Richborough, Kent. The Romans met a
large army of Britons, under the Catuvellauni kings Caratacus and his brother
Togodumnus, on the River Medway, Kent. The Britons were defeated in a
two-day battle, then again shortly afterwards on the Thames. Togodumnus
died and Caratacus withdrew to more defensible terrain to the west.

Winter AD 79/80
Local aristocrats are encouraged to abandon ancient British culture
In a bid to do away with the Britons' warlike ways, Roman governor Gnaeus
Julius Agricola undertook a campaign to encourage native aristocrats to learn
Latin, wear the toga and invest in budding municipalities by donating statues
and buildings. Archaeological evidence suggests Romanisation was swift. By
the late first century AD, south east Britain had filled with Roman-style towns
and villas.

Summer AD 122
Emperor Hadrian orders the construction of a wall across northern Britain
Hadrian was a gifted administrator who set in place a policy of creating natural
or man-made barriers at the empire's outer limits. Inside he envisaged a
commonwealth of peoples set apart from the 'barbarians'. A 73-mile-long
stone wall was built by Roman soldiers, stretching from modern Newcastle to
Carlisle. It marked the northernmost boundary of the empire, serving as a
'porous' border control for the movement of people and goods, or as a strong
defensive fortification in times of strife.

NORMAN INVASION

September 1066
Harald Hardrada, King of Norway, invades England
Hardicanute, King of Denmark, had also been king of England in 1042. His
short reign gave his descendents, who included Harald Hardrada, King of
Norway, a claim to the English throne. When Harold Godwinson became king
of England on the death of Edward the Confessor, Hardrada joined forces with
Tostig, Harold's brother, and took an invasion fleet of approximately 300 ships
to England to press his own claim. He raided the east coast, burning
Scarborough, then sailed up the Humber river.

20 September 1066
Harald Hardrada, King of Norway, defeats the English at the Battle of Fulford
The invasion force under Harald Hardrada, King of Norway, and Tostig
(brother of Harold II of England) met an English army at Fulford and defeated
it. The invaders then marched on York and took it four days later. This was a
major crisis for Harold II, who marched north with his army to meet the threat.
25 September 1066
Harold II defeats and kills Harald Hardrada at the Battle of Stamford Bridge
Harold II of England met an invasion force under Harald Hardrada, King of
Norway, and Tostig (brother of Harold) at Stamford Bridge in Yorkshire. Harold
caught the invaders off guard and defeated them in detail, slaughtering many
of them and killing both Tostig and Hardrada. Less than 30 of the invasion
fleet of 300 ships returned to Norway.

28 September 1066
William of Normandy lands at Pevensey on the south coast of England
William of Normandy was the second claimant to the English throne to
challenge Harold II. William believed that Edward the Confessor had promised
him the English throne, and that Harold had agreed to back his claim after he
was shipwrecked in Normandy and taken prisoner by William in 1064. The
invasion force landed unopposed because Harold was still marching south
after defeating his rival, Harald Hardrada, King of Norway, at the Battle of
Stamford Bridge.

14 October 1066
William of Normandy defeats and kills Harold II at Hastings
Harold II met William of Normandy near Hastings. The two armies were evenly
matched in numbers, but Harold's men were exhausted after a long march
back from the hard-fought Battle of Stamford Bridge. Nonetheless, the battle
lasted the whole day. The English defensive shield wall was finally broken by
the Norman tactic of using feigned retreats to lure Harold's troops into
charging then cutting them down with cavalry. The Norman triumph was total.
Harold was killed along with many Saxon nobles.

25 December 1066
William of Normandy is crowned king of England
Following his victory at the Battle of Hastings, William of Normandy
progressed slowly towards London, his forces depleted by battle and hindered
by disease. Some attempts were made to resist him, but he gradually received
the submission of many Saxon nobles. He was crowned William I (although is
more commonly referred to as William the Conqueror) in Westminster Abbey,
the burial place of Edward the Confessor, the king from whom William derived
his claim to the throne.