Module IV-A

Plant Responses to External Stimuli

Introduction
Plants, unlike animals, are sessile organisms, meaning
they cannot move from one place to another. Despite this
apparent limitation, plants have evolved sophisticated
mechanisms to perceive and respond to various external
stimuli in their environment. These stimuli include light,
gravity, water, temperature, touch, and chemical signals.
The ability of plants to detect and respond to these
external factors is crucial for their survival, growth,
reproduction, and adaptation to changing environments.
Objectives: At the end of the lesson students should be
able to:
1. Define photoperiodism and its significance in plant
biology.
2. Explain the role of light and darkness in influencing
plant physiological responses.
3. Identify and describe the different types of
photoperiodic responses (e.g., short-day, long-day,
and day-neutral plants).
4. Examine how photoperiodism affects flowering,
dormancy, and other developmental processes in
plants.
5. Study the role of phytochromes and other
photoreceptors in detecting light
 A. Plant Responses to External Stimuli
Plant responses to stimuli are changes in how they grow.
Plant hormones control these responses. Some plant
responses are called tropisms, which are directional
movements or growths towards or away from a stimulus.
• Phototropism: growth towards or away from light
• Thigmotropism: growth around objects for support
• Gravitropism: growth with or against gravity
• Hydrotropism: growth towards or away from water
• Other tropisms: growth in response to temperature,
chemicals, etc.
Plants, despite their apparent stationary nature, exhibit a
fascinating array of responses to external stimuli.
1. Light: Phototropism is the growth response of plants
to light. They grow towards light sources, ensuring optimal
exposure for photosynthesis. This is facilitated by the
hormone auxin.
2. Gravity: Gravitropism, also known as geotropism, is
the growth response to gravity. Roots exhibit positive
gravitropism, growing towards the gravitational pull, while
shoots display negative gravitropism, growing against it.
3. Touch: Thigmotropism is the response to touch or
physical contact. Examples include vines winding around
a support structure or the closing of the Venus flytrap's
leaves in response to prey.
4. Temperature: Plants can respond to temperature
changes by adjusting their growth rates, flowering times,
and other physiological processes. Cold temperatures can
induce dormancy, while warmth can stimulate growth.
5. Water: Hydrotropism is the growth response to water.
Roots will grow towards water sources, ensuring hydration
for the plant.
6. Chemicals: Plants can respond to various chemicals
in their environment, such as pollutants or signaling
molecules from other organisms. For example, some
plants release chemicals when attacked by pests to attract
predators of the pests.
7. Sound: Although less understood, some research
suggests that plants may respond to certain frequencies
and intensities of sound. It's hypothesized that vibrations
caused by sound waves could influence growth patterns.
8. Seasonal Changes: Plants can detect changes in day
length (photoperiod) and temperature, which cue seasonal
behaviors like flowering and dormancy.

B.Photoperiodism. Defined as a biological

phenomenon exhibited by plants and some animals,
where the timing of key developmental processes,
such as flowering, dormancy, and reproduction, is
 influenced by the duration of light and darkness in a
24-hour cycle. It refers to the ability of organisms to
sense changes in day length (photoperiod) and use
this information to regulate their physiological and
behavioral responses.
In plants, photoperiodism primarily governs the timing
of flowering. Depending on their photoperiodic response,
plants can be classified as long-day, short-day, or day-
neutral.
a. Long-day plants require a day length exceeding a
critical threshold to induce flowering.
b. short-day plants initiate flowering when the day
length falls below a critical threshold.
c. Day-neutral plants are insensitive to photoperiod and
flower regardless of day length.
The perception of light cues is mediated by photoreceptor
proteins, such as phytochromes and cryptochromes,
which trigger signaling pathways that lead to changes in
gene expression and ultimately influence developmental
processes. Photoperiodism is an adaptive trait that allows
plants to synchronize their life cycle events with seasonal
changes in their environment, ensuring reproductive
success and survival.
Photoperiodism is a fascinating aspect of plant biology
that explores how plants use the duration of light and
darkness to regulate their developmental processes. Here
are some discussions about photoperiodism:
Regulation of Flowering: Photoperiodism plays a crucial
role in regulating the timing of flowering in many plant
species.
Molecular Mechanisms: At the molecular level,
photoperiodism involves the perception of light cues by
photoreceptor proteins, such as phytochromes and
cryptochromes. These photoreceptors trigger signaling
pathways that ultimately lead to changes in gene
expression related to flowering.
Long-Day Plants: Long-day plants initiate flowering when
the day length exceeds a critical threshold. They typically
flower in spring or early summer when days are longer.
Examples include spinach, lettuce, and many cereal crops
like barley and wheat.
Short-Day Plants: Short-day plants flower when the day
length falls below a critical threshold. They typically flower
in late summer or fall when days are shorter. Examples
include rice, soybeans, and chrysanthemums.
Day-Neutral Plants: Day-neutral plants are insensitive to
photoperiod and flower regardless of day length. They
often rely on other environmental cues, such as
temperature or hormonal signals, to initiate flowering.
Examples include tomatoes, cucumbers, and roses.
Adaptation and Evolution: Photoperiodism is an
adaptive trait that allows plants to synchronize their
flowering with seasonal changes in their environment. It is
crucial for reproductive success, as flowering at the right
time increases the chances of pollination, seed production,
and offspring survival.
Crop Management: Understanding photoperiodism is
essential for agricultural practices. Farmers can
manipulate day length using artificial lighting or select crop
varieties with specific photoperiod requirements to
optimize flowering and maximize yields.
Research and Innovation: Studying the molecular
mechanisms underlying photoperiodism not only
enhances our understanding of plant biology but also has
practical applications. It can lead to the development of
genetically modified crops with altered flowering times,
improved stress tolerance, or increased productivity.
1. Short day plants
These plants require a relatively short day light period
(usually 8-10 hours) and a
continuous dark period of about 14-16 hours for
subsequent flowering. These plants are also
known as long-night plants
E.g. Rice, coffee, soybean, tobacco and chrysanthemum
• In short day plants, the dark period is critical and must be
continuous. If this dark
period is interrupted with a brief exposure of red light (660-
665 nm wavelength), the
short day plant will not flower.
• Maximum inhibition of flowering with red light occurs at
about the middle of critical
dark period.
• However, the inhibitory effect of red light can be
overcome by a subsequent exposure
with far-red light (730-735 mm wavelength)
• Interruption of the light period with red light does not
have inhibitory effect on
flowering in short day plants.
• Prolongation of the continuous dark period initiates early
flowering.

2. Long day plants

These plants require longer day light period (usually 14-16
hours) in a 24 hours cycle
for subsequent flowering. These plants are also called as
short night plants.
E.g. Wheat, radish, cabbage, sugar beet and spinach.
• In long day plants, light period is critical
• A brief exposure of red light in the dark period or the
prolongation of light period
stimulates flowering in long day plants.

3. Day neutral plants

These plants flower in all photoperiod ranging from 5
hours to 24 hours continuous
exposure.
E.g. Tomato, cotton, sunflower, cucumber, peas and
certain varieties of tobacco.
During recent years, intermediate categories of plants
such as long short day plants
and short long day plants have also been recognized.
i. Long short day plants
These are short day plants but must be exposed to long
days during early periods of
growth for subsequent flowering. E.g. Bryophyllum.
ii. Short –long day plants
These are long day plants but must be exposed to short
day during early periods of
growth for subsequent flowering. E.g. certain varieties of
wheat and rye.
Differences between short day and long day plants

Significance of Photoperiodism
The significance of photoperiodism spans across various
aspects of plant biology, agriculture, ecology, and even
human society. Here's a breakdown of its significance:
1. Timing of Flowering: Photoperiodism regulates the
timing of flowering in many plant species. This is crucial for
reproductive success as it ensures that plants flower when
environmental conditions are favorable for pollination,
seed development, and offspring survival.
2. Crop Production: Understanding photoperiodism is
essential for agricultural practices. Farmers can
manipulate day length using techniques such as artificial
lighting or selecting crop varieties with specific
photoperiod requirements to optimize flowering and
maximize yields. This knowledge is particularly valuable in
regions with distinct seasonal changes.
3. Climate Change Adaptation: Photoperiodism allows
plants to adapt to changing environmental conditions,
including shifts in day length due to seasonal variations or
climate change. Studying how plants respond to altered
photoperiods can help researchers and farmers anticipate
and mitigate the impacts of climate change on crop
production and natural ecosystems.
4. Ecological Interactions: Photoperiodism influences
various ecological interactions, including plant-pollinator
relationships and herbivore-plant interactions.
Synchronized flowering times among plant species can
affect the availability of resources for pollinators and
herbivores, shaping community dynamics and ecosystem
functioning.
5. Biological Rhythms: Photoperiodism is linked to the
biological rhythms of plants, including circadian rhythms.
These internal timing mechanisms help plants coordinate
physiological processes such as growth, photosynthesis,
and nutrient uptake with daily and seasonal changes in
light and temperature.
6. Evolutionary Adaptation: The evolution of
photoperiodic responses has allowed plants to colonize
diverse habitats and adapt to different climates and
latitudes. Plants with specific photoperiodic requirements
may have evolved in response to selective pressures
related to seasonal changes in light availability and other
environmental factors.
7. Human Culture and Society: Photoperiodism
influences cultural practices and traditions related to
agriculture, gardening, and seasonal celebrations. For
example, festivals such as harvest festivals often coincide
with specific times of the year when crops are ready for
harvest, reflecting the influence of photoperiodic cues on
agricultural cycles and human societies.
Photoperiodism has several applications in agriculture,
helping farmers optimize crop production, manage pests,
and adapt to changing environmental conditions. Here are
some key applications:
1. Timing of Planting: Knowledge of photoperiodism
allows farmers to select crop varieties that are adapted to
the specific day length conditions of their region. By
choosing varieties with the appropriate photoperiodic
requirements, farmers can ensure that crops flower and
mature at the optimal time for maximum yield and quality.
2. Flowering Control: Photoperiodism can be used to
manipulate the flowering time of certain crops. For
example, in regions where frost or high temperatures
during flowering can damage crops, farmers may select
varieties with photoperiodic responses that avoid these
conditions. Additionally, the use of artificial lighting to
extend or shorten day length can control the flowering time
of greenhouse crops.
3. Pest Management: Photoperiodism can influence the
life cycles and behavior of pests and beneficial insects. By
understanding the photoperiodic responses of pest
species, farmers can implement integrated pest
management strategies that target vulnerable stages of
pest development. For example, timing pesticide
applications to coincide with the susceptible stages of pest
life cycles can reduce pest populations while minimizing
environmental impact.
4. Crop Rotation and Succession Planting:
Photoperiodism influences the timing of flowering and
maturation of crops, which can be used to plan crop
rotation and succession planting schedules. By alternating
crops with different photoperiodic responses, farmers can
optimize land use, reduce pest and disease pressure, and
maintain soil fertility.
5. Season Extension: In regions with short growing
seasons or adverse weather conditions, photoperiodism
can be used to extend the growing season and increase
crop production. By providing supplemental lighting in
greenhouses or high tunnels, farmers can manipulate day
length to promote vegetative growth, flowering, and fruit
set outside of the natural growing season.
6. Seed Production: Photoperiodism is important in the
production of hybrid seeds and maintaining seed purity. By
controlling day length during seed production, farmers can
ensure uniform flowering and seed set, leading to higher-
quality seeds with predictable performance in subsequent
plantings.
7. Climate Change Adaptation: As climate change alters
temperature and precipitation patterns, photoperiodism
can help farmers adapt to changing environmental
conditions. By selecting crop varieties with flexible
photoperiodic responses or breeding for traits related to
photoperiod sensitivity, farmers can maintain productivity
in the face of shifting climatic conditions.

Phytochrome
It is observed that that a brief exposure with red light
during critical dark period inhibits flowering in a short day
plant and this inhibitory effect can be reversed by a
subsequent exposure with far-red light. Similarly,
prolongation of the critical light period or the interruption of
the dark period stimulates flowering in long-day plants.
This inhibition of flowering in short day plant and
stimulation of flowering in long day plants involves the
operation of a proteinaceous pigment called phytochrome.
It is present in the plasma membrane of cells and it has
two components, chromophore and protein. Phytochrome
is present in roots, coleoptiles, stems, hypocotyls,
cotyledons, petioles, leaf blades, vegetative buds, flower
tissues, seeds and developing fruits of higher plants.
The pigment, phytochrome exists in two different
forms i.e., red light absorbing form which is designated as
Pr and far red light absorbing form which is designated as
Pfr. These two forms of the pigment are photo chemically
inter convertible. When Pr form of the pigment absorbs red
light (660-665 nm), it is converted into Pfr form. When Pfr
form of the pigment absorbs far red light (730-735 nm), it
is converted into Pr form.
It is considered that during day time, the Pfr form of
the pigment is accumulated in the plants which are
inhibitory to flowering in short day plants but is stimulatory
in long day plants. During critical dark period in short day
plants, this form gradually changes into Pr form resulting
in flowering. A brief exposure with red light will convert this
form again into Pfr form thus inhibiting flowering.
Reversal of the inhibitory effect of red light during
critical dark period in SDP by subsequent far-red light
exposure is because, the Pfr form after absorbing far-red
light (730 - 354 nm) will again be converted back into Pr
form.
Prolongation of critical light period or the interruption
of the dark period by red- light in long day plants will result
in further accumulation of the Pfr form of the pigment, thus
stimulating flowering in long-day plants:;<i} /9 mo
Evaluation: Answer the following questions
1. Define photoperiodism and its significance in plant biology.
2. Discuss the role of light and darkness in influencing plant
physiological responses.
3. Identify and describe the different types of photoperiodic responses
(e.g., short-day, long-day, and day-neutral plants).