ENGLISH FOR ACADEMIC AND PROFESSIONAL PURPOSES

Basic Sentence Elements

Key: Yellow, bold = subject green underline = verb

blue, italics = object pink, regular font = prepositional phrase
Subject: A person, animal, place, thing, or concept that does an action. Determine the subject in a sentence by
asking the question “Who or what?”
o I like spaghetti.
o He reads many books.
Verb: Expresses what the person, animal, place, thing, or concept does. Determine the verb in a sentence by asking
the question “What was the action or what happened?”

o I like spaghetti.
o He reads many books.
o The movie is good. (The be verb is also sometimes referred to as a copula or a linking verb. It links the
subject, in this case "the movie," to the complement or the predicate of the sentence, in this case, "good.")
Object: A person, animal, place, thing, or concept that receives the action. Determine the object in a sentence by
asking the question “The subject did what?” or “To whom?/For whom?”

o I like spaghetti.
o He reads many books.
Independent clause: An independent clause can stand alone as a sentence. It contains a subject and a verb and is a
complete idea.

o I like spaghetti.
o He reads many books.
Dependent clause: A dependent clause is not a complete sentence. It must be attached to an independent clause to
become complete. This is also known as a subordinate clause.
o Although I like spaghetti,…
o Because he reads many books,…
Prepositional Phrase: A phrase that begins with a preposition (i.e., in, at for, behind, until, after, of, during) and
modifies a word in the sentence. A prepositional phrase answers one of many questions. Here are a few examples:
“Where? When? In what way?”

o I like spaghetti for dinner.

o He reads many books in the library.
SENTENCE STRUCTURE
1. Simple Sentence
A simple sentence contains a subject and a verb, and it may also have an object and modifiers. However, it
contains only one independent clause.
Key: Yellow, bold = subject; green underline = verb, blue, italics = object, pink, regular font =prepositional
phrase
Here are a few examples:
 She completed her literature review.
 He organized his sources by theme.
2. Compound Sentence
A compound sentence contains at least two independent clauses. These two independent clauses can be
combined with a comma and a coordinating conjunction or with a semicolon.
Key: independent clause = yellow, bold; comma or semicolon = pink, regular font; coordinating
conjunction = green, underlined
Here are a few examples:
 She completed her literature review, and she created her reference list.
 They studied APA rules for many hours, but they realized there was still much to learn.
 3. Complex Sentence
A complex sentence contains at least one independent clause and at least one dependent clause. Dependent
clauses can refer to the subject (who, which) the sequence/time (since, while), or the causal elements
(because, if) of the independent clause.
If a sentence begins with a dependent clause, note the comma after this clause. If, on the other hand, the
sentence begins with an independent clause, there is not a comma separating the two clauses.
Key: independent clause = yellow, bold; comma = pink, regular font; dependent clause = blue, italics
Here are a few examples:
 Although she completed her literature review, she still needed to work on her methods section.
o Note the comma in this sentence because it begins with a dependent clause.
 They studied APA rules for many hours as they were so interesting.
o Note that there is no comma in this sentence because it begins with an independent clause.
4. Compound-complex Sentence
A compound-complex sentence contains at least two independent clauses and at least one dependent
clause.
Key: independent clause = yellow, bold; comma or semicolon = pink, regular font; coordinating conjunction
= green, underlined; dependent clause = blue, italics
 She completed her literature review, but she still needs to work on her methods section even though
she finished her methods course last semester.
 They studied APA rules for many hours, and they decided that writing in APA made sense because it
was clear, concise, and objective.

What is a subject-verb agreement?

- refers to the relationship between the subject and predicate of the sentence. Subjects and verbs
must always agree in two ways: tense and number.
Notes: DO NOT BE CONFUSED, PLEASE!!!
Singular Noun: No "s" (e.g., Dog)

Plural Noun: Has "s" (e.g., Dogs)

Singular Verb: Has "s" (e.g., Barks)
Plural Verb: No "s" (e.g., Bark)
SIMPLIFIED VER. OF SVA
1. If the subject is singular, the verb must be singular too.
Example: She writes every day.
If the subject is plural, the verb must also be plural.
Example: They write every day.
2. When the subject of the sentence is composed of two or more nouns or pronouns connected by and, use a
plural verb.
Example: The doctoral student and the committee members write every day.
3. When there is one subject and more than one verb, the verbs throughout the sentence must agree with the
subject.
Example: Interviews are one way to collect data and allow researchers to gain an in-depth understanding of
participants.
4. When a phrase comes between the subject and the verb, remember that the verb still agrees with the
subject, not the noun or pronoun in the phrase following the subject of the sentence.
Example: The student, as well as the committee members, is excited.
5. When two or more singular nouns or pronouns are connected by "or" or "nor," use a singular verb.
Example: The chairperson or the CEO approves the proposal before proceeding.
6. When a compound subject contains both a singular and a plural noun or pronoun joined by "or" or "nor,"
the verb should agree with the part of the subject that is closest to the verb. This is also called the rule of
proximity.
Example: The student or the committee members write every day.
Example: The committee members or the student writes every day.
7. The words and phrases "each," "each one," "either," "neither," "everyone," "everybody," "anyone," "anybody,"
"nobody," "somebody," "someone," and "no one" are singular and require a singular verb.
Example: Each of the participants was willing to be recorded.
8. Noncount nouns take a singular verb.
 Example: Education is the key to success.

Example: Diabetes affects many people around the world.

9. Some countable nouns in English such as earnings, goods, odds, surroundings, proceeds, contents, and
valuables only have a plural form and take a plural verb.
Example: The earnings for this quarter exceed expectations.
10. In sentences beginning with "there is" or "there are," the subject follows the verb. Since "there" is not the
subject, the verb agrees with what follows the verb.
Example: There is little administrative support.
Example: There are many factors affecting teacher retention.
11. Collective nouns are words that imply more than one person but are considered singular and take a
singular verb. Some examples are "group," "team," "committee," "family," and "class."
Example: The group meets every week.
Example: The committee agrees on the quality of the writing.
12. Nouns such as civics, mathematics, dollars, measles, and news require singular verbs.
Example: The news is on at six.
13. When talking about an amount of money, it requires a singular verb, but when referring to the dollars
themselves, a plural verb is required)
Examples: Five dollars is a lot of money.
Dollars are often used instead of rubles in Russia.
Non-academic texts are writings that are informal and dedicated to a lay audience. They are
emotional, personal and subjective without any kind of research involving.
Example:

 Personal journal entries

 Memoirs
 Autobiographical writing
 Letters
 E-mails
Academic texts are critical, objective and specialized texts that are written by professionals or experts in a
particular field. They are written in formal language and has a formal style and tone. Since these are objective texts,
they are based on facts.
Example:

 Essays
 Textbooks
 Theses
 Research Papers
 News Articles

Characteristics Academic Text Non-academic Text

Audience Scholarly audience Public
Purpose To inform and/or validate idea To entertain
Structure Introduction-Body-Conclusion No fixed structure
Language Formal Contains slang and colloquialisms
Style Objective Subjective
Source of Content Related literature Everyday Events
Examples Research papers, Reports Diaries, Informal essays

ACADEMIC READING
William Gray, known as the Father of Reading, defines reading as a four-step process:

1. Perception of the word

2. Comprehension of its meaning
3. Reaction to the meaning in terms of prior knowledge
4. Integration of the idea into one’s background of experience.
STATEGIES IN READING
 1. Efficient Reading - is a set of strategies designed to enhance comprehension and retention while minimizing
the time spent reading.
The 4s-System for Efficient Academic Reading
A. Skimming - reading technique used to quickly gather the main ideas or gist of a text
B. Scanning - a method used to find specific information within a text. Instead of reading everything, you look
for keywords, phrases, or specific data
C. Selecting - the process of choosing which information or texts is most relevant or important for your needs
D. Studying - reviewing and learning the selected material in depth
2. Critical Reading - It involves scrutinizing any information that you read or hear. It means not easily
believing information offered.
WAYS TO HELP YOU BECOME A CRITICAL READER

A. Annotate the Text - involves adding notes, comments, or markings directly on the text as you read
B. Outline the Text - organizing the main ideas and supporting details of a text in a structured format.
C. Summarize the Text - get the main points of the text and write its gist in your own words. A summary is
usually one paragraph long.
D. Evaluate the Text- analyzing the author’s arguments, evidence, and overall effectiveness
3. Drawing Conclusions - Another reading strategy that gives the reader an experience to explore after reading
the text. It is when the readers are given the opportunity to utilize visual clues to figure out something not
directly stated.

ACADEMIC WRITING
GUIDELINES IN ACADEMIC WRITING

 Abide by the set of rules and practice writing.

 Write in the language that is appropriate and formal but not too pretentious
 Consider the knowledge and background of your audience
 Make sure you can back up your statement with a strong and valid evidence.
THE WRITING PROCESS

1. Pre-writing
A. Choosing a Topic
Brainstorming
Freewriting
Clustering
B. Focus on One Idea
C. Know your Purpose
2. Writing and Rewriting
Organizing your Paper

 Support your thesis statement with sufficient evidence, data, and examples.
 Find the connection of one point to another.
 Make an outline.
Developing your Thesis Statement

 A thesis statement is the claim or stand that you will develop in your paper.
 The controlling idea of your essay.
 It gives readers idea what your paper is all about.
  A strong thesis statement usually contains uncertainty, risk, or challenge.
 It should offer a debatable claim.
Avoiding Plagiarism
Plagiarism is presenting someone else's work or ideas as your own, with or without their consent, by
incorporating it into your work without full acknowledgement.
a. Paraphrase
o It is rendering the essential ideas in a text using your own words.
o Usually shorter than the original text
b. Quote

• Directly quote the sentence/ paragraph that you will use.

• It must be identical to the original text.
a. Writing the Introduction

 Provide background of your topic.

 Pose a question.
 Explain how the question is problematic or significant.
 Give your thesis statement.
 Can be one to two paragraphs.
b. Developing the Body

 Develop an answer or propose a solution.

 Outline your main points before writing.
 Support your main points.
c. Conclude your Output

 Bring together the points.

 Emphasize your final point.
 Leave a thought-provoking idea.
 Do not open a new topic in the conclusion.
3. Post Writing Process
a. Revising - is the process of reviewing and making substantial changes to the
content, structure, and clarity of a written work. This may involve:
 Rearranging sections or paragraphs for better flow
 Adding or deleting information to enhance arguments or ideas
 Refining thesis statements or main points
 Improving coherence and clarity of the writing
b. Editing - focuses on correcting surface-level issues in a written work, such as:
 Grammar, punctuation, and spelling errors
 Consistency in formatting and style
 Sentence structure and word choice
PROPERTIES OF A WELL-WRITTEN TEXT
 Text- A written material or piece of writing

 Well-written text - A well-structured discourse that is clearly linked with correct grammar and lexis.
1. Organization is the way a text is organized that helps to guide the reader logically through it. This property
makes a text readable and its message clear.
a. Physical Format - It is seen in how the text physically appears like headings and subheadings, bullet
points or font emphasis
b. Text Structure - provides the framework upon which the text is organized. It consists of the
following:
Beginning: introduction, thesis statement, hook
Middle: supporting details
End: conclusion, summary, final message
c. Signal Words - are textual cues that readers can use to follow a text. They can “signal” the transition
from one point to another, the ordering of events and concepts, or the writer’s chosen text type.
 2. Coherence and Cohesion
Coherence means the connection and organization of ideas in a text to create unity.
While coherence focuses on the overall (macro) structure of the essay, cohesion is more specific. It
pays attention to links between words and sentences.
How to achieve coherence and cohesion in a text?
A. Arrangement of Details

 Chronological - The details are arranged in the order in which they happen
 Spatial - The details are arranged according to geographical location
 Logical - The details are arranged depending on the information’s level of importance
B. Signal Devices

 Transitions - The details are arranged depending on the information’s level of importance

 Repetitions - A word, a phrase or a full sentence repeated to highlight its importance

 Synonyms - words similar in meaning
Hot – Scorching Ugly – Hideous
Poor – Destitute Evil – Wicked
Quiet – Silent Weak – Feeble
Tired – Exhausted

 Pronoun - words that connect to the original word the pronoun replaced (He, She, It)
3. Language Use - Refers to the appropriateness of word or vocabulary usage
Characteristics of Effective Language Use
Concrete and Specific - includes descriptions which create tangible images with details the reader can
visualize
Concise - use language which is straightforward and to-the-point
Familiar - language is that which the readers easily recognize and understand because they use it on a
regular basis
Constructive - Constructive language phrases a potentially negative message in a positive way
Appropriately Formal - match the formality of the situation and the relationship between the writer and
reader
4. Mechanics - refers to a set of conventions on how to spell, abbreviate, punctuate and
capitalize.
Spelling - When you write, always make sure that you are consistently using one standard with regard to
the spelling of your words. Remember that there are slight differences in American English spelling and
British English spelling
Example:
Airplane- aeroplane Meter- metre
Learned – learnt
Capitalization is the act of writing the first letter of a word in uppercase while the rest of the letters are in
lowercase. There are rules in capitalization that one has to remember. Below are a few examples of words
that require capitalization:
proper nouns Canadian
Alex, Manila days of the week
proper adjectives Sunday
months of the year adjectives, verbs, adverbs, nouns, and
January pronouns in a title and the
specific course titles first and last word in a title
Theater 101 Through the Looking-Glass, and What Alice
kinship names used in place of personal Found There (literature)
names and are followed by historical periods, events, documents
personal names Great Depression, the Renaissance, the
Grandma, Dad, Aunt Paz, Uncle Alvin Constitution