Heritage A Level Textbook

VOLUME ONE
B. CHIKUNGURU
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CONTENTS PAGE
TOPIC
1. UNDERSTANDING HERITAGE___________________________ _3
2. CULTURE: NORMS, VALUES AND SOCIALISATION______ _30
3. AFRICAN CIVILIZATION AND IDENTITIES______________ 55
4. NATURAL HERITAGE IN ZIMBABWE___________________ _89
5. CULTURAL HERITAGE_________________________________110
© B. CHIKUNGURU
FIRST EDITION 2020
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TOPIC 1: UNDERSTANDING HERITAGE
Definition of concepts
 Society
 The term "society" which came from the Latin word societas generally designates persons
belonging to a specific in-group.
 Different scholars have defined society in various ways. The definitions given by them are
either functional or structural.
 From the functional point of view, society is defined as a complex of groups in reciprocal
relationship, interacting upon one another, enabling human organisms to carry on their life-
activities and helping each person to fulfil his wishes and accomplish his interests in
association with his fellows.
 From the structural point of view, society is the total social heritage of folkways, mores
(pronounced as MORE-rays) and institutions; of habits, sentiments and ideals.
 According to MacIver, “Society is a system of usages and procedures, of authority and mutual
aid, of many groupings and divisions, of controls of human behavior and of liberties.
This ever-changing complex system we call society. It is the web of social relationships”.
 According to Giddings, “Society is the union itself, the organization, the sum of formal
relations in which associating individuals are bound together”.
 Amongst other factors, society is characterized by:
 Inter-dependence: this leads to establishment of relationships which is essential to
constitute society.
 Co-operation: It inculcates the feeling of mutual help among the members.
 Conflict: it create a sense of insecurity and this leads to search of strategies to manage
them so that the members live in harmony.
 Difference: A society based exclusively on likeness and uniformity is bound to be loose
in social ties. There are natural differences of aptitude, interest and capacity. These
differences are necessary for society as likeness will result in little reciprocity and little
give and take.
 The study of society or any aspect of it becomes incomplete without a proper understanding of
the culture of that society culture and society go together. They are inseparable.
 Culture
 Culture is a notoriously difficult term to define. In 1952, the American anthropologists,
Kroeber and Kluckhohn, critically reviewed concepts and definitions of culture, and compiled
a list of 164 different definitions. Apte (1994: 2001), writing in the ten-volume Encyclopedia
of Language and Linguistics, summarized the problem as follows: ‘Despite a century of efforts
to define culture adequately, there was in the early 1990s no agreement among anthropologists
regarding its nature.’
 The following extract from Avruch provides an historical perspective to some of the ways in
which the term has been interpreted:
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 Matthew Arnolds’ definition in Culture and Anarchy (1867)
 Culture referred to special intellectual or artistic endeavors or products, what today we
might call “high culture” as opposed to “popular culture” (or “folkways” in an earlier usage).
Analysis of Arnold’s definition
 By this definition, only a portion – typically a small one – of any social group “has” culture.
(The rest are potential sources of anarchy!) This sense of culture is more closely related to
aesthetics than to social science.
 Edward Tylor’s definition in Primitive Culture (1870)
 Culture is “that complex whole which includes knowledge, belief, art, morals, law, custom,
and any other capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of society”.
 Culture referred to a quality possessed by all people in all social groups, who nevertheless
could be arrayed on a development (evolutionary) continuum (in Lewis Henry Morgan’s
scheme) from “savagery” through “barbarism” to “civilization”.
Analysis of Tylor’s definition
 In contrast to Arnold’s view, all folks “have” culture, which they acquire by virtue of
membership in some social group – society. And a whole grab bag of things, from
knowledge to habits to capabilities, makes up culture.
 The greatest legacy of Tylor’s definition lay in his “complex whole” formulation. However
the definition ranks/rates cultures on a development (evolutionary) continuum.
 Franz Boas’ view of culture (a critique of Arnold and Tyler)
 Whereas the evolutionists (Tylor included) stressed the universal character of a single
culture, with different societies arrayed from savage to civilized, Boas emphasized the
uniqueness of the many and varied cultures of different peoples or societies.
 Moreover he dismissed the value judgments he found inherent in both the Arnoldian and
Tylorean views of culture; for Boas, one should never differentiate high from low culture,
and one ought not to differentially valorize cultures as savage or civilized.
 Look at the following definitions of culture, and consider the characteristics of culture that they
each draw attention to:
 ‘Culture consists of the derivatives of experience, more or less organized, learned or
created by the individuals of a population, including those images or embodiments and
their interpretations (meanings) transmitted from past generations, from contemporaries,
or formed by individuals themselves.’ (T.Schwartz 1992; cited by Avruch 1998: 17)
 ‘Culture consists of patterns, explicit and implicit, of and for behaviour acquired and
transmitted by symbols, constituting the distinctive achievements of human groups,
including their embodiment in artifacts; the essential core of culture consists of traditional
(i.e. historically derived and selected) ideas and especially their attached values; culture
systems may, on the one hand, be considered as products of action, on the other, as
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conditional elements of future action.’ (Kroeber & Kluckhohn 1952: 181; cited by Adler
1997: 14)
 Matsumoto (1996: 16) defines culture as ‘... the set of attitudes, values, beliefs, and
behaviors shared by a group of people, but different for each individual, communicated
from one generation to the next.’
 Bronislaw Malinowski defined culture as “the cumulative creation of man”. He also
regarded culture as a handiwork of man and the medium, through which he achieves his
ends.
 Sapir (1921) defines culture as socially inherited assemblage of practices and beliefs that
determines the texture of people’s lives.
 Heritage
 Whilst heritage, after history, is accepted as a framed interpretation of a past, its precise terms
of reference remain ambiguous. This debate has spanned the decades since the adoption of the
World Heritage Convention (Harrison 2012) which was first ratified 40 years ago in 1972
(United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization-UNESCO 2012).
 Early discontent related to the perceived shortcomings of traditional dictionary definitions of
heritage; such as ‘that which is inherited, one’s inherited lot, the condition of one’s birth,
anything transmitted from ancestors or past ages’ which was judged to be both deceptive and
inadequate for a concept taking on wider relevance and meaning over time (Hewison 1989,
p.15).
 Revised dictionary definitions made some move towards reconciling these limitations, with
heritage being defined as ‘valued objects and qualities, historic buildings and cultural
traditions… things of architectural, historical or natural value...’ (The Oxford Dictionary of
English 2005).
 However, these dictionary definitions, along with others of varying degrees of specificity, fail
to convey the highly contextualized and subjective forces that shape the meaning of heritage
in modern society.
 Regardless of the debate, the following definitions of heritage maybe considered
 Heritage is anything valued by people today that was also valued by previous generations.
e.g. Great Zimbabwe monuments, Chinhoyi caves
 Heritage is a set of inherited traditions, monuments, objects, and culture. Heritage also the
range of contemporary activities, meanings, and behaviors that we draw from them.
Heritage includes, but is much more than preserving, excavating, displaying, or restoring
a collection of old things.
 Heritage is our inheritance of land, language, ecosystems, knowledge, and culture
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Elements of culture (refer to sociology topic on culture for more)
 Elements of culture are the essential parts or components that make up a particular culture.
(a) Language
 Language is a system of symbols that allows people to communicate with one another e.g the
constitution of Zimbabwe recognizes 16 languages as official which include Shona, Ndebele,
English, sign language amongst others.
 Language is part of culture and is important in the following ways:
 Medium of communication- it reflects one’s identity and help in socialization
 Means of expression- The African Charter for People’s Rights states that, “language is
an integral part of the structure of culture, it in fact constitutes its pillar and means of
expression par excellence. e.g language is crucial in singing the National Anthem
 Source of power- countries like China, Japan and Russia use their language as a way to
gain economic power by writing instructions on machinery in their own languages. This
gives the recipients who do not use such languages ‘headaches’ of translation. Also the
British colonized Zimbabwe using their language which confused king Lobengula
 Represents diversity- the many languages a country has, the more diverse is its culture
like Zimbabwe which recognizes 16 different languages
 Provides a social or shared past- Without language, our memories would be extremely
limited, for we associate experiences with words and then use words to recall the
experience.
 Provides a social or shared future- Language also extends our time horizons forward.
Because language enables us to agree on times, dates, and places, it allows us to plan
activities with one another
 Language is clearly a big part of culture. Two linguistic anthropologists Edward Sapir and his
student Benjamin Whorf thought that language was central in determining social thought.
 The Sapir-Whorf hypothesis states that people see and understand the world through the
cultural lens of language.
 Kinship systems have similarly been studied to discover how language is related to thought
through the ways in which the use of terms like father, brother, or older brother reflect how
people behave toward these people (Wardhaugh, 2002, p. 229). Hudson (1996, pp. 85-86, taken
from Wardhaugh, 2002, pp. 228-229) reports that the Seminole Indians of Florida
and Oklahoma recognize a ‘father’s brother’ to also be ‘father’, as the Seminole recognize
same sex siblings to fulfill the same role. While one culture may distinguish between father
and uncle, another may not. The use of the term ‘father’ in a conversation between a native
English speaker and a Seminole Indian would logically produce a different image for both
people, as culturally each may classify the roles and image of this person differently
 The thesis also recognized the close relationship between language and culture, concluding
that it was not possible to understand or appreciate one without knowledge of the other” (taken
from Wardhaugh,2002, p. 220).
 An illustration of the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis is seen in sexist language, in which the use of
male nouns and pronouns shapes how we think about the world (Miles, 2008).e.g policeman,
chairman send a message to people that these are male jobs, not female jobs .This thesis teaches
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people to use nonsexist language alternatives like police officer in place of policeman,
chairperson in place of chairman and also using He/she instead of He only.
(b) Values
 These are a culture’s standard for discerning what is good and just in society. They
are the standards by which people define what is desirable or undesirable, good or
bad, beautiful or ugly
 Values may be specific, such as honoring one’s parents and owning a home, or they may be
more general, such as health, love, and democracy.
 Values often suggest how people should behave, but they don’t accurately reflect how people
do behave.
 Values portray an ideal culture, the standards society would like to embrace and live up to. But
ideal culture differs from real culture, the way society actually is, based on what occurs and
exists.
(c) Norms
 Norms are the specific cultural expectations for how to behave in a given situation. Norms are
often divided into two types, formal norms and informal norms ( refer to sociology notes on
culture for more)
 Many norms differ dramatically from one culture to the next. Some of the best evidence for
cultural variation in norms comes from the study of sexual behavior by Edgerton, R.
Deviance: A cross-cultural perspective (1976).
 Among the Pokot of East Africa, for example, women are expected to enjoy sex, while
among the Gusii a few hundred miles away, women who enjoy sex are considered deviant.
 In Inis Beag, a small island off the coast of Ireland, sex is considered embarrassing and
even disgusting; men feel that intercourse drains their strength while women consider it a
burden. Even nudity is considered terrible, and people on Inis Beag keep their clothes on
while they bathe. The situation is quite different in Mangaia, a small island in the South
Pacific. Here sex is considered very enjoyable, and it is the major subject of songs and
stories.
 While many societies frown on homosexuality, others accept it. Among the Azande of
East Africa, for example, young warriors live with each other and are not allowed to
marry. During this time, they often have sex with younger boys, and this homosexuality
is approved by their culture.
 Norms are important in the society because:
 They provide us with an expected idea of how to behave in a particular social group or
culture.
 The idea of norms provides a key to understanding social influence in general and
conformity in particular
 Norms provide order in society.
 Norms give sanctions which promote human dignity in the sense that if a person do
something wrong like stealing there is a negative sanction
(d) Institutions
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 These are organizations within a culture that works for the preservation or promotion of culture
 Cultural institutions are institutions with an acknowledged mission to engage in the
conservation, interpretation and dissemination of cultural, scientific, and environmental
knowledge, and promote activities meant to inform and educate citizens on associated aspects
of culture, history, science and the environment.
 Examples of cultural institutions in Zimbabwe include the National Museums, The National
Gallery in Harare, Tengenenge arts centre in Guruve, libraries and archives, historical societies
and sites, and community cultural centres.
 The importance of these institutions are:
 Maintaining and conserving a society’s culture
 Interpretation of cultural heritage
 Documentation of cultural heritage
 Facilitating citizens’ interaction and engagement with cultural heritage
 Promotion of cultural understanding and intercultural dialogue and cultural diversity
 Transmission of culture across generations.
(e) Oral narratives
 An oral narrative is a spoken story. Oral narratives are the stories people tell. People have been
telling stories for a long time. Some oral narratives are thousands of years old.
 Oral Narratives can also function as means of entrenching peace among communities.
 They are expressed in folktales, proverbs, idioms, riddles, songs and totemic poetry etc
 Folktales (Ngano) are stories passed down through generations mainly by telling. They bear
characteristics of a culture of the people from which they originate. They are used to
transmit and preserve cultural values of a group. For instance in African culture laziness,
greed and selfishness is portrayed negative with characters like Gudo (baboon) in ‘Tsuro na
Gudo’
 Folksongs are also passed from generation to generation. They are important in religious
ceremonies like ‘ mhondoro dzinonwa muna Save’ song.
 Riddles (zvirahwe) also uphold social values. For instance the riddle “ Amai ndebvu baba
ndebvu” ( Mother has a beard and father has a beard) like in goats, ridicule the idea of
families where there is no clear order and hierarchy of authority.
 Proverbs build Unhu/Ubuntu and reflect social values (put examples of your own)
(f) Beliefs (refer to FRS notes for examples of beliefs of different religions in Zimbabwe)
 These are shared ideas held collectively by people within a given culture about what is true.
They are specific thoughts or ideas that people hold to be true.
 Some beliefs are so strongly held that people find it difficult to cope with ideas or experiences
that contradict them.
 In some Zimbabwean indigenous societies, people have their own unique beliefs. Among the
Karanga society, people believe in alien spirits. According to Boudillon, (1990:242) “when
one asks shona people what mashavi are, a common explanation is that they are spirits of
aliens who died away from home or of young unmarried persons. Such spirits would not have
been settled with the final funerary ceremony and therefore wander around restlessly”.
 According to Zvobgo (1991) the shave is wandering or alien spirit, usually of a foreigner
who died and was not given a proper burial. For him, these shave spirits arose from foreign
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men and woman whose spirits were restless because their bodies were buried in a strange
land. These spirits wandered round the country searching for suitable mediums or hosts to
possess known as ‘Homwe’ among the Karanga.
 There also a belief in ancestral spirits among the indigenous societies. Mbiti (1975:113)
underscored that “ancestors act as conveyor belts between the living and the dead because they
speak the same language with God”. Zvobgo (1991) argues that it should be noted that the
Chaminika spirit is not widely believed by other groups of the Karanga people but He is more
pronounced among the Korekore tribe.
(g) Rituals
 Different cultures also have different rituals, or established procedures and ceremonies that
often mark transitions in the life course. As such, rituals both reflect and transmit a culture’s
norms and other elements from one generation to the next.
 Among the Shangani people of Chiredzi, girls go through the female circumcision ceremony
known as Khomba (Matseketsa et al 2017).Among the Bemba of Zambia, girls undergo a
month-long initiation ceremony called the chisungu, in which girls learn songs, dances, and
secret terms that only women know (Maybury-Lewis, 1998).
 Boys have their own initiation ceremonies, some of them involving circumcision. Matseketsa
et al (2017) also notes that among the Shangani people of chiredzi , boys undergo male
initiation ceremony called Hoko. In this culture, a man who is not circumcised is regarded as
‘Shivurhi’ and is not included in critical family and village issues under discussions.
 That said, the ways in which circumcisions are done and the ceremonies accompanying them
differ widely. In the United States, boys who are circumcised usually undergo a quick
procedure in the hospital. If their parents are observant Jews, circumcision will be part of a
religious ceremony, and a religious figure called a Moyel will perform the circumcision.
 In contrast, circumcision among the Maasai of East Africa is used as a test of manhood. If a
boy being circumcised shows signs of fear, he might well be ridiculed (Maybury-Lewis, 1998).
(h) Symbols
 Every culture is filled with symbols, or things that stand for something else and that often
evoke various reactions and emotions. Some symbols are actually types of nonverbal
communication, while other symbols are in fact material objects.
 Here the Zimbabwe national flag is a prime example. For most Zimbabweans, the flag is not
just a piece of cloth with stripes. Instead, it is a symbol of independence, peace, sovereignty
and other Zimbabwean values and, accordingly, inspires pride and patriotism.
 Other important symbols in Zimbabwe include, the Zimbabwean bird and the coat of arms.
 Other objects have symbolic value for religious reasons. Three of the most familiar religious
symbols in many nations are the cross, the Star of David, and the crescent moon, which stand
for Christianity, Judaism, and Islam, respectively.
Mixed cultural groups
This is a society which is composed of different cultural groups. In Zimbabwe for example, in
some urban communities there exist people of different cultural origins such as Indians, Chinese,
Zimbabweans and Nigerians, all sharing the same community.
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In such a community, multiple cultural traditions exist. Such communities can also be composed
of people of different races, nationalities or ethnicities. Mixed cultural groups can be sub-divided
into the following groups:
Multi-cultural - a society that is composed of several cultural or ethnic groups. In this set-up,
people live alongside one another but each cultural group is clearly distinct in its way of
interaction. Multiculturalism is a perspective recognizing the cultural diversity of a particular
society and promoting equal standing for all cultural traditions.
 Multiculturalism can:
 Make people learn much about tolerance and peacemaking.
 Bring economic strength. Diverse societies can harness the talents of different groups of
people to make a more robust economy
 Enhance learning of foreign languages and values
 Although multiculturalism and cultural diversity has found favor in recent years, it has drawn
its share of criticism as well. Opponents say:
 it encourages divisiveness rather than unity because it urges people to identify with their
own category rather than with the nation as a whole.
 there will be language barriers
 Social tension e.g Bokoharam in Nigeria
Multi-racial - different races living in the same community.
Multi –ethnic - different ethnic groups sharing the same community.
Multi-lingual – a community that is composed of people of different languages.
Types of Heritage
(a) Natural heritage
 According to UNESCO, Convention Concerning the Protection of the World Cultural and
Natural Heritage, (1972), natural heritage encompasses natural features, geological and
physiographical formations and delineated areas that constitute the habitat of threatened
species of animals and plants and natural sites of value from the point of view of science,
conservation or natural beauty. It includes nature parks and reserves, zoos, aquaria and
botanical gardens.
 Natural heritage refers to the sum total of the elements of biodiversity, including flora and
fauna, ecosystems and geological structures.
 According to UNESCO (2019) Zimbabwe has two world natural heritage sites namely Mana
Pools and Victoria Falls
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 Mana Pools-Situated in the Zambezi valley, this is a remote and spectacular area with
magnificent views of the Zambezi River and mountains of the Rift Valley over in Zambia.
Mana means “four” in Shona which are the Main, Chine, Long and Chisambuk pools.
 Victoria Falls- Victoria Falls (also known as Mosi-oa-Tunya, "the smoke that thunders")
seen by David Livingstone, the first European to see the falls, named it in honor of Queen
Victoria. He was so impressed by what he saw that he described the falls saying "scenes so
lovely must have been gazed upon by angels in their flight."
 A World Heritage Site is a natural or cultural site that the world community regards as having
immense universal value. The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural
Organization (UNESCO) have designated 119 World Heritage Sites in Africa. In Zimbabwe
there are three cultural and two natural sites http://www.siyabona.com/world-heritage-sites-
zimbabwe.html
 Other natural heritage sites around the Zimbabwe include hills and caves like Chinhoyi caves
,Chimanimani and Nyanga Mountains, Mutarazi falls, Domoshava hills and caves, natural
parks like Gonarezhou, Manyame, Hwange and zambezi, botanical gardens like Vumba etc
 Chinhoyi caves-located in Chinhoyi, a place of geological interest these dolomite and
limestone caves are an intriguing place whose main natural attraction is a deep blue natural
pool; they say the Sleeping pool as it is called. The caves have a mystical appeal about them
as local elders believe they are sacred. Spirit mediums visit the place for ancestral
worshipping or to hold cultural ceremonies. The caves are a national monument
 Vumba Botanical Gardens- it is located 32 kilometres from Mutare. Strategically positioned
flower beds: have the following: roses, proteas, fuchsias, cycads, tea bushes, and
aloes, camellia, and palm trees among the indigenous orchids.
 Lake Manyame (formerly Darwendale) Recreational Park-it is located 76 kilometers west
of the capital city of Harare. The park has small mammals, mainly herbivores including
Sable, kudu, waterbuck, bush pig,etc. There are a variety of tree species within the park
suchs as Musasa, Munhondo, Mukarati etc.
 Natural heritage is usually in the form of tangible heritage

Tangible heritage
 Refers in general to all the material traces such as archaeological sites, historical monuments,
artifacts, physical or natural objects that are significant to a community or a nation.
(b) Cultural heritage

 It refers to the legacy of physical artifacts and intangible attributes of a group or society that is
inherited from past generations. Not all legacies of past generations are "heritage", rather
heritage is a product of selection by society.
 Cultural heritage includes tangible culture (such as buildings, monuments, landscapes, books,
works of art, and artifacts), intangible culture (such as folklore, traditions, language, and
knowledge), and natural heritage (including culturally significant landscapes, and
biodiversity).
Tangible Cultural Heritage
 It refers to physical artefacts produced, maintained and transmitted intergenerationally in a

society. It includes artistic creations, built heritage such as buildings and monuments, and other
physical or tangible products of human creativity that are invested with cultural significance
in a society (UNESCO, 2003).
 Products of human creativity which are not necessarily buildings or monuments include
ceremonial tools like Mbira (thumb piano) Ngoma (Drums), Men’s tools and entitlements like
tsvimbo (knobkerrie), Pfumo (spear), women’s kitchen utensils including clay pots etc
 Artistic creations include sculptures, drawings including rock paintings etc.
 According to UNESCO (2019) Zimbabwe has three world cultural heritage sites namely
Khami Ruins National Monument, Great Zimbabwe Ruins and Matobo Hills.
 Great Zimbabwe Ruins- Great Zimbabwe, which means "houses of stone", is an ancient
city situated 30 kilometers from Masvingo, Zimbabwe. Awe inspiring, majestic and
timeless, these structures were built by indigenous African people between AD 1250 and
AD 1450. At the height of its power, Great Zimbabwe had over 18,000 inhabitants. Great
Zimbabwe was a main trading center and associated with gold trading. Fragments of
Persian and Chinese pottery have also been found at this ancient site.
 Khami Ruins National Monument- are the second most important archaeological site in
Zimbabwe after the Great Zimbabwe Ruins. Khami developed and grew between 1450 and
1650, after the capital of Great Zimbabwe had been abandoned. Both ruins belonged to the
same cultural tradition and have the same lay-out in sectors, between the chief's residence
and an open area with huts for the majority of the population. Imported goods like Ming
porcelain and Spanish silverware were found, which shows that Khami was a major centre
for trade over a long period of time.
 Matobo Hills- The Matobo Hills, southern Zimbabwe, are home to an outstanding
collection of rock paintings, the largest in southern Africa. The large boulders provide
abundant natural shelters and have been associated with human occupation from the early
Stone Age. The hills and caves of the area are renowned for the 20,000 cave-paintings and
petroglyphs that can be found there, which date from as far back as 13,000 years ago. The
unusual hill formations that dot the landscape are called “Bald Heads” by the local
people.The various themes depicted in the paintings are associated with hunting and
gathering and compared to Tsodilo in Botswana, the Matobo Hills are older and associated
with a different cultural tradition. The Matobo Hills still provide a strong focus for the local
Zimbabwe community, which use the shrines and sacred places linked to traditional and
social activities.
Intangible Cultural Heritage
 This indicates ‘the practices, representations, expressions, knowledge, skills – as well as the
instruments, objects, artefacts and cultural spaces associated therewith – that communities,
groups and, in some cases, individuals recognize as part of their Cultural Heritage’
(UNESCO, 2003).
 Examples of intangible heritage are oral traditions, performing arts, local knowledge, and
traditional skills.
 Intangible heritage is also encompass spiritual heritage
Spiritual heritage
 These are practices, customs, expressions related to or a characteristic of sacred things, the
Church, religion, etc.
 Zimbabwe is home to various religious groups and beliefs which includes Indigenous religion,
Christianity, Islam, Judaism, Rastafarianism etc
(c) Mixed heritage (natural and cultural heritage)
 This refers to the heritage which is both Natural and Cultural and /or tangible and
intangible.UNESCO (2003) stipulates the interdependence between intangible Cultural
Heritage, and tangible cultural and natural heritage, and acknowledges the role of intangible
Cultural Heritage as a source of cultural diversity and a driver of sustainable development.
 Recognizing the value of people for the expression and transmission of intangible Cultural
Heritage, UNESCO spearheaded the recognition and promotion of living human treasures,
‘persons who possess to a very high degree the knowledge and skills required for performing
or recreating specific elements of the intangible Cultural Heritage’.
 Many heritage sites in Zimbabwe are both natural and cultural as well as being tangible but
also having intangible heritage.
 Examples include Chinhoyi caves, Matobo Hills etc.
 Chinhoyi caves encompasses tangible natural features like the “light cave” and the “dark
cave”, the ‘sleeping pool’ geological features like stalagmites and stalactites. On the
cultural side, elders believe they are sacred. Spirit mediums visit the place for ancestral
worshipping or to hold cultural ceremonies. These ceremonies have a spiritual implication
which is intangible.
 Matobo hills are a natural heritage feature in the sense that they encompass an extensive
granite rock outcrop. These tangible impressive kopjes stretch for over 30 kilometres.
Culturally, the Matobo Hills still provide a strong focus for the local Zimbabwe
community, which use the shrines and sacred places linked to traditional and social
activities. These cultural activities like rainmaking ceremonies make the intangible part of
the Matobo hills. The some of the historical values of this place are also intangible.
Historical, because they were a Ndebele stronghold in the 1800‘s and were the site of the
second Ndebele war.
Theories of Culture
 Cultural determinism
 Cultural relativism
 Cultural ethnocentrism
 Xenocentrism
(a) Cultural determinism
 It is the position that the ideas, meanings, beliefs and values people learn as members of society
determines human nature. People are what they learn.
 Optimistic version of cultural determinism place no limits on the abilities of human beings to
do or to be whatever they want. Some anthropologists suggest that there is no universal "right
way" of being human. "Right way" is almost always "our way"; that "our way" in one society
almost never corresponds to "our way" in any other society. Proper attitude of an informed
human being could only be that of tolerance.
 The optimistic version of this theory postulates that human nature being infinitely malleable,
human being can choose the ways of life they prefer. Julius Nyerere of Tanzania once said “No
nation has the right to make decisions for another nation; no people for another people”
 In Africa for instance, Zimbabwe specifically, people have decided to shun homosexuality
although most western countries have embraced it. With reference to this idea of
Zimbabweans determining what they want, former president RG Mugabe once said in 2013
“We need continuity in our race, and that comes from the woman, and no to homosexuality.
John and John, no; Maria and Maria, no … I keep pigs, and the male pigs know the female
ones.” Again in 2015 after US Supreme Court legalises same-sex marriages he once said
“If President Barack Obama wants me to allow marriage for same-sex couples in my
country, he must come so that I marry him first.”
 Zimbabwe stands in sharp contrast with neighboring South Africa, as well as Botswana
and Mozambique which have recently enacted LGBT(Lesbian, gay, bisexual, and
transgender) protections. During Zimbabwe's 1995 annual independence celebrations,
Mugabe proclaimed: "It degrades human dignity. It's unnatural, and there is no question
ever of allowing these people to behave worse than dogs and pigs. If dogs and pigs do not
do it, why must human beings? We have our own culture, and we must re-dedicate
ourselves to our traditional values that make us human beings. ... What we are being
persuaded to accept is sub-animal behavior and we will never allow it here. If you see
people parading themselves as Lesbians and Gays, arrest them and hand them over to the
police!" Same-sex marriage is banned by the 2013 Zimbabwe Constitution section 78(3) ,
and LGBT people enjoy no legal protections from discrimination, violence and harassment.
Members of the LGBT community are heavily marginalised in both the legal and social
spheres. Zimbabwe does not recognise same-sex marriage or civil unions. In 2013, the
Zimbabwe Constitution was amended to define marriage as being between a man and a
woman.
 This further reinforces the optimistic version of cultural determinism as most African
societies including Zimbabwe, have determined the culture they prefer.
NB: You can refer to various social, economic and political policies, beliefs, practices
etc which African societies including Zimbabwe have remained attached to and have
formulated themselves besides the issue of cultural imperialism by Europeans on Africa.
 The pessimistic version maintains that people are what they are conditioned to be; this is
something over which they have no control. Human beings are passive creatures and do
whatever their culture tells them to do. This explanation leads to behaviorism that locates the
causes of human behavior in a realm that is totally beyond human control.
 In Africa, due to colonialism, some of the European cultures have been determining the
behavior of most people. Sometimes it had been beyond their control. Ngugi wa Thiong’o once
said “Africa needs back its economy, its politics, its culture, its languages and all its patriotic
writers”. Paul Kagame of Rwanda also once said “Africa’s story has been written by others;
we need to own our problems and solutions and write our story.”
 Therefore on the optimistic side, the theory of cultural determinism is applicable to the African
context considering various cultural traits like homosexuality which Zimbabwe and other
countries like Uganda of Museveni banned in their societies. On the pessimistic side, African
society is still being controlled by colonial Eurocentric cultural traits. Issues like English,
Portuguese and French languages and dressing have been internalised into our African culture
and they are still determining our behaviour.
(b) Cultural relativism
 It is the idea that a person's beliefs, values, and practices should be understood based on that
person's own culture, rather than be judged against the criteria of another.
 Common features of cultural relativism are:
 Cultural Relativism is opposite of ethnocentrism.
 Cultural relativism is value neutral and objective
 It places a priority on understanding other cultures, rather than dismissing them as
“strange” or “exotic.
 It stresses that something can be understood and judged only in relation to the cultural
context in which it appears.
 It emphasizes that there is no cultural superiority or inferiority but they are relative to
their context
 Cultural relativism stresses that different social contexts give rise to different norms
and values. Thus, we must examine practices such as polygamy, homosexuality, and
monarchy within the particular contexts of the cultures in which they are found.
 This is applicable for Swaziland (now Eswatini) which is ruled by absolute monarch King
Mswati III since 1986. In Eswatini, no king can appoint his successor. Only an independent
special traditional Council called the Liqoqo decides which of the wives shall be "Great
Wife" and "Indlovukazi" (She-Elephant / Queen Mother). The son of this "Great Wife"
will automatically become the next king.
 In traditional Swazi culture, the king is expected to marry a woman from every clan in
order to cement relationships with each part of Eswatini. This means that the king must
have many wives. During the annual reed dance and virginity celebration ceremony
(umhlanga) usually held in August-september, semi-naked (bare breasted) virgins dance
before King Mswati III, the king picks one to be his wife. Some African leaders attended
these ceremonies as a sign of cultural relativism. According to
https://www.africanews.com/2017/09/05/zambia-s-lungu-joins-king-mswati-iii-at-
swaziland-s-reed-dance-ceremony-photos// Zambian president Edgar Lungu attended the
ceremony. Former president of Zimbabwe RG Mugabe said witnessing the eight-day
ceremony was a “privilege” and urged Swazis not to abandon it. “Umhlanga is a beautiful
occasion that grooms women of tomorrow,” he said, adding that no other country had such
a beautiful culture (https://www.newsday.co.zw/2010/09/2010-09-01-reed-dance-angers-
gender-activists )
 However, in light of human rights and child protection, the practice has faced some
international condemnation. According to Human Rights Watch (2015) young women and
girls are forced to take part in cultural activities like the Umhlanga reed dance. Families of
girls and young women who fail to take part in such cultural activities are often punished
or fined by their chiefs. According to https://www.maravipost.com/swazi-parliament-
allows-king-to-marry-14-year-old-virginsreduce-age-from-17/ the Swazi parliament
allowed the king to marry 14 year old virgins because King Mswati will get a morally
upright virgin befitting Queen’s title as most girls start getting loose at the age of 15.Some
sources are of the view that before Umhlanga, the girls would have to queue up to have
their virginity tested. This is normally done in a traditional way which majorly revolves
around examining the physical features of the vagina and shallow inserts into the organ to
see if the hymen is intact. It is believed that ladies who are no longer virgins, for fear of
being stigmatized, go as far as inserting raw meat into their vaginas so as to pass the test.
 Also, the Swazi practice is viewed as benefiting one group (monarchy) more than others
within the society. According to Thompson et al (2017), we should also guard against
viewing all cultural practices as being equally valid and worthy of respect. This is called
the relativist fallacy, and in its most extreme form it would treat even the most severe social
pathologies, such as genital mutilation, apartheid, and even genocide as legitimate cultural
practices. In this case, King Mswati III as an absolute monarch of a country where women
have few legal rights, cannot be turned down by any woman.
 A culture has to be studied in terms of its own meanings and values. Cultural relativism
describes a situation where there is an attitude of respect for cultural differences rather than
condemning other people's culture as uncivilized or backward (Stockard, 1997).
 Respect for cultural differences involves:
 Appreciating cultural diversity- a perspective recognizing multiculturalism of a particular
society and promoting equal standing for all cultural traditions ;
 Accepting and respecting other cultures;
 Trying to understand every culture and its elements in terms of its own context and logic;
 Accepting that each body of custom has inherent dignity and meaning as the way of
life of one group which has worked out to its environment, to the biological needs of its
members, and to the group relationships;
 Knowing that a person's own culture is only one among many; and
 Recognizing that what is immoral, ethical, acceptable, etc, in one culture may not be so
in another culture.
 Although cultural relativism does not suggest that we must unquestionably accept
every cultural variation, it does require a serious and unbiased effort to evaluate norms,
values, and customs in light of their distinctive culture. For instance some cultural practices
provide positive functions to the society although negatives are there.
 When a girl becomes a teenager in the Surma tribe of Southern Sudan, she begins the
process of lip stretching. The girl has her bottom teeth removed to make space for a lip
plate, which is increased in size annually. Circular plugs are inserted into the lips and then
gradually enlarged until the lips were stretched 4 inches or more. On the surface, this
custom seems to make little sense, but most cultures modify the face and lips in some
way to achieve beauty. For example, many American women use lipstick; some have
enhanced their lips surgically. Some scholars attribute the custom of placing large circular
objects in the lips to intense slave raiding a century ago. They contend that villages that
practiced lip extension were often avoided by slave raiders, and this may have encouraged
villagers to exaggerate lip extension as a symbol of beauty.
 The Fulani tribe live in many countries in West Africa and follow a tradition called Sharo.
Sharo happens when two young men want to marry the same woman. To compete for her
hand, they beat one another up. The men must suppress signs of pain and the one who takes
the beating without showing signs of pain can take the wife. This is for bravery purposes.
The Fulani are nomadic hence danger encounters them often which needs brave men.
Similarly, order to prove their manhood in the Ethiopian Hamer tribe, young boys must
run, jump and land on the back of a bull before then attempting to run across the backs of
several bulls. They do this multiple times, and usually in the nude.
 The Chewa people are one of the largest indigenous groups of Malawi but live throughout
Central and Southern Africa. When a person dies, one family tradition involves taking the
body into the woods, slitting the throat, and forcing water through the body to cleanse it.
They do this by squeezing the corpse’s stomach until what comes out the rear end runs
clear. However, this practice is unhealthy and can spread diseases like cholera. Xinhua,
english.news.cn (2018-01-24 00:05:13) notes that the people of such cultural practice in
Chegutu were blamed for spreading cholera due to such cleansing practice. The source
reports that when an 80-year-old woman died from cholera on Jan. 8 in Chegutu, 100 km
southwest of Harare, three relatives did a washout of her intestines according to religious
rituals.The three also contracted the disease and died, and the same rituals were conducted
on two of them without protection, said Mashonaland West provincial medical director
Wenceslaus Nyamayaro. Minister of Health and Child Welfare David Parirenyatwa said
this week that although authorities could not establish where Mungulisia had contracted
cholera, all the recorded cases were linked to her funeral.
 The Himba people of Northern Namibia cover their skin with a mixture of butter fat and
ochre — a natural earth pigment containing iron oxide — to protect themselves from the
sun. For that reason, the Himba people often appear to have a red skin tone. In Northern
Namibia, the Okujepisa Omukazendu treat is the most prestigious way the people of
Ovahimba and Ovazimba tribes welcome their male visitors. To make the guest feel at
home, a man would order his wife to go in and spend the night with the visitor. Although
rare, wives can equally require their visiting friends to go in and be with their husbands. It
has has been speculated that the essence of this strange African culture is to
eradicate jealousy and encourage oneness. Meanwhile, it is believed that this culture is also
practised by the Tiv people of Nigeria.
 Understanding cultural relativism gives insight into some controversies, such as the
international debate about the practice of clitoridectomy—a form of genital mutilation. In a
clitoridectomy (sometimes called female circumcision), all or part of a young woman’s clitoris
is removed, usually not by medical personnel, often in very unsanitary conditions, and without
any painkillers e.g. Komba among the Shangani in Zimbabwe.
 From the point of view of Western cultures, clitoridectomy is genital mutilation—a form of
violence against women. Many have called for international intervention to eliminate the
practice, but there is also a debate about whether disgust at this practice should be balanced by
a reluctance to impose Western cultural values on other societies.
 Therefore, the applicability of the theory of Cultural relativism is evident in African societies
where other African heads of state have viewed the Swazis’ culture of monarchy and Umhlanga
as beneficial to the Swazi society. Other cultural practices around Africa are uniquely
beneficial to their respective societies. However cultural relativism’s objectivity maybe a
challenge in the modern world of globalization as some violate human rights, benefit a few or
spread diseases. Cultural diversity has to be respected and yet international standards of justice,
health and human rights have to be taken into account.
(c) Cultural ethnocentrism
 Ethnocentrism the use of one’s own culture as a yardstick for judging the ways of other
individuals or societies, generally leading to a negative evaluation of their values, norms, and
behaviors. It is the habit of seeing things only from the point of view of one’s own group.
 As sociologist William Sumner (1906), who developed this concept of ethnocentrism, said,
“One’s own group is the center of everything, and all others are scaled and rated with reference
to it.”
 Ethnocentrism has both positive and negative consequences.
 Positively:
 It can enhance group stability by providing members with roots and a strong sense of
meaning and purpose.
 The tendency to view one’s culture as “the best” also has provided humans with many
different solutions to the problems of living.
 Most people are attached to their religious beliefs, foods, clothing, and other customs and
are unwilling to give them up, except under extreme conditions.
 It creates in-group loyalties.
 On the negative side:
 Viewing one’s values and customs as natural and right, and those of others as inferior and
wrong, often contributes to prejudice and discrimination. e.g the 2019 xenophobic attacks
in South Africa.
 Xeno_(from Greek xenos, meaning "stranger" or "foreigner" and _phobos_, meaning
"fear"). This kind of behaviour leads to discrimination of foreigners as natives believe
their culture will be interfered with. The 'fear' of foreigners interfering with the natives'
culture usually results in retaliation by natives who believe foreigners don't deserve a
place in their society. According to South World News (01/11/2019:8:00) on the 2 and
3 September, 12 people were killed in anti-foreign riots in Pretoria and joburg
townships. According to minister in charge of small business in development Lindiwe
Zulu, the rioters felt that other Africans were taking their jobs. Most targeted people
were Africans from other countries but also Pakistani and Chinese traders. The source
(ibid) notes that one of the champions of the anti-immigrants rhetoric is the deputy
police minister who claimed in 2017 that Johannesburg was taken over by foreigners
and that “the future president of South Africa could be a foreign national.” This kind of
discrimination can be driven largely by ethnocentric views.
 Creates interethnic conflict like genocide e.g. in Rwanda (Hutu and Tutsi civil war)
 The Rwandan genocide, also known as the genocide against the Tutsi, was a mass
slaughter of Tutsi, Twa (earliest inhabitants of Rwanda, a group of aboriginal pygmy
hunter-gathers) and moderate Hutu (those who sympathized with Tutsi) in Rwanda,
which took place between 7 April and 15 July 1994 during the Rwandan Civil War.
 The Tutsis were the victims of genocide, and the Hutus were the perpetrators .During
the Rwandan genocide of 1994, members of the Hutu ethnic majority in the east-central
African nation of Rwanda murdered as many as 800,000 people, mostly of the Tutsi
minority. Started by Hutu nationalists in the capital of Kigali, the genocide spread
throughout the country with shocking speed and brutality, as ordinary citizens were
incited by local officials and the Hutu Power government to take up arms against their
neighbors.
 Rwanda’s colonial period, during which the ruling Belgians favored the minority
Tutsis over the Hutus, exacerbated the tendency of the few to oppress the many,
creating a legacy of tension that exploded into violence even before Rwanda gained its
independence.
 These conflicts in Rwanda were largely ethnic proving that the Hutu became
ethnocentric since they felt they deserved to rule Rwanda with an exclusion of the Tutsi
minority.
 An ethnocentric perspective prevents one from understanding the world as others
experience it, and it can lead to narrow-minded conclusions about the worth of diverse
cultures.
 It can limit intergroup understanding
 For instance, according to South West News (ibid) in the 2019 case of xenophobic
attacks in South Africa, there have been many reactions outside of the country. In
Nigeria, four outlets of the South African telecoms giant MTN were damaged by
attacks in retaliation to the violence against Nigerians in South Africa, while several
Shoprite supermarkets were looted. As a result, South Africa closed temporarily its
diplomatic missions in Nigeria. In the DRC, protesters smashed the windows of the
South African consulate in Lubumbashi and looted South African-owned stores. There
was also a demonstration in front of the South African embassy in Kinshasa. Air
Tanzania suspended flights to Johannesburg because of the violence, while
Madagascar’s football federation announced that it would not send a team to play South
Africa in a friendly because of security concerns. In Zambia, students forced the closure
of South African-owned shopping malls and the president of the Economic Association
of Zambia, Lubinda Haabazoka, declared that the AU should not allow Ramaphosa to
become its chairperson next year. President Ramaphosa apologized and sent envoys to
Nigeria, Niger, Ghana, Senegal, the DRC and Tanzania. This overally shows how much
negative,cultural ethnocentrism can lead to isolation of a society.
 It can also create overt political conﬂict e.g. The Boko Haram insurgency in West Africa
 Boko Haram —which means “Western learning is forbidden” is an Islamic jihadist
terrorist organization based in northeastern Nigeria, also active in Chad, Niger and
northern Cameroon. Boko Haram seeks the establishment of an Islamic state in Nigeria.
 It opposes the Westernization of Nigerian society and the concentration of the wealth
of the country among members of a small political elite, mainly in the Christian south
of the country.
 As James Verini wrote in a November 2013 article for National Geographic, "Boko
Haram has become something more than a terrorist group, more even than a
movement. Its name has taken on an incantatory power. Fearing they will be heard
and killed by Boko Haram, Nigerians refuse to say the group's name aloud, preferring
instead to 'the crisis' or 'the insecurity.' Its leaders do have connections to other African
Islamist groups such as Al Qaeda in the Islamic Maghreb (AQIM), Somalia's Al
Shabaab, and the Movement for Unity and Jihad in West Africa (MUJAO).
 Since the insurgency started in 2009 after the death of Mohammed Yusuf its founder,
Boko Haram has killed tens of thousands and displaced 2.3 million from their homes
and was at one time the world’s deadliest terror group (Global Terrorism Index). The
group have carried out mass abductions including the kidnapping of 276 school girls
from Chibok in April 2014. A Boko Haram leader officially took responsibility for
the kidnapping, saying in a video that members of his group would marry girls as
young as nine or sell them as slaves.
 Looking at Boko Haram, cultural ethnocentrism manifested in their hate for western
culture in Nigeria and Christians in the south whom they feel they are favored
politically.
 Ethnocentrism can create exploitation of one group by another e.g. exploitation related
ethnic conflicts in Mali, Mauritania, Sudan, Chad and Niger.
 The tension in these African regions is the conflict between Arabs (and the Tuareg, who
are Berbers) and sub-Saharan (black) Africans. Black Africans have been continually
victimized by their Arab and Tuareg neighbors in Northern Africa for over a millennium,
resulting in a hatred and fear that is deeply engrained.
 Religious (generally Muslim vs Christian and animist) and cultural differences further
exacerbate the situation.
 For over 1,000 years Arabs enslaved black Africans. Although the Arab slave trade
began to rapidly decline in the 1960s Mauritania did not criminalize slavery until 2007
and even today tens of thousands of Africans remain enslaved through bonded labor
or other forms of slavery in the region (it is estimated that 8% of Nigeriens and 10-
20% of Mauritanians are slaves).
 In the 1800s during the “Scramble for Africa” European powers colonized and carved
the continent into what became (for the most part) the modern national borders. Arabs,
Tuareg and black Africans were lumped together in a band of French and British
territory stretching straight across the southern expanse of the Sahara that later
became the current states of Mauritania, Mali, Niger, Chad, and Sudan.
 In the past decade four of these countries (Mali, Niger, Sudan and Chad) have
experienced rebellions or civil wars fought predominantly along ethnic or racial
divisions. These wars occurred for a multitude of standard reasons – politics,
resources, religion, history – but it was often quite clear that ethnicity and race were
determining factors when the locals chose which side to fight for. The Tuareg rebellion
in Mali claimed the desert north of the Niger River as the independent state of Azawad
in 2012, separating the Tuaregs from the black Africans in southern Mali. The
previous Tuareg rebellion (2007-2009) occurred in both Mali and Niger with the
Nigerien Tuaregs demanding decentralization and that the Nigerien military in their
territory be dominated by Tuaregs instead of black Africans. Sudan fought two civil
wars between the Arab-dominated north and the black African south, from 1983-2005
which resulted in autonomy and later the independence of South Sudan in 2011. The
Sudanese Civil War spilled over into Chad from 2005-2010 as mostly a proxy war
between Sudan and South Sudan utilizing the same ethnic militias from the Sudanese
Civil War.
 President al-Bashir of Sudan vowed to fight the South Sudan “insects” who “do not
understand anything but the language of the gun and ammunition” and Mali’s
President Traore threatened “a total and relentless war” against the Tuareg.
 Looking at these ethnic wars in these North African countries, ethnocentric views of
Arabs resulted in long time enslavement of black Africans. This is the reason the
Tuaregs believe their culture is superior to that of black Africans.
 Therefore, cultural ethnocentrism has a positive and a negative side. The positive side is
usually overshadowed by the negative side in the face of human rights respect. In Africa,
cultural ethnocentrism has showed largely the negative side with regards to Rwandan genocide,
Arab and black African conflicts in the north and the Boko Haram insurgency in West Africa.
(d) Xenocentrism (The Greek root word xeno, pronounced “ZEE-no,” means “stranger” or
“foreign guest.”)
 It is the tendency to assume that aspects of other culture are superior to one’s own.
Xenocentrism is the preference for the products, styles or ideas of someone else’s culture rather
than one’s own. In Africa, and Zimbabwe specifically, the concept of youth culture has
emerged which is highly xenocentric. Youth culture is a general way of life associated with
young people (Giddens 2009).
 In Zimbabwe, youth culture is largely xenocentric. Other youths show their coming of
age by rejecting or offloading their indigenous names. They adopt western and Christian
ones. Some Shona names were Anglicized, for example, Hazvinei can be changed to
Nomatter. Others gave themselves names of their music idols, for example, Elvis from
Elvis Presley. Yet others gave themselves names of cities, such as Wellington, the capital
of New Zealand (Samkange & Samkange, 1980). If one is to profess his love to a
potential lover in Shona/Ndebele, especially using proverbs, he becomes a subject of
public ridicule. He is seen as someone who is unschooled. Slang is also prevalent in
Zimbabwean youth culture e.g. Moms meaning mother, Gogaz for grandmother which is
quite a foreign phenomenon to our Zimbabwean culture.
 Lately, there has also been a heavy influence from popular Black American
musicians on Zimbabwean youths leading to the development of a new genres called
urban grooves and ZimDancehall.
 The impact of the internet is being felt among the contemporary youths by such social
networks as Facebook, WhatsApp, Instagram and Twitter. These networks have the
potential of bringing the youth together so that they work together for development or
destruction of the status quo. For instance the youths also indulged in viewing
pornography when they are alone at home. Although viewing pornography is illegal in
Zimbabwe, it is very difficult to control access to such damaging material. As such the
youths find themselves engrossed in pornography with very little restraint (Takupiwa et
al 2011).
 https://www.sundaynews.co.zw/inside-vuzu-parties/ reported that the digital era has not
helped the situation either as children can now freely tap into age restricted sites where
they learn nothing less than things reserved for adults. This has seen the emergence of a
disturbing trend in the city where school going teenagers are now attending wild parties
now known as “vuzu parties” especially during school holidays where alcohol abuse, sex
and nudity are celebrated. These house parties are characterised by wild sex orgies,
reckless alcohol imbibing, smoking marijuana and stripping activities which were a
known Western phenomenon but is permeating the African moral setup at an alarming
and generation destruction rate. https://www.chronicle.co.zw/shocking-revelations-from-
vuzu-party-youths/ also reported that a Bulawayo youth, Trevor Gurajena, left people
stunned when he revealed the four types of vuzu parties that include plain, US$5 party
and “blesser” sponsored vuzu parties. Gurajena said the plain vuzu parties are the ones
whereby youths sponsor themselves just for socialising and, of course, unprotected sex.
Youths pay a US$5 subscription to join a sex race. The subscriptions, he said, are set aside
throughout the party and will be given as an award to honour the boy and girl who win
the race. “It’s a race and you have to prove a point. Two people, a boy and a girl who
manage to sleep with at least 10 partners during that night are given the royal crown,” he
said.
 The source (ibid) reported that Bulawayo Ward 1 Councillor, Mlandu Ncube said vuzu
parties are a foreign phenomenon and a sign of moral decay. A nurse educator from Mpilo
Central Hospital said vuzu parties are contributing to the rise in new HIV infections and
sexually transmitted infections in the youth.“This is a threat to our vision of reducing
HIV/Aids and new infections by 2030.Youths are indulging in unprotected sex that puts
them at the risk of contracting HIV and STIs,” said the official.
 Sometimes when people attempt to rectify feelings of ethnocentrism and develop cultural
relativism, they swing too far to the other end of the spectrum and become xenocentric.
 The source https://www.modernghana.com/news/638984/the-lost-of-african-values-and-
morals-reason.html identifies the lost African cultural values due to Xenocentrism.
 The beautiful African lady was deceived in the mirror that her hair is short, her skin is
dark, and the African butter is not good for the skin and it is these that make her
unattractive unless she bleach her skin with the chemical pomade, and invent the
Whiteman’s hair to cover her head. It really hurts when recounting how our African
Queens and prides are being engulfed with the deceits of the whites. So the African
woman has now taken a second image which is not fit her compare to her naturally gifted
dark skin and short hair. Some are now suffering from various kinds of skin cancer, burns
and other disturbing diseases caused by the chemical pomades and skin products.
 The source (ibid) notes that another value which is fading out of Africa is African
traditional medicine which played very vital role in the health and productivity of African
populations. Medicines were not obtained from anything apart from natural plants and
parts of animals. They used natural substances such as tree leaves, seeds, tree back, roots,
tree fluids, and stems for medicine. Animal parts such as droppings, bones, bone marrow,
animal fat, urine, milk, and skin were used for curing all kinds of diseases.
 In modern African societies, foreign drugs are now believed to be effective. For
example in Zimbabwe, foreign drugs are seen in most cities in Zimbabwe. According
to https://www.herald.co.zw/smuggled-drugs-flood-zim-market/ Zimbabwe Revenue
Authority (Zimra) Commissioner-General Faith Mazani confirmed that drugs were
being smuggled into the country, saying this called for a joint operation involving the
police and the Ministry of Health and Child Care. Some of the drugs are banned by
the Medicines Control Authority of Zimbabwe (MCAZ) because of their hazardous
effects, but they find their way illegally onto the market.
 Some of the drugs being sold on the streets without prescription include:
cotrimoxazole, ibrufen, pethidine, stromox, super apetito, erythromycin, azithromycin
combicult, brimal satchets, Broncleer, comblimodus, diclofenac tablets, Depo
provera, doxycycline, hydrochloride injection, Attesan, benzylpenicillin, diezpam and
ampicilasodica. According to https://www.thestandard.co.zw/2016/09/04/harares-
dangerous-drugs-time-bomb/ most of these drugs come from South Africa, Botswana
and Namibia. This further reinforce Xenocentrism in most African societies as they
drugs are not indigenous African.
 However, in Zimbabwe, traditional medicine is still being promoted. A circular dated
01 April 2020 from the director traditional medicine posted on various social media
platforms, showed that herbal medicines were being considered in the fight against
COVID 19(Coronavirus Infectious Diseases of 2019)
 The source (https://www.modernghana.com/news/638984/the-lost-of-african-values-

and-morals-reason.html) also notes that African belief system was such that people
worship God through ancestral spirits. Foreign beliefs have been embraced as people
now worship God through Jesus Christ. However, due to the coming of missionaries
Africans have taken the Whiteman image of God. According to Mbiti:
“Missionaries did not bring God to Africa, but it was God who brought them to
Africa. One for real is that they brought Christ. Africans do not worship their
ancestors- they are not the supreme Beings; the end in themselves, but God is
the final authority above and beyond the ancestors. Ancestors are just the
intermediaries between people and the Supreme-Being.”
 In Zimbabwe, Gelfand (1959) argues that the Karanga people believed that ‘it was
Zame who created the earth, all humanity, the animals, insects, vegetables, the
mountains, the sky, stars, the moon and everything that exists or moves on the surface
of the earth, sea and oceans’. The Karanga believed in the Supreme Being, creator,
or God known as Zame. In Shona he is popularly known as Mwari.
 According to Jacob Olupona, professor of indigenous African religions at Harvard
Divinity School, Indigenous African spirituality today is increasingly falling out of
favour. The amount of devotees to indigenous practices has dwindled as Islam and
Christianity have both spread and gained influence throughout the continent.
Christianity is more dominant in the south, while Islam is more dominant in the north.
Indigenous African practices tend to be strongest in the central states of Africa, but
some form of their practices and beliefs can be found almost anywhere in Africa.
 According to the 2017 Inter Censual Demography Survey by the Zimbabwe National
Statistics Agency 69.2 percent of Zimbabweans belong to Protestant Christianity, 8.0
percent are Roman Catholic, in total 84.1 percent follow one of the denominations of
Christianity.
 However, most Christians continue to practice elements of their traditional religions.
Further, most Zimbabwe churches, like African Churches, now incorporate worship
practices that include traditional African rituals, songs, dance, non-Christian
iconography and oral culture. This shows that although Zimbabwe religion has been
Xenocentric, some indigenous beliefs are still prevalent.
Religion in Zimbabwe (2017)

Christianity 84.1 %
Traditional religions 4.5%
No religion 10.2%
Islam 0.7%
Others 0.5%
Strengths of cultural Xenocentrism
 Xenocentrism can help to shed light on cultural deficiencies, whether it be ideas or

products. e.g. our African indigenous medical set ups have limitations especially on
performing sophisticated surgical operations.
 Offers the opportunity to fix that which may legitimately inferior to another country
or culture.
Weaknesses of cultural Xenocentrism
 In psychological terms, Xenocentrism is considered a type of deviant behavior because it
sways from the norms of society. It is unexpected that an individual would value the
goods, services, styles, ideas and other cultural elements of another nation.
 A loss of population to emigration to countries whose culture they feel is superior to
theirs.
 Negative impact on the identity of others in relation to culture. People may feel their
identity is not worthy to be proud of.
 If adopted by large like-minded groups, Xenocentrism could cause political
polarization.one camp may be ethnocentric whilst the other is xenocentric.
As you can see, Xenocentrism can be a major problem when it occurs in a society, especially if it
occurs on a widespread scale.
 Therefore, the applicability of Xenocentrism on African can be evidenced by a growing youth

culture which is western in style, the beliefs and medicines which have been largely foreign.
However, some indigenous beliefs and medicine have resisted the takeover by western ideas
which shows that to some degree Africans have remained ethnocentric positively. Both
positives and negatives can be deduced although the tendency of Xenocentrism harvests more
negatives than positives.
Values of heritage
 These are the qualities and meanings of heritage which individuals and groups bestows on it
that renders it desirable and important These qualities include:
 Scientific
 Aesthetic
 Social
 Historical
 Economic
 Educational
 Political
(a) Scientific value

 Scientific value of heritage entail the view that heritage has the qualities and principles of
science which it transmit or effect to the society like chemical, biological, medical, technical,
factual, technological aspects etc.
 According to Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine 9, Article number: 31 (2013)
, out of more than 5000 plant species growing in Zimbabwe, about 10 percent of these
have medicinal properties and are used as traditional medicines. Traditional medicine has
remained as the most affordable and easily accessible source of treatment in the primary
healthcare system of resource poor communities in Zimbabwe. About 80% of the
population in developing countries use traditional medicines because they cannot afford
the high cost of western pharmaceuticals and health care, and because traditional
medicines are more acceptable from a cultural and spiritual perspective. The plant parts
used for making herbal preparations were the bark, bulbs, fibre, fruits, leaves, rhizomes,
roots, sap, seeds, twigs and whole plant. However, harvesting of roots of herbaceous
plants for medicinal purposes is not sustainable as it threatens the survival of the same
plants used to treat human ailments. It is well recognized by conservationists that
medicinal plants primarily valued for their root parts and those which are intensively
harvested for their bark often tend to be the most threatened by over-exploitation
 https://www.pindula.co.zw/Nyanyadzi_Hot_Springs notes that Nyanyadzi Hot Springs
are mythically believed to cure skin diseases, remove spots and wrinkles from ones face.
The Nyanyadzi Hot Springs are located 21 km from Birchenough Bridge.
 According to UNESCO (2019) Great Zimbabwe ruins have massive curving walls,
constructed from millions of granite blocks fitted together without mortar. These are
technical and technological qualities which the Great Zimbabwean ruins effect on
society.
 The source (ibid) the Matobo hills and caves of the area are renowned for the 20,000
cave-paintings and petroglyphs that can be found there, which date from as far back as
13,000 years ago. These paintings and petroglyphs have technological value on the
society.
(b) Aesthetic value
 Aesthetic value of heritage is the value that heritage possesses in virtue of its capacity to elicit
pleasure when appreciated or experienced.
 According to UNESCO (2019) The Victoria Falls is one of the most spectacular waterfalls
in the world. The Victoria Falls are 1708m wide and drop 99m at its highest point, making
it the largest sheet of falling water in the world when the Zambezi River is at its fullest.
Twice the height of Niagara Falls and one and a-half times wider, the Victoria Falls are
divided into five separate waterfalls: Devil's Cataract, Main Falls, Horseshoe Falls,
Rainbow Falls and Eastern Cataract. David Livingstone was impressed by what he saw that
he described the falls saying "scenes so lovely must have been gazed upon by angels in
their flight."
 The source (ibid) notes that the Great Zimbabwe stone walls are up to six meters thick and
twelve meters high, are built of granite blocks without the use of mortar. This aesthetic
value has led the country, Zimbabwe to attain its name.
 https://www.myguidezimbabwe.com/usefulinfo/zimbabwe-attractions---top-ten-
attractions-in-Zimbabwe points out that the Vumba Mountains are a scenic place in the
Eastern highlands, southwest of Mutare. A lush place which experiences a pleasantly cool
climate almost all year round. Vumba has some stunning valleys, mountain views and
awesome hiking trails through lush forests. The Vumba is also home to an impressive
botanical garden which has a rich collection of azaleas, orchids, proteas and many more
flower/plant species. The aesthetic value has an effect in that the gardens are popular for
botany lovers, retreat destination and an up-market wedding venue.
(c) Social value
 Social value of heritage encompasses the quality which heritage effect on the society or
community in general. These qualities may include among others promoting companionship,
unity, peace, love and Unhu/Ubuntu in general.
 According to UNESCO (2019) the Matobo Hills still provide a strong focus for the local
social activities. Mupisa et al (2017) notes that one such shrine in Matopo Hills is the
Njelele where people from all over Zimbabwe come to ask for rain. These rain making
ceremonies help bring peace as drought is controlled, unity as people will be meeting for a
common goal and Unhu/Ubuntu as people learn to respect the shrines as well as the
mediums.
 Trees provide a source of medicine to cure illness which upsets the society (refer to
scientific value). This builds peace.
 Religious beliefs plays a role in controlling human behavior (refer to notes on religion and
socialization).
 Oral narratives mould human behaviour. (refer to elements of culture)
(d) Historical value

 Historical value of heritage entails the quality exhibited by heritage which ignites the memories
of past events. Heritage serves as the banner to history of societies. Sites of historical value
include among others:
 The National Heroes Acre-represents the struggle for independence.
 Mass graves like Chibondo and Herbert mine in Mutasa district, Chimoio and Nyadzonya
(Mozambique), freedom camp in Zambia etc.-remind people about brutal massacres of
freedom fighters by Rhodesian soldiers.
 Chinhoyi caves-some archaeologists and historians believe that the name ‘Chirorodziva’
was taken from the horrific incidences related to the Angani tribe who moved northwards
and in the process, suppressed people living around the caves whom they threw in the pool
in the 1830s
 Matopo Hills provide historical value because they were a Ndebele stronghold in the
1800‘s and were the site of the second Ndebele war. The great colonialist Cecil John
Rhodes is buried in the area as well.
(e) Economic value
 Economic value of heritage considers among others: the profitability, rewarding, enumerative
and commercial qualities that heritage bestows on the society.
 Heritage Tourism is one of the economic value of heritage. Heritage is a key player in the
visitor attraction sector with heritage visitor attractions representing an ‘integral
component of the tourism product in many countries’ (Leask et al. 2002, p.247). Indeed it
has been suggested that ‘often tourism is based on local heritage resources such as older
buildings and customs that attract visitors’ (Madden and Shipley 2012, p.103). In Zimbabwe,
various heritage sites attract tourists. For instance as of 2017, at Victoria Falls locals paid
US$7 and foreign tourists paid US$30.
 Employment creation is also enabled. In Victoria Falls for instance, sculptors and weavers
sell their traditional wares to tourism. Curio shops are also opened to sell Souvenirs.
Construction of hotels and places of entertainment like crocodile farm, helicopter tours,
Bungee jumping and boat cruising further create employment.
 Making and playing traditional ceremonial tools like mbira (thump piano), Drums,
Saxophones make individuals earn a living.
 Traditional medicine practitioners can benefit through selling the medicine.
(f) Educational value
 Educational value of heritage entails the view that heritage possesses qualities of instructing,
facilitating learning and acquisition of knowledge.
 Domboshava Hills and caves encompass an interpretive Centre, San rock art, geological
formations, and wooded vegetation which are educational in areas of history.
 Chinhoyi caves also encompass geological limestone features like stalagmites and stalactites
which are educational in geomorphological studies.
 Oral narratives teach norms and values
 Cultural institutions facilitates learning of the country’s heritage.
 National symbols are educative of the country’s heritage.
(g) Political value

 Political value of heritage considers the perception that heritage encompass qualities of
influencing governance, public affairs and diplomatic issues.
 Great Zimbabwe ruins influenced the naming of the country Zimbabwe.
 The Great Zimbabwe bird became the national symbol.
 Great Zimbabwe also served as a basis of our international relations as trade was conducted
there with Portuguese traders, Chinese, Indians, the Middle East merchants. However
controversy surrounds the construction of the monument. The Afrocentric view of James E
Mullan credits the locals while Eurocentric view of Joao de Barros gave credit to non-africans
like Jews and Phoenecians as builders.
 The National Heroes Acre and Mass graves of Zimbabwe around and in other countries show
the country should remain a sovereign nation.
 Njelele Shrine regulates the country’s spiritual affairs.
Significance of heritage
 Heritage can spearhead economic growth through promoting production of goods and
services. Key economic drivers of heritage lie in use of plants, minerals and animals to promote
industrialisation e.g. cattle breeding technologies, mineral processing for exports. Services like
heritage tourism will be enabled as a result.
 Heritage opens employment and enterprise opportunities for the country. One can earn a
living through making Curios for exportation using available resources like trees and minerals.
Heritage tourism creates job opportunities.
 It enables innovation to solve the society’s problems. Wetlands can be harnessed to promote
all year round agriculture which reduces hanger and starvation, trees can be used as a source
of medicine for various ailments which trouble society like HIV/AIDS, COVID 19, and Cancer
etc.
 Heritage can incubate a socially responsible human resource. Oral narratives, norms and
values breed a people with Unhu/Ubuntu who can shun corruption and respect human rights.
A corruption free society which value human rights is a pro development society. Foreign
Direct Investment favours corruption free and peaceful nations. Nationalism and patriotism are
also effects of a socially responsible human resource.
 It encourages tolerance of cultural differences and cultural diversity. The constitution of
Zimbabwe recognises 16 different languages which make people appreciate multilingualism.
This further reduces ethnic conflicts within the society.
 Heritage prompts environmental preservation. Taboos and other oral narratives make
people treat the natural environment with utmost respect and fear of spiritual reprimand.
Scientific and economic values of heritage induce the impetus to conserve the environment. A
society will achieve sustainable development. Heritage is a fundamental in creating a ‘sense of
place’ for a community.
 It help to foster civic responsibility and citizenship. Areas where the heritage is understood
and valued tend to be better looked after than those where heritage items have no link with
the community. Heritage places can be a potent driver for community action
 Heritage places are an excellent local educational resource for people of all ages. (refer to
educational value of heritage).Learning about the history of a place is a good way of bringing
communities together through a shared understanding of the unique cultural identity heritage
places give to an area.
 However the significance of heritage might not be fully appreciated because of the following
factors:
 Financial inadequacies which limit resource utilisation
 Globalisation which has resulted in cultural hybridisations (combination of two or more
elements from different cultures or parts of the world). This maybe positive to hyper
globalisers (those who support globalisation) but cultures of developing nations are usually
on the receiving and damaging end of new ideas than that of developed nations.
TOPIC 2: CULTURE: NORMS, VALUES AND SOCIALISATION
 Norms are the rules of behaviour that are agreed upon and shared within a culture and that
prescribe limits of acceptable behaviour (Sanderson 1995).
 Values may be defined as broad ideas regarding what is desirable, correct and good which
members of a society share(Chikati and Mavondo(2017).
 Zimbabweans have their own norms which distinguish them from the rest of other groups in
the world.
Zimbabwean norms and values
 Greetings manner
 Etiquette habits
 integrity
 oneness
 respect
 humility
 Greetings manner- greetings are a way of showing respect. Handshakes, smiles create
positive impressions in Zimbabwean set up. In Zimbabwe everyone is considered your
relative and should be greeted. This is important as it makes one feel comfortable, welcome
and even cooperative in any conversation.
 Etiquette habits- etiquette is the customary code of polite behavior in society. It help us
show respect and consideration to others. Examples include:
 Gifts should be received with both hands
 Saying ‘thank you’ after being given something, use of ‘please’ ‘excuse me’
 Listening before speaking
 Integrity – the quality of being honest, wholesome etc. it is important in building one to be a
good leader, marriage partner etc. One with integrity speaks out against unethical behavior.
Integrity controls and regulate human behaviour because for fear of losing trust from the
people one is conditioned to conform.
 Oneness- a sense of unity in society is integral for peace building, solidarity and cohesion
 Respect- it is a sense of giving due regard for the feelings, wishes or rights of others. Respect
is crucial in:
 Building oneness
 Enhancing etiquette habits
 Upholding human rights
 Tolerance
 Humility- the quality of having a modest or low view of one’s importance. It reduces pride
and selfishness whilst improving one’s etiquette habits.
Influences to African norms and values
 Globalization-Giddens (2009) defined globalization as the fact that we all increasingly live
in one world, so that individuals, groups and nations become ever more interdependent.
There will be creation of a global village where cultures become homogenous and
hybridized. It affects norms and values through:
 Promoting Xenocentrism
 Promoting nuclear families than extended families
 Promoting deviant youth cultures
 Abandonment of indigenous religion practices like rainmaking, reincarnation
ceremonies
 Westernization- the spreading of western values e.g. individualism
 Tourism
 However globalization can be positive:
 Xenocentrism (refer to theories of culture)
 Corruption-it is a tendency of individuals gaining undeserved favors or gains at the expense
of deserving others. It cultivates the following behaviors among individuals:
 Individualism
 Ingratitude
 Covetousness
 Selfishness
 Pride
 Negligence.
 These are chief enemies to Zimbabwean norms and values. It also kills other values like hard
work, compassion, oneness, dignity and integrity amongst others
 Urbanization and modernization-the mass exodus of people from rural to urban areas
creates the following challenges:
 Breaking up of societal fabric which is strengthened by kuwadzana (fellowship).
Urban values are more individualistic
 Breaking up of family fabric as it promotes nuclear than extended families.
 Due to modernization, the payment of the lobola has been hijacked by parents who
view this as way of self-enrichment. Some couples have opted for what is called
“steady date’’ or “live –in’’ boyfriend or girlfriend where the couple stays together
without paying lobola.
 However urbanization can be positive:
 Urban areas have better institutions which offer better education. This help in further
refinement of norms and values e.g. hard work
 Media and information communication technologies (ICT)- gadgets like cell phones ,
computers exposes youths to foreign cultures like dirty music, pornography, drugs,
homosexuality etc. These affects values of kunzanana (mutual understanding), kugarisana
(peaceful existence) and marriage. Instead values like aggressiveness, lying, selfishness grow
in individuals. Internet takes away the attention of individuals from primary issues in the
society e.g. social media platforms promote negligence of family relations.
 However media platforms like radio and television offer opportunities for public awareness
on issues of norms and values e.g. Mai Chisamba show, auntie Flo’s culture talk, Patsime etc
on ZBC
Concepts that inform Zimbabwean norms and values
 Unhu/ubuntu/vumunhu philosophy- this is a humanist philosophy focusing on people’s
allegiances and relations with each other. Literary the word means personhood. It is derived
from the popular saying ‘Umuntu ngumuntu ngebanye’ (I am because we are).
 Samkange (1980) placed an emphasis on three maxims which shape the philosophy of
Ubuntu:
 To be human is to affirm one’s humanity by recognizing the humanity of others,
thereby establishing respectful human relations with others
 If and when one is faced with decisive choice between wealth and the preservation of
the life of another human being, then one should opt for the preservation of life.
 The king owes his status, including all powers associated with it, to the will of the
people under him.
 Ubuntu guides all the above mentioned Zimbabwean norms and values.
TASK: Discuss the influence of Unhu/Ubuntu philosophy on Zimbabwean norms and values
 Multiculturalism- (refer to topic 1 for more) The constitution of Zimbabwe recognizes 16
languages, a sign of multiculturalism. Some of the languages of various cultural groups in
Zimbabwe include:
 Chewa, Chibarwe, Koisan, Nambya ,Sotho, Tswana, Shona, Ndebele, Kalanga, Tonga,
Venda, Xangani, Xhosa, Ndau
Societal norms and values of the above listed cultural groups
 The Chewa
 Chewa (also known as Nyanja) is a Bantu language spoken in much

of Southern, Southeast and East Africa, namely the countries of Malawi and Zambia, where
it is an official language, and Mozambique and Zimbabwe where it is a recognized minority
language.
NB the Bantu languages are a large family of languages spoken by the Bantu
peoples throughout Sub-Saharan Africa.
 Song and dance- they magnify their traditional dances i.e. Gule Wamkulu which builds
oneness. "The Great Dance." This association of masked dancers parades through the
villages portraying the spirits of the dead. A Chewa man must belong to the Nyau
society to attain full adult male status. Songs are sung at initiation rites, rituals, marriage
ceremonies, and during post-harvest celebrations. There are puberty songs, praise songs,
funeral songs, work songs, beer-drinking songs, and coronation songs for chiefs. Several
traditional dances are also popular among the Chewa, especially during weddings and
other festivals. For example, mganda is an all-male dance performed by about fifteen
men. They sing and dance in unison following a complex series of steps. The female
counterpart of mganda is chimtali, usually performed at weddings.
 Initiation rites-During initiation, boys are secluded in the bush for instruction and
discipline for about three days. Girls between age nine and age sixteen undergo a series
of puberty and initiation rites known as chinamwali. Chinamwali traditional girl
initiation ceremony addresses some of the following topics:
 Good manners and respect for elderly
 Sexual abstinence
 How to carry out household chores
 Good behavior towards their husbands once they were married
 Dressing respectfully
 Religion-Their native religion involves a single supreme being. Also important is honoring
the departed spirits of ancestors, or Mizimu.
 Relationships-To greet each other, men and women of the same age group shake hands
vigorously. When one receives a guest it is customary to prepare food, preferably a
chicken. It is considered rude for guests to decline food, even if they have already eaten. A
younger person is supposed to bow or look to the side, or even squat on the ground, when
being addressed by an elder.
 Family life-The Chewa have a matrilineal kinship system. This means that inheritances are
passed down through the female line. Children are considered to be members of the
mother's lineage, and are thus under the guidance of maternal uncles (their mothers'
brothers). Young people choose their own marriage partners. However, the marriage cannot
be recognized as valid without the approval of the maternal uncles.
 Folklore- Chewa storytelling and songs are central to their customs and beliefs. Much of
their folklore dwells on drought, fire, famine, and rainmaking. One of the central figures in
Chewa myths is Mbona, a rainmaker among the Mang'anja of Southern Malawi. The story
of this mythical hero resembles that of Jesus Christ. He was the only son of his mother,
conceived without a man. Like Christ, he performed miracles (in this case, bringing rain in
times of persistent drought). Finally, he was killed by his own people. The story of Mbona
has developed into a sacred oral text.
 The Sena
 These are Chibarwe, Bantu speaking language mainly from Malawi and Mozambique (
Manica province, Tete province, Zambezia province, sofala province) but a few are also
found in Zimbabwe near to the border with Mozambique
 Sena people live in hot humid regions hence they wore few clothes
 Showing bare legs has been considered culturally as immodest, and both men and women try
to keep it covered
 Regardless of missionary influence, some of the Sena have held on to traditional beliefs in
polygamy
 Brideprice (lobolo) payment is also common
 The Koisan
 They are a blend of Khokhoi and San
 They are specialists in artwork
 They value preservation of the natural environment
 They have a strong knowledge of medicinal values of plants
 Marriage involve the transfer of cattle
 According to David Boyce, they use specific terms to refer to older or younger siblings
 They practice various initiation rites starting from birth, puberty, adulthood, marriage up to
death
 On birth rites, the mother and the baby are supposed to be secluded from people, stay in
a hut for at least seven days. The mother and the baby are viewed as vulnerable hence
inessential contacts were to be avoided.
 The Nambyan
 Nambya people are an ethnic group based on the north west of Zimbabwe. They are believed
to have descended from kalanga. They occupy the swathe of land between Hwange town and
Zambezi and share part of the land with the Tonga.
 According to The Herald of 20 April 2012, on marriage, they practice initiation and
acceptance tests for the groom and the bride. This is meant to strengthen their marriage.
Divorce is still not common. It takes a lot of trouble to divorce.
 Early in the morning, the time that elephants normally bath in the Zambezi,
(euphemistically known here as Kasambabezi) before daybreak, the girl’s aunts or
grandmothers take the groom to the river for his first test. Quickly they strip him and
bath him in cold river water, systematically watching out for the crocodile. He should
not shiver, for, shivering and gnashing of teeth from the cold is a sign of weakness. The
aunts take their time to clothe him. Yes, he has passed this one but more is yet to come.
 The initiation and acceptance tests could act as deterrent as much as they encourage long
lasting marriages. Normally, marriages are encouraged in winter, when its dead cold and
the man’s strength of character can be tested.
 Bride price payment is a common feature. Traditionally, in Nambyan society an
unmarried woman or man was termed “incomplete’’ until he found a spouse to complete
her or him. For the couple to be pronounced husband and wife, the groom has to go
through a process that shows appreciation by paying what ishasha. The payment would
be in the form of goats. Payment is categorized differently and includes chivulandomo,
imbuji yokwa tate namai and, pyangi lani yo kuno. The payment of the bride price is
procedural. Firstly after the bride to be approves the proposal, the groom looks for a
mediator, izhendeji, the go-between. After these payments, the groom to be goes to his
in-laws with izhendeji for a place to sleep.
 Another test for the groom is called mashaja. In this case, a meal of sadza and meat is
prepared and placed in one plate from which the bridegroom and the bride eat at the
same time and throw the first morsels away at the same time.
 Thereafter the groom is given a final test for “greediness” in which he shares his food
with the bride’s younger sister. They monitor if he does not eat more than the girl, to see
if he is caring
 The bridegroom also goes through reproductive tests with elders. The young man is
made to suck a row egg and if he vomits then he is not productive and if he can stand the
raw egg then he is a man.
 The final test is masturbating in front of the elderly men who make him ejaculate in
water and if the sperm sinks then he is a powerful man and if it floats, his marriage
proposal is disapproved. He is given a second chance to prove his mettle by going back
to his elders to be given some kubhikilwa herbal concoction to strengthen his manhood.
 The bride also visits her in-laws where she proves her womanhood by doing household
chores. When she arrives at her in-laws she is not supposed to get into the house before they
pay her a welcome fee. In the process called kusapa bwinga, she is paid in the form of
chicken and the payment was known as makwelelo.
 The bride’s virginity is very important and is celebrated. If the bride was a virgin, the
family of the groom would carry a pot full of beer to the in-laws as an indication of the
virginity and also praise the parents of the bride that they took great care of their child. If
she is deflowered, she fails the test.
 The bride also goes through bedroom lessons so that she is a complete woman. Her
grandmothers teach her how to handle a man practically and theoretically. The idea is to
kit or tool her so that she satisfies her husband.
 In cases where the bridegroom dies, the brother of the deceased takes over the wife in
what is called kungwina mumba. This is done even without the consent of the wife
herself. If she refuses, her father would then return all the malobolo and the ishasha
originally paid. In this case if she wants to remarry somewhere else, she can, but the
children from the previous marriage remain with their original family.
 The passage of time has seen so many aspects of the Nambya culture change, though not
much. Modernisation and the technological advancement have changed the value of
marriages in Nambyan society. The infusion of the other cultures has seen some unappealing
aspects of marriage being dropped although the payment of lobola remains essential in all
marriages. However, even though the other forms are falling by the wayside, paying lobola
is still central to all marriages.
 Traditionally, the Nambya practiced the following types of marriage:
 Kuhwaya-According to the director of the Nambya Cultural Association, Lawrence
Chinyati, the kuhwaya form of marriage is a type of marriage which creates an inseparable
bond between the joined families. Families from both the bride and the groom gather as
the bride formally introduces his groom in the form of a ceremony. After the ceremony
the groom brings two goats, a he-goat to be slaughtered by his family members and a she-
goat to be slaughtered by the bridegroom’s family. This symbolises unity among the two
families.
 Kutizhisa-most women don’t like it because it is done against their will. When a girl is
born, her aunts and the grandmothers match-make her, with their desired man. The
“desired man’’ would pay all the lobola and then the girl would be asked to go stay with
him as his wife despite her tender age.
 Kutobela -This is also an unusual form of marriage as it assaults the rights of the female
counterparts. A man approaches a girl he admires and fondles her breasts in public and of
course, without her consent and she is then forced to follow him because if she does not
follow it invites the wrath of the family’s ancestral lineage and brings a bad omen to her
family. As this would have been done publicly, the two families know what will have
transpired. He would then pay lobola.
 The Sotho
 Sotho, also known as Sesotho, is a Bantu language primarily spoken in South Africa
and Lesotho, with a small number of speakers in Zimbabwe. It is one of Zimbabwe's
official languages.
 Naming-Names in Sotho generally have meanings that express the values of the parents
or of the community. Common personal names include Lehlohonolo(Good Fortune),
Mpho(Gift), and MmaThabo(Mother of Joy). Names may also be given to refer to events.
For example, a girl born during a rainstorm might be calledPuleng,meaning "in the rain."
Individuals may also be named after clan heroes. Surnames are taken from relatives on
the father's side of the family.
 Folktales- Sotho has a rich tradition of folktales (ditsomo or dinonwane)and praise
poems(diboko).These are told in dramatic and creative ways that may include audience
participation. Folktales are adventure stories which occur in realistic and magical
settings. One of the best known of the folk-tales is about a boy named Sankatana who
saves the world from a giant monster.
 Religion-The Supreme Being that the Sotho believe in is most commonly referred to as
Modimo. He is approached through the spirits of one's ancestors, the balimo,who are
honored at ritual feasts. The ancestral spirits can bring sickness and misfortune to those
who forget them or treat them disrespectfully. The Sotho traditionally believed that the
evils of our world were the result of the malevolent actions of sorcerers and witches.
 Birth rites -Women give birth with the assistance of female birth attendants.
Traditionally, relatives and friends soaked the father with water when his firstborn child
was a girl. If the firstborn was a boy, the father was beaten with a stick. This ritual
suggested that while the life of males is occupied by warfare, that of females is occupied
by domestic duties such as fetching water. For two or three months after the birth, the
child was kept secluded with the mother in a specially marked hut. The seclusion could
be temporarily broken when the baby was brought outside to be introduced to the first
rain.
 Initiation into male adulthood-For boys, initiation involves a lengthy stay in a lodge in a
secluded area away from the village. The lodge may be very large and house dozens of
initiates (bashemane).During seclusion, the boys are circumcised, but they are also
taught appropriate male conduct in marriage, special initiation traditions, code words
and signs, and praise songs. In Lesotho, the end of initiation is marked by a community
festival during which the new initiates (makolwane)sing the praises they have composed.
In traditional belief, a man who has not been initiated is not considered a full adult.
 Initiation into female adulthood-Initiation for girls(bale)also involves seclusion, but the
ritual huts of the bale are generally located near the village. Bale wear masks and goat-
skin skirts, and they smear their bodies with a chalky white substance. They sometimes
may be seen as a group near the homes of relatives, singing, dancing, and making
requests for presents. Among some clans, the girls are subjected to tests of pain and
endurance. After the period of seclusion the initiates, now called litswejane, wear
cowhide skirts and anoint themselves with red ocher. Initiation for girls does not involve
any surgical operation.
 Death rites-When someone dies, the whole community takes part in the burial. Speeches
are made at the graveside by friends and relatives, and the adult men take turns
shoveling soil into the grave. Afterward, all those in attendance go as a group to wash
their hands. There may also be a funeral feast.
 Relationships-In Sesotho, the words for father (ntate) and mother (mme)are used
commonly as address forms of respect for one's elders. Politeness, good manners, and
willingness to serve are values very strongly encouraged in children. The general
attitude toward childhood is well summarized by the proverb Lefura la ngwana ke ho
rungwa, which roughly translates as "Children benefit from serving their elders."
 Greetings-The standard greetings in Sotho reflect this attitude of respect towards age.
When greeting an elder, one should always end with ntate (my father) or mme (my
mother). Words for brother (abuti) and sister(ausi)are used when one talks to people of
the same age. A child who answers an adult's question with a simple "Yes" is considered
impolite. To be polite, the child needs to add "my father" or "my mother."
 The BaTswana
 The Tswana language (Setswana) is a Bantu language spoken in Southern Africa by
about five million speakers. It is a Bantu language belonging to the Niger–Congo
language family within the Sotho-Tswana branch, and is closely related to
the Northern and Southern Sotho languages, as well as the Kgalagadi language and
the Lozi language.
 Tswana, also called Motswana (singular) or Batswana (plural), formerly
spelled Bechuana, westerly division of the Sotho, a Bantu-speaking people of South
Africa and Botswana. A small number of speakers are also found in Zimbabwe
 Tswana culture, social organizations, ceremonies, language and religious beliefs are
similar to that of the other two Sotho groups (Pedi and Sotho)
 Cattle-The cattle kraal is central to most traditional Tswana villages and is the focus of
life.
 Volunteerism -Tswana believe in voluntary work on behalf of other families,
especially during the ploughing and harvesting seasons. This form of voluntary work
is known as letsema.
 Assimilation of foreigners-Tswana groups are noted for their capacity to absorb
foreign peoples, to turn strangers into ‘their’ people, and to do so without
compromising the integrity of their own institutions. Socioeconomic mechanisms such
as mafisa (which provided for the lending of cattle) and the ward system of tribal
administration facilitated the integration of foreigners.
 Religion-In pre-colonial times Tswana believed in a Supreme Being, Modimo, a
creator and director, but nonetheless distant and remote. More immediate and having a
greater influence in daily affairs were the ancestors, Badimo. The Tswana seek
medical help from a number of sources, including clinics and hospitals, traditional
practitioners, and Christian healers. For example, they still believe in consulting the
traditional healer ngak, who is supposed to have powers to intercede on their behalf
with the ancestors. Landau (2010) studying the history of the Tswana, however
focusing on rainmaking, finds smoking as central to the ceremonies but also to the
social fabric of the Tswana people. He says among the Tswana, smoking tobacco was
associated with powerfulness or sharpness, and the head rush of inhalation, and the
mini-orgasm of the sneeze, and so with “life force” or ― “breath” (moya)‘ (Landau
2010:82).
 Patrilineal descent-Traditionally, every Tswana is affiliated to a patrilineal descent
group, each group associated with a distinctive symbol that serves as a polite mode of
address and sometimes as a surname.
 The Kalanga
 The Bakalanga, or Kalanga (TjiKalanga), are a southern Bantu ethnic group mainly
inhabiting Matebeleland in Zimbabwe, They are historically related to
the Nambya, Lozi, Karanga and Venda. The Kalanga occupy the south-western parts of
Zimbabwe, their larger concentration is in modern-day Bulilimamangwe district although
some clusters of Kalanga people are distributed throughout Kezi Gwanda and Tsholotsho
districts, among other areas, west of Zimbabwe.
NB: Kalanga and Karanga are different although historically are related
 Residential set up-they built round houses from red hardened clay, wooden poles
and thatch. Their villages had large granaries and a centralized cattle kraal.
 Naming children-it was a Kalanga tradition to exhibit more happiness at the birth of
a boy than at that of a girl. The reasons were, and still are in some BaKalanga
communities, that a son would expand the family and the clan; the second was that
the boy’s father’s name would live on after his (the father’s) death as it would be
perpetuated by the boy; the third was that the village’s continued existence was
assured if the family had male rather than female children. Names carry either
messages or comparisons, descriptions, narrations, or sentimental feelings such as
sorrow or happiness. Those that convey messages include such names as Tawana
(we have got), Matjiwana (you have got it), both names mean or imply that you
have got something you have been wishing for. Names that carry comparisons
include ‘Tafanana, Sawebo, Namibo, Naswibo’ and others that mean that the baby’s
parents are saying ‘we too are like you’ as is the case with all the four names
mentioned above. Should there be a death in the family at the time or about the time
of a child’s birth, they would name her Mihodzi or Mishodzi (depending on the
dialect), a word which means ‘tears’ (mishodzi), a name usually given to a girl. If
it is a baby-boy, they could call him ‘Lufu’ (rufu), which means death.
 Boy initiation rites-Before becoming a father, every boy went through a couple of
sexual development stages, the first being the cutting of the muscle that joins the
underside of the penis, and stretching from near the urinary duct on the glans to the
scrotum. That surgical operation was done about thrice at most. It enabled the penis
to grow in length unhindered by that muscle, and to push the urine much further
away than if the muscle is left undisturbed.
 Respect for fathers-A boy would grow up using his childhood name until he got
married and became a father. At that stage, he would be called by his first born
child’s name: Tata Nlefu or Tata Tafanana or Tata Sawebo (Baba waNlefu, Baba
waTafanana and so on)
 Religion- Mwali (Mwari in Shona dialect) was approached by the Kalanga in times
of drought or for thanksgiving and this was done through Amawosana, the Mwali
messengers who were women.In addition to the above, the Kalanga women
occupied a special religious position as they operated the Mazenge spirits which
were at the lower level than Mwari. These spirits were known as Izishumba. The
spirits could only inhabit the Kalanga women, but not the men. Mwali is referred to
as Dzivaguru in Shona meaning the great pool and Dzviba le Vula in Kalanga
means a pool of water.
 Material culture- female potters also made various kinds of clay pots (hali) for
cooking and storage. It is worth noting that, to this day, Kalanga women in
Bulilimamangwe still engage in pottery as a source of livelihood and customary
practice. They are known to be the best potters in Bulilimamangwe compared to the
Ndebele potters (Dube 2015).
 FURTHER READING: Common words in TjiKalanga and ChiKaranga language(The

Patriot Reporter,Saul Gwakuba Ndlovu March 2, 2017)
 Examples of this are some names of the parts of the human body.
In TjiKalanga, the foot is ‘hoka’ but ‘rushoka’ in ChiKaranga, the ‘neck’ is
‘ntshimba’ in TjiKalanga but ‘mtsipa’ in ChiKaranga, the hair is ‘mavhudzi’ in
TjiKalanga but ‘vhudzi’ in ChiKaranga. The hand is ‘luboko’ in TjiKalanga and,
‘ruoko’ in ChiKaranga. Eyes are ‘meho’ or ‘mesho’ in TjiKalanga but ‘meso’ or
‘maziso’ in ChiKaranga. It is very interesting to note that eyes are also called
‘mahiho’ in TjiKalanga. The singular of ‘mahiho’ is ‘hiho’. In ChiKaranga, there are
also referred to as ‘maziso’ and ‘ziso’.
 Names of trees, animals and birds are similar, if not the same, in both dialects.
The BaKalanga call a dove, ‘njiba’, in ChiKaranga it is ‘njiva’, The same applies to
many animals such as ‘bere’ for hyaena in ChiKatanga and ‘mhele’ or ‘phele’ in
TjiKalanga.
 As a matter of fact, many ethnologists concluded years ago that between BaKalanga
and VaKalanga there is what social anthropologists term an ‘agnatic’ link, that is to
say they originated from the same male ancestor.
 There are many BaKalanga clans, such as those of the ‘gumbo’ and those of the
‘tjibanda’ (sibanda) and the ‘moyo’ totems among the BaKalanga who are related to
those of exactly the same totems in the Masvingo, the Midlands and in other
Mashonaland and Manicaland regions. Such ‘Gumbo’ clans predominate in the
Bulilima, Mangwe, Lupani Districts. In the Midlands, the gumbo and the moyo clans
predominate. In Masvingo the tjibanda clan use the Karanga word ‘shumba’ to refer
to their totem, but they share the same patrilineal origin as the ‘tjibanda’ clan of the
Bulilima District’s Headman Hingwe and those of the banlondo honorific title
elsewhere, but found particularly in the Matobo District of Matabeleland South.
 The BaTonga
 BaTonga are speakers of (Chitonga), also known as Zambezi, is a Bantu
language primarily spoken by the Tonga people who live mainly in the Southern and
Western provinces of Zambia, and in Binga (northern Zimbabwe), with a few
in Mozambique. The name Tonga is apparently from a word in the Shona language that
means "independent."
 Religion- In traditional Tonga society, there is a well-developed cult of the "shades," or
muzimu.It is believed that at death each person leaves a shade or spirit, a muzimu. The
muzimu commutes between the spirit world and the world of humans. The BaTonga
also celebrate lwiindi gonde, kuomboka, gonde, chungu and maanzi aabila lwiindi which
are celebrated from January to November every year. One of the most celebrated
ceremonies among the Zimbabwean and Zambian Tonga is the ‘kuomboka’ which
signals the monarch’s annual move from the now flooded Zambezi lowlands to higher
ground and is a spectacle of imagery; a huge barge (nalikwanda) — complete with
paddlers and a replica, ear-flapping elephant — makes its way along the river
accompanied by drumming and dancing. Kuomboka literally means ‘to get out of water’
in the Tonga and Lozi languages. The ceremony takes place at the end of the rain
season, around March and April. During this period, the Zambezi River floods the plains
of both the Zimbabwe and Zambian western sides. Other ceremonies, such as the rain-
asking ceremonies chungu and maanzi lwiindi are celebrated in October. During these
ceremonies, the tribesmen desist from any field work dedicating the month to rain-
asking. Once the first rains fall, they are then allowed to start preparing for the next
cropping season.
 Natural heritage- There are more than six hot spring sites in Binga; the most popular
ones are a few kilometres east of Binga Business Centre and the Kabila Hot Springs in
the Lubimbi area. A hot-spring is a spring that is produced by the emergence of heated
ground water from the earth’s crust. Water from hot springs is used by the BaTonga
tribesmen for healing different ailments that range from bad luck, skin problems and
other troublesome diseases found in the valley. Other sites are only known to
the BaTonga tribesmen as well as chiefs and these are associated with rain-asking
ceremonies. Those who bath in the water are not supposed to use any form of soap,
detergents, perfumes or any type of body creams as this will render the treatment
ineffective. Most BaTonga families keep a gourd full of hot spring water in their huts,
the water is used for drinking or for boiling special herbs.
 Rites of passage- A girl trained for her future role as a man's wife. Usually, there was a
period of living away from the village, and a short ceremony marked the girl's maturity.
She was given a new name to signify her adult status. A prospective husband had to pay
bride-wealth to the family of his bride-to-be, usually in the form of cattle. After
marriage, a couple lived in the husband's village. Polygamy (having more than one
spouse) was traditionally encouraged, but this practice is dying out. Among the Tonga,
there is a strong belief that children must be taught and trained for adult life. Children
are taught proper manners by older people. During their teenage years, boys and girls are
encouraged to do their separate chores according to their sex. Girls' chores are to draw
water from wells and fetch firewood, while boys hunt small game and fish. But there are
times when boys do girls' chores, and vice versa.
 Relationships- When a boy who has reached adolescence decides to marry, he can find
his own bride. However, he must tell his parents and uncles so that they can negotiate
with the parents of the girl, since bride-wealth must be paid. Married women are
expected to respect and cook for their husbands, and men are expected to take care of
their wives. In the presence of men, a woman is expected to observe traditional female
etiquette such as looking downward and behaving humbly. Women are also expected to
dress modestly, especially keeping their knees and thighs covered.
 Family life-Similar to many African societies, family among the Tonga extends to the
wider extended unit rather than the nuclear family of wife, husband, and children. The
extended family, much like a clan, shares many tasks, including farming and the
provision of food. In times of trouble, such as famine and drought, the extended family
serves as a safety net. Bearing as many children as possible is important in a Tonga
marriage. Children are valued for their labor and as "social security" for parents in old
age.
 Music and dance- The kuyabila music is very important to the BaTonga people. It is
sung by one person (man or woman) accompanied by the friction drum (namalwa) or a
rattle (muyuwa). It can also be accompanied by an ordinary drum using a special rhythm.
It is performed at a funeral or any other time in order to relieve stress. When one sings in
this way, people listen carefully to what is being sung. For example, a man could sing in
praise of his cattle, of a difficult journey he had undertaken. In the middle of the song,
the listeners call out, encouraging him as he sings (kumutembula). Another dance
performed is the chikaambe-kaambe. The dance is performed during
the mukanda ceremony. The mukanda is an initiation ceremony for both boys and girls.
There are different styles of dancing which are connected with particular songs, such as
the mulupumbe, where one girl would join in the dance circle and is quickly followed by
another and so on until all have danced. Another initiation dance is the ndikiti which is
performed at funerals and traditional beer parties. At initiation, it is danced to during the
night, before the girls come out of the initiation venue and during the day of the actual
feast. At a funeral, it is danced to before the deceased is buried and during the actual
burial.
 Smoking ncelwa- The ncelwa is a women smoking pipe for the BaTonga. It is sometimes
called the ndombondo or mfuko in other BaTonga varieties. This is a smoking pipe
which BaTonga women use for smoking tobacco. Men have their own smoking pipe
which is smaller than the ncelwa called the chete. According to Saidi (2016) BaTonga
elders confirm that smoking has always been part of their socio-cultural being and the
ncelwa is evidence of a long cultural and historical practice which continues even to this
day. BaTonga elderly women interviewed say polya or tobacco is what they smoke
using the ncelwa. The source (ibid) discovered that smoking ncelwa was like fashion‘
among the BaTonga and a young woman or a young adult BaTonga woman who was
found unable or not using the ncelwa (not smoking), was considered as one who was not
moving with times. Hence, the ncelwa one can retort by saying it probably became a
mark of graduating young BaTonga girls into adulthood. They would then smoke the
ncelwa from that time (or age) until their time of death. Probed on the ncelwa Andison
Mumpande commented that the ncelwa was always central to the life of a BaTonga
woman and that even today mostly the elderly women continue the practice.
 The Venda
 Venda or Tshivenda, also known as Tshivenḓa or Luvenḓa, is a Bantu language and is
mainly spoken by the Venda people in the northern part of South Africa's Limpopo
Province, as well as by some Lemba people in Zimbabwe. The Lemba, wa-Remba,
or Mwenye[1] are a Bantu ethnic group native to Zimbabwe and South Africa, with smaller,
little-known branches in Mozambique and Malawi.
 Their myths of origin generally tell of migrating from the North. According to Lemba
tradition, their male ancestors were Jews who left Judea about 2500 years ago and settled in
a place called Senna which was located on the Arabian Peninsula (present-day Yemen).
Much later, according to Rudo Mathivha, their oral history relates that they migrated
into Northeast Africa.[16] After ancestors intermarried with local women and became
established in Africa, at some point, the tribe split into two groups, one staying
in Ethiopia and the other travelling farther south, along the east coast. According to Rudo
Mathivha, Lemba practices and beliefs related to Judaism include the following:
 They observe Shabbat.
 They praise Nwali (a deity) for looking after the Lemba, and they identify themselves as
part of the chosen people.
 They teach their children to honour their mothers and fathers. (This is common to many
ethnicities and religions.)
 They refrain from eating pig and other beasts forbidden by the Torah, and forbid certain
combinations of permitted foods.
 They practice ritual animal slaughter and ritual preparation of meat for consumption, a
Middle Eastern practice rather than one which is common to African ethnicities.
 They practice male circumcision; according to Junod's work in 1927 surrounding tribes
regarded the Lemba as the masters and originators of that art.
 Since the late 20th century and due to increased attention to their possible Jewish
ancestry, they have placed a Star of David on their tombstones.
 Never to eat or drink anything served in a non-Lemba home, and only to eat meat
slaughtered by a circumcised Lemba.
 Lemba are discouraged from marrying non-Lemba. The restrictions on intermarriage with
non-Lemba make it nearly impossible for a male non-Lemba to become a member.
Lemba men who marry non-Lemba women are expelled from the community unless the
females agree to live according to Lemba traditions. A woman who marries a Lemba man
must learn and practice the Lemba religion, dietary rules, and other customs.
 The Lemba of Zimbabwe celebrate the Jewish High Holidays of Rosh Hashana and Yom
Kippur. As of 2015 the Lemba were building their first synagogue in Mapakomhere,
in Masvingo District.
 Folklore-Lemba tradition tells of a sacred object, the ngoma lungundu or "drum that
thunders", which they brought from the place called Sena. Their oral history claims that
the ngoma was the Biblical Ark of the Covenant made by Moses. Parfitt, a professor
at SOAS, University of London, wrote a book in 2008, The Lost Ark of the Covenant about
the rediscovery of this object. Lemba oral history claimed that the Ark exploded 700 years
ago,and that they rebuilt the Ark on its remains. Parfitt discovered the ngoma in
a Harare, Zimbabwe museum in 2007. Radiocarbon dating of a portion of the artifact
showed it to be 700 years old. Parfitt says that the ngoma/ark was carried into battles. The
ngoma, he says, was possibly built from the remains of the original Ark. "So it's the closest
descendant of the Ark that we know of," Parfitt says. "Many people say that the story is far-
fetched, but the oral traditions of the Lemba have been backed up by science", he said.
 The Xangani
 Shangani/Shangaan "Shangana/Changana" also known as Tsonga is one of Zimbabwean
official languages spoken by the people of Chiredzi and Mwenezi district.The original
Shangaan took their name from their king, Soshangane. The Shangaan weren’t traditionally
warriors instead they were agriculturalists and pastoralists. At the height of his power the
King Soshangane ruled the impressive Gaza Empire. This empire consisted of what is now
south-eastern Zimbabwe – which is where the Malilangwe Wildlife Reserve and Singita
Pamushana Lodge are situated – as well as the area from the Save River to the southern
part of Mozambique.
 Religion- In traditional Shangaan culture the sangoma, a healer and spiritual guide, is
seen to be one of the most important members of the Shangaan tribe. Over the years the
sangoma’s medicine gourd, a nhunguvani, has become an accepted symbol of the
traditional cultural heritage of the Shangaan.
 Male rites of passage-The Shangani rite of male circumcision is one of the fundamental
rites of passage in Shangani culture. It is a practice that involves cutting off a boy child’s
foreskin of the penis as a mark of transition from childhood into manhood. The rite is
performed in a faraway enhoveni (the forest area), which lies about ten kilometres from
the rest of the community. Whereas in the past, the rite among the Shangani was done
between May and July during winter, today it is being conducted between August and
early September during autumn. The shift of season for the rite, according to Maposa
(2008), has been influenced by the need for food security, that is, when there are
varieties of food availed to the initiates. Due to climate change, the Shangani
communities largely complete harvesting grains after the month of June. In addition, the
August-September period coincides with the time when the would-be initiates
(boys) are on vacation holidays in the school system in Zimbabwe (Mandova et al
2013). The operation or the traditional surgery is painful but the initiates are not
expected to shed tears at all because the operation is perceived to be facilitating the
initiates make
ntwanano (a mystical union) with their Muvumbi, that is, Creator (also known as
Xikwembu or God). The painful loss of blood is a condition for passing through the
threshold to the privileges and responsibilities of courageous adulthood. Lastly, the boys
emerge from seclusion and return home clad in white shorts, white T/shirts, barefooted
and with a bare hair-cut. The boys are also given thumba, that is, a wooden stick. It is a
distinctive mark for the initiated men. The thumba is meant for masculine identity in
Shangani culture. When the initiated boys approach women, the women are expected to
kneel down as a sign of respect. Circumcised males are two to eight times less likely to
become infected with HIV, (Szabo and Short, 2000). This implies that, circumcision also
protects people against other sexually transmitted infections, such as syphilis and
gonorrhoea.
 Proverbs-Like many other languages, Tsonga has many proverbs; these appear in
different classes. They appear in a group of animals, trees and people. E.g.
 Nomu a wu taleriwi hi nambu (A mouth can cross any river) meaning a mouth can
say all words of promises.
 Mavoko ya munhu a ma mili nhova/byanyi (Grass cannot grow on a human being's
hands) meaning one must work hard (in every possible way) to succeed.
 Ku ba ndlopfu hi xibakele (To hit an elephant with a fist) meaning to make a very
slight impression.
 The Xhosa
 Xhosa, also isiXhosa, is a Nguni Bantu language with click consonants and is one of
the official languages of South Africa and Zimbabwe.
 Folklore-Xhosa tradition is rich in creative verbal expression. Intsomi (folktales),
proverbs, and isibongo (praise poems) are told in dramatic and creative ways. Folktales
relate the adventures of both animal protagonists and human characters. Praise poems
traditionally relate the heroic adventures of ancestors or political leaders. Idioms- Xhosa
is characterized by respectful forms of address for elders and in-laws. The language is
also rich in idioms. To have isandla esishushu (a warm hand), for example, is to be
generous
 Religion-The supreme being among the Xhosa is called uThixo or uQamata . As in the
religions of many other Bantu peoples, God is only rarely involved in everyday life. God
may be approached through ancestral intermediaries who are honored through ritual
sacrifices. Ancestors commonly make their wishes known to the living in dreams.
 Birth rites-After giving birth, a mother is expected to remain secluded in her house for at
least ten days. In Xhosa tradition, the afterbirth and umbilical cord were buried or burned
to protect the baby from sorcery. At the end of the period of seclusion, a goat was
sacrificed. Those who no longer practice the traditional rituals may still invite friends and
relatives to a special dinner to mark the end of the mother's seclusion.
 Male initiation rites-Male initiation in the form of circumcision is practiced among most
Xhosa groups. The abakweta (initiates-in-training) live in special huts isolated from
villages or towns for several weeks. Like soldiers inducted into the army, they have their
heads shaved. They wear a loincloth and a blanket for warmth. White clay is smeared on
their bodies from head to toe. They are expected to observe numerous taboos
(prohibitions) and to act deferentially to their adult male leaders. Different stages in the
initiation process were marked by the sacrifice of a goat.
 Female initiation rites-The ritual of female circumcision is considerably shorter.
The intonjane (girl to be initiated) is secluded for about a week. During this period, there
are dances, and ritual sacrifices of animals. The initiate must hide herself from view and
observe food restrictions. There is no actual surgical operation.
 Relationships-Xhosa have traditionally used greetings to show respect and good
intentions to others. In interacting with others, it is crucial to show
respect (ukuhlonipha) . Youths are expected to keep quiet when elders are speaking, and
to lower their eyes when being addressed. Hospitality is highly valued, and people are
expected to share with visitors what they can. Socializing over tea and snacks is
common.In Xhosa tradition, one often found a girlfriend or boyfriend by attending
dances. One popular type of dance, called umtshotsho or intlombe , could last all night.
On some occasions, unmarried lovers were allowed to sleep together provided they
observed certain restraints. A form of external intercourse called ukumetsha was
permitted, but full intercourse was taboo.
 Family life-The traditional Xhosa family was patriarchal; men were considered the heads
of their households. Women and children were expected to defer to men's authority.
Polygynous marriages (multiple wives) were permitted where the husband had the means
to pay the lobolo (bride wealth) for each, and to maintain them properly. Women were
expected to leave their families to live with their husband's family. Names in Xhosa often
express the values or opinions of the community. Common personal names
include Thamsanqa (good fortune) and Nomsa (mother of kindness). Adults are often
referred to by their isiduko (clan or lineage) names. In the case of women, clan names are
preceded by a prefix meaning "mother of." A woman of the Thembu clan might be
called MamThembu . Women are also named by reference to their children, real or
intended; NoLindiwe is a polite name for Lindiwe's mother.
 The Shona
 Shona (chiShona) is a Bantu language of the Shona people of Zimbabwe. It is one of the
most widely spoken Bantu languages. The Shona people are an ethnic group native
to Southern Africa, primarily Zimbabwe (where they form the vast majority). They have
five major clans, and are adjacent to other groups with similar cultures and languages. The
Shona people are divided into tribes in eastern and northern Zimbabwe.
 Karanga or Southern Shona including Duma, Jena, Mari, Goυera, Nogoυa, and
Nyubi
 Zezuru or Central Shona including Shawasha, Haraυa, another Goυa, Nohwe, Hera,
Njanja, Mbire, Nobvu, Vakwachikwakwa, Vakwazvimba, Tsunga
 Korekore or Northern Shona including Taυara, Shangwe, Korekore, Goυa, Budya,
the Korekore of Urungwe, the Korekore of Sipolilo, Tande, Nyongwe of "Darwin",
and Pfungwe of Mrewa
 Manyika tribe or Eastern Shona including Hungwe, Manyika themselves, Teυe,
Unyama, Karombe, Nyamuka, Bunji, Domba, Nyatwe, Guta, Bvumba, Here,
Jindwi, and Boca
 Ndau including Garwe, Danda, and Shanga .Their dialect, partially mutually
intelligible with the main Shona dialects, has click sounds which do not occur in
standard Shona. Ndau has a wealth of Nguni words as a result of the Gaza Nguni
occupation of their ancestral land in the 19th century.
 Settlement- Traditional Shona housing, known as musha, are round huts arranged
around a cleared yard (ruvanze). Each hut has a specific function, such as a kitchen
or a lounging space.
 Birth rites- rites associated with birth among the Shona include:
 Masungiro
 dropping of umbilical code ( rukuvhute)
 Death rites- rites associated with death among the Shona include:
 Gata-this is meant to find the cause of death (Mandaza 1970)
 Kurova guva/magadziro/chenura (reincarnation)
 Music and dance- Shona traditional music, like other African traditional music, has
constant melodies and variable rhythms. Its most important instruments are ngoma
drums and the mbira. The drums vary in size and shape, depending on the type of
music they are accompanying. Shona music also uses percussion instruments such
as the marimba (similar to a xylophone), hosho (shakers), leg rattles, wooden
clappers (makwa) and the chikorodzi, a notched stick played with another stick.
Some of the popular dances among the Shona include:
 Jerusalema dance- it is practiced by the zezuru tribes of Uzumba Maramba
Pfungwe during marriage ceremonies, it is a fertility dance.
 Mhande dance- popular among the karanga of Masvingo during kurova
guva ceremony
 Muchongoyo-popular among the Ndau people, it is a war dance although
now is practiced in other community festivals.
 Religion- the Shona worship Mwari, who is worshipped through ancestors. Their
attitude towards dead ancestors is very similar to their attitude towards living
parents and grandparents. The Bira ceremony, which often lasts all night, summons
ancestral spirits for guidance and help. In Zimbabwe, totems (mutupo) have been
used by the Shona people since their culture developed. Totems identify clans, and
up to 25 totems have been identified. Similar totems exist among the Tswana,
and Ndebele. A diviner may be consulted to determine the cause of death through
Gata ceremony and prescribe a ritual action; this is followed by ceremonies to settle
the spirit and mark the end of mourning. In traditional Shona religion, the spirit of a
deceased person returns to the community through reincarnation ceremony (kurova
guva) and the deceased heads of extended families (the ancestors), have a powerful
influence on family life. The spirit ancestors are usually only two or three
generations back from the living generation and are the people who passed on the
custom of honoring their ancestors and the traditions of the community. They are
honored in ceremonies to celebrate a good harvest and in appeals to deal with
misfortune. When a spirit becomes angry, it communicates through a medium
(svikiro), or a diviner diagnoses the anger and cause, and appeasement follows.
Families seeking to avenge a death or enforce debt payment may consult diviner-
healers ( n'anga ).
 Rain making ceremonies are prevalent among the Shona. They are known
by different names e.g Mukwerera among the Karanga and other shona
dialects, Maganzvo among the Manyika
 Family life- in marriage brideprices (roora ) are paid. The societies are patrilineal
and after marriage a woman moves into her husband's home. A wife and her
children belong to the husband, takes his surname and are affiliated with his kin.
Marriage gives women status and access to land, and unmarried men and women
are rare. Polygyny is still widespread though polyandry is rare. Other marriage
types still common are eloping (kutiza mukumbo), inheritance marriage (Nhaka),
avenging spirit appeasement (mukadzi we ngozi)Children are sometimes named
after various occurrences e.g. Nhamo for tragedies, Muchaneta/ Tichaona just to
mock or scare enemies etc.
 Folklore-proverbs are popular among the Shona. They reflect various beliefs within
the Shona society e.g. the value of respect is reflected in the proverb “Gudo guru
peta muswe vadiki vakutye” (elders behave well in order to gain respect from the
young). (refer to oral narrative notes for more).
 Relationships- a girl and a boy who want to marry exchange Nduma (love tokens).
Shona people show respect by calling older people (men specifically) with prefix Sa
or Va e.g VaChimuti/ SaChimuti.
 The Ndau (refer to Shona for more)

 Ndau is part of a continuum with other neighboring varieties of the Shona group (e.g.
Manyika, Karanga) and has often been included as a Shona dialect. Dialects can be defined
as different varieties of the same language that have evolved over time and in different
geographical locations. The 2013 Constitution of Zimbabwe accorded Ndau status as an
official language. It is a language for the people in central Mozambique and
southeastern Zimbabwe. Linguists tend to define a language as the standardized code used
in spoken and written form, whereas dialects are spoken vernacular codes without a
standardized written system. A ‘code’ is a linguistic system used for communication.
 Beliefs- the Ndau believe that one does not fall ill without a cause. The cause is not
medical but spiritual in most cases. For them the vadzimu play a pivotal role in ensuring
health and wellbeing. llnesses and/or sickness that are not taken for granted among the
Ndau are mental illness, barrenness, persistent misfortunes befalling the same members
of a family and unusual occurrences within their homesteads. The appearance and
hooting of owls [mazizi] at night, the appearance of ghosts and ominous sounds are signs
of a homestead that is unwell in the Ndau cosmology; hence the Ndau belief in the role of
traditional healers and traditional medicine. Since witchcraft is dreaded among the Ndau,
concerted efforts are made to eliminate it. Because it is so secretive that the physical
realm cannot deal with it, the Ndau appeal to the spiritual world where most traditional
healers [nyanga in Ndau dialect] operate. The Ndau traditional healers are experts and are
well known for dealing with spiritual problems of any nature. This is confirmed by
Mapuranga (2010) who states that Chipinge traditional healers are the envy of many.
Some unscrupulous traditional healers advertise their divination practices on public
notices claiming to originate from Chipinge even when they are not, in order to attract
clients.
 Taboos such as the prohibition among the Ndau that when one finds sour fruits in
a forest one must not complain least this offend the ancestors. Once the ancestors
are angered one may get lost in the forest until appropriate rituals are carried out.
Instances of people who perished because of this are often told. People are also
prohibited from cutting green trees. If they want firewood they must go for dry
trees. It is for this reason that Gelfand (1968) argues that African faith
is characteristically identified with nature, and it is closely linked to the
surrounding environment.
 The isiNdebele
 Ndebele is an African language belonging to the Nguni group of Bantu languages, spoken
by the Northern Ndebele people, or Matabele, of Mthwakazi. In Zimbabwe, the Ndebele
people are prominent in Matabeleland North, Matabeleland South, Bulawayo and Midlands
provinces. The Ndebele culture language is known as isiNdebele.
 Religion- the Ndebele believe in a creator, uNkulunkulu thought of as the first human
being worshiped through ancestral spirits whom are called amadlozi. The most important
rites associated with family ancestral spirits are the Ukuhlanziswa (cleansing)
and Ukubuyisa (bringing home) ceremonies. They believe that death brought bad omen
to the nearest living relatives of the deceased and such an omen could be passed on to
neighbors, so it was necessary for the family to be cleansed soon after burying the
deceased. Umtolo rain making ceremonies are also practiced.
 Crafts- The Ndebele people are well known for their artistic talent - especially with
regard to their painted houses and colorful beadwork .For over a hundred years,
the Ndebele have decorated the outside of their homes with designs.
 Marriage- the Ndebele are known for their patriarchal system and polygamy. The
married woman move to her husband’s home. She would retain her clan, but all her
children take their father’s clan name.
 Dance- The popular dances in this community include Ingquza, Mushongoyo, Amabhiza,
and Isitshikitsha. Men performed Mushongoyo before or after a war. They held sticks and
shields as they danced. It involved stamping and making dramatic gestures. Isitshikitsha,
on the other hand, was performed to please the King or in rainmaking ceremonies. It
involved clapping, singing, whistling, and ululation.
TASK: Evaluate differences and convergences of different cultural norms and values in the
above different societies
Socialization
 It is the process of learning norms, values and beliefs. This can be primary or secondary. It
is also the process through which people are taught to be proficient members of a society.
 Unhu/ubuntu/vumunhu/Ubotho philosophy
 Unhu as understood by the Shona entails a state of character that is acceptable not only by
the person concerned but more importantly by his society
 The guiding approach of socialization is the Ubuntu/unhu philosophy Ubuntu/unhu pivots on
humanity meaning "l am because we are"
 it places emphasis on being self through others
 Ubuntu gives a common guiding principle of human values.Without ubuntu mankind is enveloped
by greed selfishness, immortality and pride among other things.
 Samkange & Samkange (1980:89) defines unhu as being more than biological being. He further
asserts that it is the attention one human being gives to another, the kindness, courtesy, consideration,
friendliness in the relationship between people, a code of behaviour, an attitude to others and life.
 In line with the given definition, the ubuntu/unhu philosophy is the yardstick in which all the types
of socialization processes are centred on, to come out with a wholesome person whose personality
is socially acceptable
How the process of socialization promotes Unhu/Ubuntu/Vumunhu
 Primary socialization through the family enables children to have respect for the elders in
the society. This promotes dignity among the elderly
 The family through division of labor groom children to be responsible citizens. It grooms
girl children to be responsible mothers by concentrating them to domestic sphere a
characteristic of the shona culture. Boy children spend most of the time doing outside home
chores like cattle herding which make them appreciate the value of being responsible
fathers who should work to fend the family.
 The school through the hidden curriculum indirectly promote cooperation. The school
encourages group work in class which upholds the value of working together among
learners.
 Some planned socialization processes at school via manifest functions promote unity within
the society. The school make learners recite the schools national pledge which encourage
learners to be united in their diversity for equality in the nation.
 At school teachers temporarily assume the role of parents in teaching norms and values of
culture by applying the tactic of rewards and punishment e.g children who behave well are
clapped hands for by the naughty ones. This promotes hard work.
 Religion socializes people to be available to others in the society when need arises. Islamic
religion emphasizes charity in one of its pillars i.e giving Zakat (Support of the Needy).
Christianity also teaches concepts of helping those in need e.g there is more joy in giving
than in receiving.
 Unhu values of being compassion and generous are also promoted by the religious
institution. Christianity values people who do not count what they give away. This supports
the view that people do not live in isolation.
 Holy Communion in Christianity promote oneness, sharing and love.
 Respect and humbleness are also emphasized in Christianity e.g honor your mother and
your mother. Be humble and the lord will lift you up
Types and approaches of socialization
 Primary Socialization
 Takes place in the early years of life of the new born individual.
 It is the process which people learn attitudes, values, and actions appropriate to individuals as
members of a given society. e.g. a child learns the language of people s/he stays with, at a tender age
can scold or praise depending on how one is shaped.
 This transpires at family level, when a child learns love, sadness, humor, communication etc
 A child learns the most basic norms, values, goals, attitudes of our culture and society from the
family. Examples include greetings, saying please, thank you, table mannerisms, toilet usage etc
 Children internalize norms and values by imitating their parents/ guardians.at this given stage, they
are rewarded for socially acceptable behaviour and punished for socially deviant behavior.
 They also learn language and cognitive skills Primary Socialization is the first stage in which the
social norms are internalized
 Secondary socialization
 It refers to the period in which a child begins to interact strongly with other social
environments than the family. E.g entering a new profession or relocating to a new
environment or society.
 It continues throughout the entire life of the individual, with the purposeful creation and
strengthening of personality.
 This type of socialization takes place within educational institutions and professional or
formal structures of various groups.
 Secondary socialization takes place outside the home
 Development Socialization
 It is the process of learning behaviour in a social institution or developing social skills. For example
a shy senior high school student starts to teach form ones in order to develop verbal communication’
 It teaches people to take on new duties.
 The main aim of developmental socialization is to bring change in the views of the
individual.
 it is more likely to change overt behaviour, whereas child socialization molds basic
values
 Anticipatory socialization
 It is the process facilitated by social interactions, in which non group members learn to
take on the values and standards of groups that they aspire to join so as to erase their
entry into the group and help them interact competently once they have been accepted by
it.
 As a person learns the proper beliefs, values, norms of a status/group to which s/he
aspire, s/he is learning how to act in the new role. Examples include bridal showers or
bachelor's parties in which one would be socialized
into marriage.
 Anticipatory socialization also refers to the way we prepare for future life roles.Examples
would include a couple who cohabitate before marriage or soon-to-be parents who read infant
care books and prepare their home for the new arrival. As part of anticipatory socialization,
adults who are financially able begin planning for their retirement, saving money, and
looking into future healthcare options.
 Re-socialization
 It refers to the process of discarding former behaviour patterns and accepting new ones as
part of a transition in one's life. This occurs throughout the human life (Schaefer & Lamn
1992).
 This refers to the process whereby an individual or a group, are brought in contact with
a new culture, which requires them to leave behind their old identity and take up a new
one. For example when a criminal is rehabilitated, one has to change the role radically e.g.
having a haircut, jewelry taken, change pf dressing to jail attire, no phone etc or one
finds self a widow
 This can also take place after divorce or death of a spouse or child happens.
 The process of re-socialization is typically more stressful than normal socialization because
people have to unlearn behaviors that have become customary to them.
Significance of socialization
 Contributes to development of personality-in the absence of groups or society, no man
can develop a personality of his own.
 Fosters unhu/Ubuntu/vumunhu-one becomes disciplined, respecting others.
 It is through teaching culture to new members that a society perpetuates itself. If new
generations of a society don’t learn its way of life, it ceases to exist.
 To function successfully in society, we have to learn the basics of both material and
nonmaterial culture, everything from how to dress ourselves to what’s suitable attire for a
specific occasion; from when we sleep to what we sleep on; and from what’s considered
appropriate to eat for dinner to how to use the stove to prepare it.
 Social interaction provides the means via which we gradually become able to see
ourselves through the eyes of others, and how we learn who we are and how we fit into
the world around us
 We have to learn language—whether it’s the dominant language or one common in a
subculture, whether it’s verbal or through signs—in order to communicate and to think.
The goals of socialization
 From the point of view of society, socialization has specific goals.
• It teaches the basics of life in the society.
• It transmits skills important for survival in the society.
• It instills in the new members of society a desire to work toward some goals that the
society considers important.
• It teaches members how to fulfill social roles (If many people do so then society
continues to exist)
• It provides each individual with or her identity, for people need to know who they are
so that they may act accordingly
Socialization in the global society
 There are various institutions and platforms of socialization in the global society
 Family
 It is the first stage of socialization or that is where primary socialization begin. Family is
the original form of social organization which serves the needs of the family. The family
predetermines the social class the child will be born into. It teaches the child the basic
knowledge and skills that the individual will need to develop as a human being that is the
language development, the material phenomena around, one's social interaction inform
of behavioral expectations, society's attitudes and beliefs , one's identity, operational
rules and roles in the family
 Each family adopts division of labor regarding family tasks and prepares its young for
the notion of work. In the rural areas the division is more pronounced. Boys are
commonly cattle herders and girls attached to the home chores like cooking, fetching
water and firewood-gender role socialization
 Village
 A community is a place where people collectively live, share common resources such as
dip tank, roads, grazing lands, water sources, and worship. Village shapes people's
everyday lives and behaviors as they develop relations that help to preserve culture,
beliefs and values. Members are socialized through a natural process of learning from
others as they share common lifestyles and experiences. Skills and values are passed
from one community to the other. Village teaches the way people talk, respect the dead
and the living and how to preserve the available natural resources. The community instill
discipline and value of religious and social beliefs to the people. Ceremonies and rituals
are performed from one generation to the other for sake of continuity of their lifestyle,
skills and values.
 Some certain values, norms and behavior patterns that are common to most villages
or small towns are socialized to individuals e.g Nyao dance (zvigure) in small towns
like Banket area, Norton.
 Tribes like the BaTonga in Binga Zimbabwe emphasize much on respect (lulemeko)
loyalty (lutembeko) and submissiveness (kulibombya) which usually make them distinct
to other tribes in the country. Some people of this tribe have distinct ways of decorating
their bodies which is continuously socialized within that society e.g nose piercing
 Church
 Church influences children through teaching values and beliefs of a specific religion.
Children learn to conform to the rules of that religion. Religion binds people together and
shapes collective beliefs into collective identity. It allow people to meet and share
experiences to help other believers. Religion is used to rehabilitate prisoners by teaching
moral values for them to properly survive with other people in a society nicely after jail
term. It assists in nation building, hope to the people, provides comfort and ensure
peace to all people. Church shapes the behavior, beliefs and life processes of individuals.
It teaches people to have respect to the elderly people and love one another.
 Religious organizations stipulate certain traditional rites that may bring together all the
members of an extended family, even if they never meet for any other reason. e.g bira
in indigenous religion of Zimbabwe.In Zimbabwe both Christianity and Indigenous
Religion have been seen as agents of socialization as their values are all moving towards
creating humanness (unhu) which is a positive socialization stance. Respect, loyalty and
humbleness (kuzvininipisa in shona, kulibombwa in Tonga) are religious values that
create a human being. For instance, a good Muslim must perform prayers five times a
day, a Christian must attend church on Sundays
 However, negatively, some religions threatens using violence to achieve political
objective like Islamic militant, Boko Haram of Nigeria which had killed thousands of
Christians since 2012. Church is used to abuse people physically, emotionally and
psychologically as church leaders take advantage of spiritual security of congregants. The
News Day ( May 31 2014) writes “ according to reports, Apostolic Christian Council of
Zimbabwe (ACCZ)president Johannes Ndanga , in the company of anti-riot police, had
gone to the Madzibaba Ishmael-led shrine in Budiriro (Johane Masowe ye Chishanu)
seeking to enforce a ban on the church for alleged abuse of women and children”. Nine
anti-riot police officers, two ZBC staffers were attacked and officials from ACCZ. The
church has been accused of denying children’s educational rights and allegations of
fathers allowed to inspect their daughters’ virginity using their fingers.
 For Karl Marx religion is deception that provides excuses to keep society functioning.
For him, religion works hand in hand with oppressors as it was used to oppress other
weaker members like work of missionaries in the colonization of Zimbabwe. In Marx’s
words “Religion is the sign of the oppressed creature, the sentiment of a heartless world
and the soul of soulless conditions. It is the opium of the oppressed people.” ( Marx in
Bottomore and Rubel 1963).
 The School /college /Universities
 The school is also part of secondary socialization. This can include crèche, nursery
school, and then primary upto university. The school provides a structured learning program
which the child has to cope with. It gives the child clear rules of behavior and routines in
a formalized atmosphere like punctuality, discipline, respect and hygiene. The school
serves as a bridge between the family and society and, through the rewards and
punishment it gives such as passes and failures. It defines the future role that the child
will play in adult life and fulfils the function of teaching learners the customs of a larger
society. The child competes with his/her age mates in mastering the school curriculum
and is measured against universalistic standards different from the treatment received
at home, thus, the child is gradually socialized for the world of work. At school, the child
is in close contact with teachers other than family members, who serve as role models
for the child in a formalized system. Teachers have great influence on children's lives
and they often make lasting impression on them.
 Work place
 The more one participate in a line of work, the more the work becomes a part of his
self-concept.
 Eventually one come to think of himself so much in terms of the job that if someone
asks him to describe himself, one is likely to include the job in his self-description. One
might say, “I’m a teacher,” “I’m a nurse,” or “I’m an archeologist.”
 From the people we rub shoulders with at work, we learn not only a set of skills but
also perspectives on the world.
 Media
 It includes radio, television, newspapers, book magazines, journals, computers, mobile
phones, internet etc. In the current Zimbabwean situation, radio and television are the
most influential media with radio reaching more children than television. Media provide
information and entertainment influencing the young a great deal and future things as
career choices like role modeling through TV shows. Media provides education and
news more easily like internet. People are connected easily, one can share information
via phone like career guidance, marriage counseling, culture and tradition as shared
easily and talking with others. Media raises awareness of trafficking syndicates, drug
abusers, weather patterns, smuggling and health tips. Media promotes a democratic
society since people can debate which led to the development of civilised societies.
Global connection with our friends and relatives in other countries which promotes
cultural mixing of different ethnic groups world over.
 Mass media has influenced gender socialization for example most female characters in
Advertisements are concerned with domestic things like washing powder or food that
will help to care for their families or with things like clothes and cosmetics.
 However in television and movies, women tend to have less significant roles and are often
portrayed only as wives or mothers. When women are given a lead role, it often falls into
one of two extremes: a wholesome, saint-like figure or a malevolent, hypersexual figure
(Etaugh and Bridges 2003). The violent materials in video game films and TV programmes
have directly produced tendencies of violence in those who watch them. Media affects
culture transformation especially to youth who end up coping foreign cultural norms like
dressing. Media is also used for hacking whereby personal accounts are manipulated for
monetary gains causing a lot of stress to such people.
TOPIC 3: AFRICAN CIVILIZATION AND IDENTITIES
Heritage and identity
 Civilization refers to an organized culture encompassing many communities, often on the scale of
a nation or a people; a stage or system of social, political, or technological development or it may refer
to (large-scale stage of societal development) culture, social order. NB pre-colonial monuments are
also known as civilized state, complex state, hierarchical state, Kingdom, urban cities
 Identity entails the difference or character that marks off an individual from the rest of the
same kind. Therefore there are various civilizations which separate Africans from the rest.
 All categories of heritage have mutual, complex relation with identity.
 While many proponents of the idea of African Renaissance view tangible heritage as
monuments from which to derive inspiration, it is the intangible aspects that are seen as
defining an African Identity. Renaissance is about Africa reflection and African definition and
Africans being agents of their own history and masters of our own destiny (Malegapuru et al
1999: xii). Intellectuals, politicians and economists are stressing the importance of African
identity and of shaping the future of Africa (Malegapuru (ed) 1999). Some long-standing
traditions, which constitute the intangible cultural heritage of a people, find relevance with the
ideas of African Renaissance.
Aspects of African heritage and identity
 Bantu language
 Bantu is a confusing as it is sometimes used to refer to a group of languages, a variety of culture
and to a racial group. The origins and spread of the Bantu is one of the most challenging
problems in African history.
 Bantu is a large category of African languages. It also is used as a general label for over 400
ethnic groups in Sub-Saharan Africa, from Cameroon across Central Africa and Eastern Africa
to Southern Africa. These peoples share a common language family sub-group, the Bantu
languages, and broad ancestral culture.
 Modern study of Bantu languages was popularized by Malcolm Guthrie, a former missionary
in Zambia and a Professor of Linguistics at the London School of African and Oriental
Studies. He collected over 20,000 words from Bantu languages, and finally divided them into
15 zones, based on their similarities and their diversities.
Bantu language in Africa
 "Bantu" means "people" in many Bantu languages, along with similar sounding cognates. Dr.
Wilhelm Bleek first used the term "Bantu" in its current sense in his 1862 book A Comparative
Grammar of South African Languages, in which he hypothesized that a vast number of
languages located across central, southern, eastern, and western Africa shared so many
characteristics that they must be part of a single language group. Perhaps the most salient was
the organization of many parts of speech in concordance with a set of noun categories, by
means of inflected prefixes. Thus in isiZulu, a paradigmatic case for Bleek, the noun root -ntu
is found in nouns such as umuntu (person), abantu (people), ubuntu (quality of being human,
humaneness), and verbs and adjectives describing the nouns agree with them: Umuntu
omkhulu uhamba ngokushesha (The big person walks quickly), Abantu abakhulu bahamba
ngokushesha (The big people walk quickly).
 Reduplication is a common morphological phenomenon in Bantu languages and is usually used
to indicate frequency or intensity of the action signaled by the (unduplicated) verb stem.
Example: in Swahili piga means "strike", pigapiga means "strike repeatedly". Well-known
words and names that have reduplication include:
 Bafana Bafana, - South African national football team.

 Chipolopolo, a Zambian national football team
 Makepe kepe a nickname for Caps United FC
 Eric Djemba-Djemba, a footballer
 Murape Murape a zimbabwean footballer
 Ngorongoro, a conservation area
 Kazembe Kazembe a Zimbabwean politician
 Linguists have used similarities in language structures to formulate the directional flow of
pre-colonial migrations. There are four African linguistic groups (Khoisan, S A M Afro-
Asiatic, Nilo-Saharan and Niger-Congo (commonly referred to as Bantu).
Bantu-language in Zimbabwe
 The four main dialects of Shona—Zezuru, Kalanga, Manyika, and Ndau—have
a common vocabulary and similar tonal and grammatical features. The Ndebele in the
nineteenth century were the first to use the name "Shona" to refer to the peoples they
conquered; although the exact meaning of the term is unclear, it was probably derogatory.
Later, white colonists extended the term to refer to all groups that spoke dialects officially
recognized as Shona. One view of the dialects is that they resulted from differing missionary
education policies in the nineteenth century. Sindebele is a click language of the Nguni group
of Bantu languages; other members of this language group are Zulu and Xhosa, which are
spoken mainly in South Africa; siSwati (Swaziland); and siTswana (Botswana). Other
languages spoken in Zimbabwe are Tonga, Shangaan, and Venda, which are shared with
large groups of Tonga in Zambia and Shangaan and Venda in South Africa.
 In contrast, there are some words in some of the languages in which reduplication has the
opposite meaning. It usually denotes short durations, and or lower intensity of the action and
also means a few repetitions or a little bit more.
 Example 1: In Xitsonga and (Chi)Shona, famba means "walk" while famba-famba means
"walk around".
 Example 2: in isiZulu and SiSwati hamba means "go", hambahamba means "go a little bit,
but not much".
NB the above information help us to identify ourselves as Africans.
 However, Samwiri Lwanga-Lunyigo began to question the validity of Bantu theory as
early as 1976, and in 1995 Jan Vansina was asking the same questions. In chapter 6 “The
Bantu-speaking Peoples and Their Expansion” in UNESCO’s General History of Africa,
vol. III, both authors joined forces and openly voiced their doubts about Bantu theory in
general. Here is Vansina’s conclusion:
…The assumption of a single large-scale migration by the original speakers of Bantu is
extremely unlikely…There never was a single Bantu migration, even if one calls it
“expansion”…The existing Bantu expansion hypothesis must be totally abandoned. The
scrapping of the hypothesis will make room for more realistic and quite different
interpretations and research hypothesis (Vansina, 1995:195).
 One of the most baffling mysteries about Bantu is their land of origin, which is allegedly
located somewhere between modern Cameroon and Nigeria as mentioned earlier. It was
easy for European linguists to study, reconstruct, and classify their own languages
because, in addition to being their mother tongues, there were other well-known historic
languages such as Sanskrit, Arabic, Persian, Greek, Latin, and German, any of which
could serve as a starting point to identify other languages that subsequently branched off
from them. Unfortunately for Bantu languages, no such ancient languages are known. To
compare or to connect the alleged proto-Bantu language from which all the so-called
Bantu languages supposedly originated is based purely on guesswork.no genetic study
has demonstrated conclusively that Bantu people can all be traced back to one central
geographic location (European Journal of Logistics Purchasing and Supply Chain Management
Vol. 1, No. 1, pp. 23-33).
 Cultural norms and values
 Common norms and values amongst Africans
 Greetings - a well behaved person in African society is expected to greet others by
shaking hands.
 Thanking - it is important to thank if someone gives you something or does something
good for you.
 Discipline e.g through Chinamwali in all Chewa around Southern Africa as well among
other cultures in Africa.
 Hunu/Ubuntu- I am because we are.
 Respect for elders . Eg in Botswana Tswana people respect their elders and they are
given first preference.
 Valuing the family and family unit (immediate, extended, tribe, totem, locality).
 Giving .
 Regard for the supernatural
Importance of norms amongst Africans

- norms govern the behaviour of individual and help in setting standards of interaction
- they help to mend ways and regulate daily life
- norms give cohesion to society
- the collective and co-operative life of people is made possible because of norms
- norms help to maintain social discipline and order
Importance of values in amongst Africans
- values provide stability in group interaction
- values bring legitimacy to rules that govern activities
 Religion
 It is the belief in and worship of a supernatural controlling power, especially a personal god
or gods. The Oxford English Dictionary (1970:271) defines religion as “the recognition of
superhuman controlling power, and especially of a personal god, entitled to obedience”.
 Most of pre-colonial African states believed in African Traditional Religion. African
traditional religion is a term referring to a variety of religions indigenous to the continent of
Africa. Most traditional African religions have, for most of their existence, been
orally/spiritually (rather than scripturally) transmitted or practiced.
 African ancestors have a rich that they knew God and worshipped him before the coming of
the missionaries. Africans had a belief in god from antiquity/time immemorial. Knowledge of
God preceded the coming of the missionaries. According to Mbiti:
“Missionaries did not bring God to Africa, but it was God who brought them to
Africa. One for real is that they brought Christ. Africans do not worship their
ancestors- they are not the supreme Beings; the end in themselves, but God is
the final authority above and beyond the ancestors. Ancestors are just the
intermediaries between people and the Supreme-Being.”
 Mbiti (1969) observed that African traditionalists integrate all aspects of life. Therefore, it is
difficult to separate the sacred from the profane. This position is also supported by Amanze
(1998: xvi) that:
Wherever the African is, there is his religion: he takes it with him to the beer
party or to attend a funeral ceremony; and if he is educated, he takes religion
with him to the examination room at school or in the university; if he is a
politician he takes it to the house of parliament.
 Kruger et al (2009) identify the following 3 common traits of African Religion
- Belief in Supreme Being
- the realm of spirits
- a unified community
NB one is born into the religion
-It has a moral code
- it has belief in life after death
- it has three worldview (living ,living dead and the spirits)
Belief in God
 God is known and worshipped all over Africa. Indigenous African societies acknowledge
Him as Father, Creator, Eternal, completely Beneficent (helpful), ethically Holy, and
creatively Omnipotent. John S. Mbiti notes that, ″All over Africa people have a notion of
God as the Supreme Being the origin and sustenance of all things. ″
 African knowledge of God is expressed in proverbs, short statements, songs, prayers,
names, myths, stories and religious ceremonies. All these are easy to remember and pass
on to other people. There are no sacred writings in Traditional Societies. But God is no
stranger to the African peoples and everybody knows God′s existence almost by instinct
and even children know Him.
 Many societies like the Tonga, and others, speak of Him as ″the Great one″, or ″Great God″,
or ″the Great King″, or ″the surpassingly Great Spirit. ″ The main Zulu name for God,
Unkulunkulu, carried with it the sense of ″the Great-Great-One″, and the same name is used
by Ndebele tribe31 for whom it means ″the Greatest of the Great. ″ The Shona people refer to
God as: Muwanikwa, Mutangakugara, Musiki- Creator of all there is in the world: People,
vegetation, animals and the earth itself, Musikavanhu- creator of humanity
 Mwari is the most common name for the Supreme Being in Shona. According to Mr. J.f Van Oordt
Mwari may have been derived from Arabic Allah Mwari may have come from Muari or Muali
Mauli of Kilimanjaro means sower One with earthly powers.
NB the above information help us to identify ourselves as Africans.
 However there is a debate whether Africans had a belief in God before the advent of
Christian missionaries. H. Stacy says ‘Shona people are uncivilized and need to be
introduced and taught of the living God and the name Jesus. They believe ancestors were an
end in themselves; the Supreme Being of unrestricted value.’ C, Bullock says, I would be the
last one to advocate the translation of our word God by Chishona word Mwari.
Pre-colonial African civilization

 People have lived in Africa for more than three million years, and thus it possesses a rich and
varied history. On one hand, Africa is widely believed to be the birthplace of modern human
beings and is where some of the world’s greatest civilizations, such as the Egyptian and
Nubian societies, emerged. On the other hand, this history includes the indignation of trans-
Atlantic slave trade and colonial domination. African civilizations, cultures, and traditions
are often assumed by outsiders to be static and unchanging. This belief, however, is untrue as
African “tradition” has constantly been in a state of flux. Societies from the ancient to the
modern day have changed, adapted, and evolved as time progressed. Environments and
climates have altered over time, such as the Sahara desert that was once a fertile grassland
but began losing rainfall around 2000 BCE, and civilizations have adapted to these changes.
Ancient Egypt though was the first major African civilization. By 4000 BCE, Egyptians
had begun cultivating crops. Five hundred years later, these peoples evolved into the
early Egyptian states, and formed the great Egyptian civilization (with the unifying of
Lower and Upper Egypt) in 3200 BCE.
 Egyptian society was complex. From the building of massive pyramids that still stand
today to the development of hieroglyphics (a complex written language), to the creation
of the plow, it profoundly shaped world civilization.Despite Egypt's early success, it was
not until after 700 CE that sub-Saharan African empires could emerge and exist for
longer periods of time.
 African civilization usually include Egypt, Carthage, Axum, Numidia, and Nubia, but may
also be extended to the prehistoric Land of Punt, and others: the Empire of Ashanti, Kingdom
of Congo, Empire of Mali, Kingdom of Zimbabwe, Songhai Empire, and the Empire of
Ghana. However, civilization in Africa also involved a strings of kingdoms lying to the east
and north of the Congo Basin. These inter-lacustrine ( between the lakes) kingdoms included
among others like the Ha, Zinza and Haya people as well as the Rwanda, Nkole, Nyoro and
the Avongara kingdoms of Zande Court.
 ‘Before even the British came into relations with our people, we were a developed people,
having our own institutions, having our own ideas of government.’ J. E. Casely-Hayford,
1922. African (Gold Coast) Nationalist.
 The Growth of Civilizations ( monuments or kingdoms)
 On the African continent, large civilizations developed in sub- Saharan east, west, and
southern Africa as a result of many factors.
Factors which led to the growth of African civilization
 Though people have lived in Africa quite some time, the use of iron tools marks the
significant moment of African civilization. Iron tools enhanced weaponry, allowed groups to
clear and manage dense forests, plow fields for farming, and basically better everyday lives.
Ultimately, iron tools allowed Africans to flourish in every environment, and thus they could
live in larger communities which led to the formation of states and kingdoms. With state
formation came the formation of modern civilizations with common languages, belief and
value systems, art, religion, lifestyle and culture.
 These civilizations developed over time because of their rich natural resources and their
geography
 And the Trans-Saharan trade route.
In the east, Axum developed because of its strong international trade system. In western
Africa, the three kingdoms of Ghana, Mali, and Songhai grew out of the Gold-Salt Trade.
In southern Africa, Zimbabwe became a powerful empire due to its fertile lands and
location on important trade routes. These kingdoms show the richness and diversity of
the African continent, as well as their importance in the world’s economic development.
Case studies on pre-colonial civilizations in different African societies
 Kingdom of Aksum (East Africa) (300 C.E.-700 C.E.)

 Also known as the Kingdom of Axum or the Aksumite Empire, was an ancient kingdom
centered in what is now Eritrea, and Tigray region in Northern Ethiopia. Aksum was
previously thought to have been founded by Sabaeans, an ancient people speaking an Old
South Arabian language who lived in what is today Yemen, in the southwest of the Arabian
Peninsula. However, most scholars now agree that prior to the arrival of Sabaeans, an
African settlement by the Agaw people and other Ethiopian groups had already existed in the
territory. Sabaean influence is now thought to have been minor, limited to a few localities,
and disappearing after a few decades or a century, perhaps representing a trading or military
colony.
 This kingdom controlled land around the Nile River, the Ethiopian Highlands, and the Red
Sea.
 Aksum became a major player on the commercial route between the Roman Empire and
Ancient India. The Aksumite rulers facilitated trade by minting their own Aksumite currency,
with the state establishing its hegemony over the declining Kingdom of Kush.
 The Kingdom of Aksum is notable for a number of achievements:
 Its own alphabet, the Ge’ez alphabet which was eventually modified to include vowels.
Furthermore, in the early times of the empire, giant Obelisks, some of which stood over
100 feet tall to mark emperors’ (and nobles’) tombs (underground grave chambers) were
constructed, the most famous of which is the Obelisk of Aksum.. Ge’ez: A script used as
an abugida (syllable alphabet) for several languages of Ethiopia and Eritrea. It originated
as anabjad (consonant-only alphabet) and was first used to write the liturgical language of
the Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church and the Eritrean Orthodox Tewahedo Church.
 The Aksumite Empire was one of the first African polities economically and politically
ambitious enough to issue its own coins, which bore legends in Ge’ez and Greek.
 The main exports of Aksum were agricultural products. The land was fertile during the
time of the Aksumites, and the principal crops were grains such as wheat and barley. The
people of Aksum also raised cattle, sheep, and camels. Wild animals were hunted for
ivory and rhinoceros horns.
 The empire was rich with gold and iron deposits, and salt was an abundant and widely
traded mineral.
 The Stelae (hawilt/hawilti in local languages) are perhaps the most identifiable part of the
Aksumite legacy. These stone towers served to mark graves and represent a magnificent
multi-storied palace. They are decorated with false doors and windows in typical
Aksumite design. The Stelae have most of their mass out of the ground, but are stabilized
by massive underground counter-weights. The stone was often engraved with a pattern or
emblem denoting the king’s or the noble’s rank. The tallest stele in past was 33 m tall.
 kingdom of Kush (northern Africa)

 The legendary Kingdom of Kush, with its series of capitals in what is now northern Sudan,
helped define the political and cultural landscape of northeastern Africa for more than a
thousand years. Kush was a part of Nubia, loosely described as the region between the
Cataracts of the Nile. The Cataracts of the Nile are a series of six whitewater rapids that have
been used as key waypoints for thousands of years. The first cataract roughly corresponds to
the modern area of Aswan, Egypt, while the sixth lies more than 1,100 kilometers (720
miles) south, north of Khartoum, Sudan.
 The region served as a major trading center for goods from the African interior, Arabian
desert, and Mediterranean basin. From sub-Saharan Africa, Nubian communities traded gold,
ivory, ebony, and animal pelts. Sometimes, merchants traded the animals themselves. African
animals such as monkeys, elephants, antelopes, and giraffes were exported to private zoos
across the Mediterranean and the Near East.
 From Arabia, Egypt, the Maghreb, and the Mediterranean basin, Nubians imported products
such as olive oil, incense, timber (mostly acacia and cedar), and bronze.
 The Nubians saw food production through irrigation and controlled flooding. They built
pyramids and burial mounts using the same technologies that the Egyptians used like
wenches, pulleys, and lifts.
 The Nubians took part in the very early beginning of blast furnaces and iron working.
Another advancement in technology was an animal-driven water wheel. The Nubians used
this to make the productivity of milling grain go up. They also developed silos to store the
grain and also ovens for baking. The Nubians had also designed and built chariots. They used
the chariots in warfare. They also used advanced metal working.
 The Kushites used the Shaduf, i.e. a traditional device operated manually for raising water
from a lower depression to a higher depression where the water is distributed through other
depressions to irrigate the fields.
 Numerous hafirs, i.e. depressions dug on flat grounds to collect rain water, were discovered
in Sudan, including in Musawwarat es Sufra. However hafirs would not have always
provided enough water for the farms. The only known Kushite dam used for water storage
was found at Shaq el Ahmar.
 The Kushites practiced the process of mummification to preserve the bodies of their deceased
rulers and royal persons. The first step in the mummification was to remove certain internal
organs of the deceased that were thought to be unimportant parts of the body. These parts
were not thrown away, but placed in canopic jars, or the "four sons of Horus", the Kushite
gods that where thought to protect them. By removing the most moisturous organs, the
Kushites helped fasten the process of drying the body.
 Nubians were also familiar with Hieroglyphic writing system.
 The Kingdom of Kush is probably the most famous civilization to emerge from Nubia. Three
Kushite kingdoms dominated Nubia for more than 3,000 years, with capitals in Kerma,
Napata, and Meroë.
 Kerma (2450 BCE and 1450 BCE)- Nubians of this period practiced agriculture, hunted and
fished, raised livestock such as cattle and sheep, and labored in workshops that
produced ceramic and metal goods. The artifacts most associated with Kerma culture are
probably deffufas, huge mud-brick structures rising to a height of 59 feet (18 meters) used
as temples or funerary chapels. The mud-brick construction material kept the interior of
deffufas cool in the hot Nubian sun, while tall colonnades allowed for greater air circulation.
The walls of the deffufas were tiled and decorated with elaborate paintings, and some were
lined in gold leaf.
 Barely, sorghum, and wheat were probably the most commonly cultivated crops in
Sudan. Accordingly, bread was perhaps the most widely produced food as best attested in
the bakeries and ovens of Kerma. The making of bread, using wheat and barley, is best
represented in the archeological remains of ovens in Kerma. Barley was particularly
found stored in silos.
 Used domestically for cloth making, and possibly transported to other locations, cotton
clothes were abundantly found in Kushite graves, including the cemeteries at Kerma.
 The Kushites extensively domesticated cattle and sheep. Extensive leftovers of sheep
bones were found on offering chapels and temple kitchens in Kerma.
 Napata-From its capital in Napata, Kushite civilization shared many cultural connections
with Egypt during this time. Although both cultures valued horses as transportation,
Egyptians preferred to use chariots, while Kushites were just as likely to ride the horses
themselves. Power dynamics shifted in Nubia, around 745 BCE, the Kushite king
Piye invaded Egypt, possibly at an Egyptian request to fend off invaders from Libya. Piye
became the first pharaoh of Egypt’s 25th Dynasty. Perhaps the most influential pharaoh of
the 25th Dynasty was Taharqa (Khunefertumre), a son of Piye. Taharqa engaged in enormous
construction projects in both Upper and Lower Egypt. (Upper Egypt included southern Egypt
and Nubia, while Lower Egypt included the Nile Delta.) Under his leadership, temples
and monuments were expanded at Memphis, Thebes, and Jebel Barkal. Statues of Taharqa
and other pharaohs of the 25th Dynasty are important artifacts. These pharaohs modified
the distinctive headdress to reflect their dual kingship of Egypt and Kush. The traditional
pharaonic headdress features the Uraeus, a stylized depiction of a cobra.
 Meroë- Meroë was ideally positioned as a port city on the Nile, with trade routes to both the
Red Sea and African interior. With the Nile making irrigation possible, Meroë was an
agriculturally fertile area, and also sat next to lucrative iron and gold mines. The
most significant artifacts of Meroitic culture are probably its pyramids. A single necropolis at
Meroë boasts more pyramids than all of Egypt. Like Egyptian pyramids, the pyramids at
Meroë are tombs. More than a dozen Kushite kings, queens, and other nobles are interred
with pyramids. Kush had its own dynastic leaders, trade systems, adaptations of Egyptian
religion, and even its own alphabet and languages.
 Sometime in the late Meroitic period, the Kushite farmers began to use the Saquia, i.e. a
water wheel brought to Sudan from southwest Asia. A saquia was a wooden wheel
equipped with pots to bring in water from the Nile River.
 Ashanti Empire/ Asante kingdom (West Africa) 18th to late 19th century.
 The Ashanti Empire was a pre-colonial West African state that emerged in the 17th
century in what is now Ghana. The Ashanti or Asante were an ethnic subgroup of the
Akan-speaking people, and were composed of small chiefdoms.
 Osei Tutu, the Asantehene (paramount chief) of Ashanti from 1701 to 1717, organized
the Asante union, an alliance of Akan-speaking people who were now loyal to his central
authority. The Asantehene made Kumasi the capital of the new empire. He also created
a constitution, reorganized and centralized the military, and created a new cultural
festival, Odwira, which symbolized the new union. Most importantly, he created the
Golden Stool, which he argued represented the ancestors of all the Ashanti, a unifying
symbol . Upon that Stool Osei Tutu legitimized his rule and that of the royal dynasty that
followed him.
 He also made gold dust the circulating currency in the empire. Gold dust was frequently
accumulated by Asante citizens, particularly by the evolving wealthy merchant
class. However even relatively poor subjects used gold dust as ornamentation on their
clothing and other possessions. Larger gold ornaments owned by the royal family and the
wealthy were far more valuable. Periodically they were melted down and fashioned into
new patterns of display in jewelry and statuary.
 Agriculture also played a control role in the form of cocoa plantation or kola nuts .Asante
traded with the British & the Dutch at the coast
 On administration, the state was highly bureaucratic. Asante formed a system of state
official who were appointed and paid by the Asantehene. There were civil servants
accountable for finance & tax collection.
 Kingdom of Kongo/Congo (Central Africa)

 Also known as Kongo dya Ntotila or Wene wa Kongois ranks among the most famous
kingdoms in sub-Saharan Africa. The kingdom located in southwest Africa. It is now
northern Angola, Cabinda, the Republic of the Congo, and the western portion of the
Democratic Republic of the Congo.The empire consisted of six provinces ruled by a
monarch, the Manikongo of the Bakongo (Kongo peoples).
 When the leader of the first Portuguese expedition, the navigator Diogo Cao, landed in
1483 in the Zaïre estuary, he was astonished to discover the existence of a centralised
political state, an African replica of the Portuguese kingdom (Vansina 1966; Randles
1968; Ekholm 1972).
 From 500 B.C.E, some Bantu-speaking people began migrating south and east from a
region south of the Sahara near the present-day Cameron. By 500 B.C.E, the Bantu
population were firmly established in the savanna region near Congo (formerly Zaire)
River in what is today known as northern Angola. There they cultivated the land using
the iron-technology they brought, raise animals, made iron tools and weapons to conquer
the indigenous San people (Bushmen), and developed a complex social and political
systems.The Kingdom of Kongo was formed around 1375.
 The universal currency in Kongo and just about all of Central Africa was shell money
known locally as nzimbu. The Kongo would not trade for gold or silver, but nzimbu
shells, often put in pots in special increments, could buy anything.
 The Kongo administration regarded their land as renda, revenue assignments. The
Kongo government exacted a monetary head tax for each villager, which may well have
been paid in kind as well, forming the basis for the kingdom's finances. The king granted
titles and income, based on this head tax. Holders reported annually to the court of their
superior for evaluation and renewal.
 Various provinces made up Kongo's higher administrative divisions, with some of the
larger and more complex states, such as Mbamba, divided into varying numbers of sub-
provinces, which the administration further subdivided.
 The kingdom's army consisted of a mass levy of archers, drawn from the general male
population, and a smaller corps of heavy infantry, who fought with swords and carried
shields for protection.
 Bluntly expressed, Kongo blacksmiths were artisans and religiously significant figures
favored, and monitored by Kongo royalty. After the collapse of the Kongo kingdom,
Kongo blacksmiths continued to play important roles in society, even utilizing their
skills in the New World. The skills of Kongo blacksmiths transcended cultures and
technologies and their products embraced the sacred and profane equally in Kongo
society. Amongst the Tio Kingdom of Kongo, “people who practiced the craft were
called bamukaana oculi: ‘those of the descent group of the smith’. Physical evidence of
continuous and widespread ironmaking was evident from the great mounds of slag, or
scoriae around iron making sites.
 Great Zimbabwe (southern Africa) 1000 C.E.-1400 C.E.

 Great Zimbabwe is located at the southern edge of the Zimbabwean plateau. It is the
largest of an estimated 300 dry stone walled structures of what archaeologists now
call the Zimbabwe culture of southern Africa.
 The ancient city of Great Zimbabwe covers an area of approximately 7 hectares
consisting of different dry stone wall enclosures, although it has become customary to
divide the ancient city into three principal parts, the Hill Complex, the Great Enclosure
and the Valley ruins. In addition are areas referred to as peripheral settlements. The
Hill Complex, regarded as the seat of power during the occupation of Great Zimbabwe,
consists of a series of enclosures constructed on a prominent hill to the north of the
monument
 The Great Enclosure is located in the valley adjacent to the Hill Complex and is
perhaps the most spectacular and most substantial part of the monument. It has an
outer wall approximately 250 m in length with an approximate height of 10 m. It is now
agreed to be the largest single prehistoric structure in sub-Saharan Africa. Inside the
Great Enclosure are a number on internal stone enclosures, including the Conical
Tower as well as remains of Dhaka (adobe) platforms.
 The empire of Zimbabwe began between the Zambezi and Limpopo rivers in southern
Africa. The city of Great Zimbabwe became the capital of the empire and was located
near critical trade routes on the Indian Ocean. This city became the political, religious,
and economic hub of the empire. However, Great Zimbabwe (Mushamukuru) is not the
only place of civilization. 200 other places or sites have been discovered throughout the
country. Moreso in Zimbabwe people created elaborate civilizations. Through exploiting
the mineral wealth of their land, these peoples traded with their neighbors and ultimately
established a large network through the area. These societies built permanent stone
structures and houses over all of the country.Other Madzimbabwe include:Naletale,
Khami, Munekwani ,Ruanga, Nhunguza ,Tsindi ,Chipadze, Chibvumani, Majiri
Matendera etc
 Afrocentric school of thought supports an African origin of Great Zimbabwe. The chief
proponents of this theory include Summers, D N Beach, P Garlake, K Mufuka, Robinson,
Huffman, G C Thompson and Randall Maclever as well as S Mutsvairo, A Hodza and A
S Chigwedere. Afro-centric theorists like James E Mullan give credit to locals, for
example, the Lemba who were multi-skilled particularly the Tavakare clan who were
masons and it is believed that they were designers and builders of stone structures.
 Afro-centrists argue that artifacts found at Great Zimbabwe are local and similar to those
of contemporary Shona [Karanga] and so many Madzimbabwe found throughout
Zimbabwe.
 A number of archaeologists both whites and blacks have shown with tangible evidence
that Great Zimbabwe is of local origin .The earliest serious archaeological research at
Great Zimbabwe indicated that Great Zimbabwe was a creation of indigenous Shona
speaking people and neither were they Swahilis nor Arabs. Such archaeologists included
David Randall Maclever [1905] and Getrude Caton Thompson [1927]. Maclever in 1905
suggested that Great Zimbabwe was unquestionably African in every detail and has
relatively recent date. Getrude Caton Thompson after a detailed excavation and
examination of the oral tradition of the modern Shona speaking people showed
conclusively that Great Zimbabwe was of African origin. Subsequent work at Great
Zimbabwe by Summers, Robinson and Whitly in the late 1950s and more recently by
Huffman, Garlake and Thorp, have established this fact much more firmly.Journals of the
Arab traveler Ibn Said [1214-1286] revealed that the builders of Great
Zimbabwe were the Shona. K Mufuka and P Garlake also affirm the Shona origins.
 People who built Great Zimbabwe were cattle herders, crop growers, iron smelters and
designers of pottery as well as builders in stone work; hence this may lead to independent
development theory.
 However, the origins of Great Zimbabwe state is a centre of controversy among
historians. The controversy is centred on the builders among other debates.
 Though there are no traces of artifacts to support this view, those who advocate a foreign
origin (Eurocentrists) argued that Great Zimbabwe ruins had an exotic origin. Mostly
white archaeologists like Richard Hall and people like Cecil John Rhodes, James
Theodore Bent, Ian Douglas Smith, A H Keane, Carl Mauch, H Clarkson and Flether
support this. This theory attributes the construction of Great Zimbabwe to foreigners like
Phoenicians, Greeks, Arabs and Jews. Euro-centrists like Joao de Barros gave credit to
non-Africans like Jews and Phoenicians as builders of Great Zimbabwe. These Euro-
centrists base their argument on the complexity of the stone structures and the existence of
foreign goods. R N Hall, Clarkson and Flether say the buildings were of Arab origins. A H
Keane argued that there was a Jewish influence in the construction of Great
Zimbabwe.This theory which is based on racial affiliations asserts that Africans lacked in
technological
ability to build architectural structures like Great Zimbabwe.
NB. The above case studies and some around Africa show the various developments which
African people had prior to colonialism. Below is a summary of the developments

Technological developments in pre-colonial Africa
 Architecture e.g. the Great enclosure at Great Zimbabwe, Obelisks of Axum, the Nubian
pyramids, deffufas, temples and palaces at Meroe.
 Tools and weaponry e.g. tools like the Shaduf by the Kushites, iron tools of the Kongo
blacksmiths
 Utensils e.g. pottery at Mutapa ,Great Zimbabwe
 Stone and wood carvings e.g. the golden stool of Ashanti, the soapstone bird at Great
Zimbabwe
 Basketry and weaving e.g. the Khoisan made baskets which they used for catching fish
and for other purposes.
 Painting and paint making e.g. the San and Khoi Khoi rock paintings. For instance they
could draw the animals they hunted and methods they used. However, not all pictures
show how things really looked like. One picture can be interpreted in different ways by
different people. They made paint of many colors which had lasted for thousands of
years. The Ndebele also painted their houses.
 Conservation and preservation e.g. The San could easily split up further if resources
became scarce. Fragmentation also occurred when a group became too big to be
supported by the environment. The San could preserve their food, for instance, meat was
smoked and dried for later use. They also dried fruits and vegetables.
 Mummification (body preservation) by the Kushites
 Fermentation e.g. sorghum beer (umqomboti), sour milk (amasi) sour porridge
(incwancwa) among the Zulu and Xhosa.
 Music e.g. Mandinka empire had travelling musicians especially harpists. There
ceremonies revolved around music and dancing. warrior’s songs were sung for boys to
gain courage during circumcision.
Other Innovations in precolonial Africa
 Writing systems e.g the Ge’ez alphabet of Axum, kushite Hieroglyphics, hieratic and
demotic writing systems.
 Irrigation e.g. Saqia/ Saqiyah/sakia, a mechanical water lifting device similar to a scoop
wheel used by the Nubians , shaduf and other animal driven water wheels by the
Nubians.
 Domestication of animals and plants e.g. pastoralism was the major economic activity of
the Khoikhoi. They kept long horned cattle, fat tailed sheep and goats. Animals were kept
for meat and milk. Cattle in particular became an important symbol of wealth and
prestige in the community. Some Khoisan people began to grow crops. They cultivated a
grain called Pennisetum and a variety of other plants. The Nubians also kept horses.
The socio-political and economic systems of Africa before colonialism
A. GREAT ZIMBABWE
Social system of Great Zimbabwe State
 The Shona people at Great Zimbabwe were a religious people who worshipped Mwari. They
also believed in the national spirits (mhondoro) and the ancestral spirits called (vadzimu),
which were worshipped through the spirit mediums called Masvikiro. Mhondoro and Mwari
were consulted during the times of troubles such as wars and shangwa (drought).
 The society was patriarchal [male headed]. The paying of bride price by men made it a
patriarchal society. A married woman joined the men’s family and adopted the family’s
name.
 There were social classes within the society of this state. These social classes included
farmers, traders, pastoralists, blacksmiths, miners and herbalists. This led to exploitation of
man by man. The poor worked for the rich. There was also stratification in terms of
hierarchy.
 In their religious life they believed in the existing mighty God [Mwari]. The carvings of
animals and birds found at Great Zimbabwe might be of religious significance especially the
Zimbabwe bird [shiri yamwari]
 They believed in life after death and the existence of the spirit of the dead. They also
believed that the spirit of the dead protected and guarded the living. The spirit medium
[svikiro] was the go between the dead and the living.
 They held religious ceremonies, for instance, rain making ceremonies. This ceremony was
done when they wanted to ask for rains from God. They also held biras where beer was
brewed and cattle and other livestock were slaughtered [sacrificed] to thank or to appease the
very high and the ancestral spirits. Elders and religious leaders led at religious ceremonies.
The king led at state ceremonies. This implies that he presided over all ceremonies of
national importance
Political system of Great Zimbabwe State
 The king was the supreme authority at Great Zimbabwe. He was at the top of the political
ladder. He was helped to rule by a council of elders called Dare in Shona.
 The great enclosure [imba huru] was the official residence of the king and royal family. The
imba huru demonstrated a high level of administration, achievements of bringing together
stone masons and other workers on a grand scale.
 All subjects paid tribute to the king as a sign of loyalty. The king was helped to collect
tribute by chiefs, court officials and members of the royal family. The items collected as
tribute were distributed to the people in times of drought. Tribute helped to prevent chiefs
from becoming too powerful and to enhance the wealth of the king.
 The king appointed officials such as religious leaders, tribute collectors and chiefs.
 The king made laws in the state and was assisted by members of the ruling class. The king
levied fines on his subjects who broke the law.
 The king controlled long distance trade and obtained tribute from all foreign traders.
 The king kept a large army which was there to protect the state from intruders, to maintain
law and order in the state, to punish rebellious chiefs, to collect tribute, to herd the king’s
cattle and to conquer neighbouring states. The army was also used to raid weaker states for
grain, cattle, goats and sheep.
Economic system of Great Zimbabwe State
 Livestock production was of great importance to the people of Great Zimbabwe. They kept
animals like goats, sheep and cattle. These animals were kept for meat and milk which
enhanced the people’s diet. The state was located in an area with good soils which produced
good pasturelands. This enabled the people of this state to keep large herds of cattle.
Archaeologists excavated many cattle bones at Great Zimbabwe indicating that cattle rearing
was a major economic activity. Mashingaidze argues that a large cattle kraal was discovered
meaning that pastoralism was the backbone of their economy. Cattle were also a symbol of
status and were used for paying lobola. Many cattle bones were discovered in the great
enclosure suggesting that they were probably used for sacrificial ceremonies. It must also be
noted that the people of Great Zimbabwe practiced the transhumance system whereby in
summer cattle were grazed on fresh grasses on the high veld and were moved to the low veld
when the high veld deteriorated.
 Crop production was a very important economic activity of the people of Great Zimbabwe.
Crop production supplemented food and reliable diet. This helped to promote population
growth which would help to strengthen the military mighty of the state. More so, the
kingdom was located in an area endowed with soils suitable for cultivation. The climate of
this region promoted crop cultivation as rains were fairly adequate in most seasons.
Archaeologists discovered remains of grains and iron hoe heads which helped to prove that
cop cultivation was practiced. Remains of millet, grains and beans were discovered
purporting that the people of Great Zimbabwe grew crops like millet, sorghum, beans, cow
peas and pumpkins. They used iron hoes and axes which made crop cultivation easier. Men
cleared land for fields while women and children did most of the cultivation and weeding.
 Trade was another economic activity of the people of Great Zimbabwe. They did both
internal and external trade. Internally, they traded amongst themselves. For instance, people
could exchange hoes for grain or iron tools for baskets. Externally they traded with
foreigners both regionally and internationally. Regionally, they traded with the Tonga.
Internationally, they traded with Persians, Arabs, Swahili, Chinese and Indians. Major
trading items were gold and ivory. They also used animal skins, iron, copper, grain, livestock
and baskets to trade with foreigners. The 1903 findings by archaeologist of Persian bowls,
Chinese stoneware, Near Eastern glasses of the 13th and 14th C, an iron spoon, an iron lamp
holder, glass beads, mirrors, copper chains and many other remains were traded from China,
India, Middle East and Near East. More so, it must be noted that Great Zimbabwe state was
strategically positioned, that is, Great Zimbabwe than any other state in the region lay closer
to and had direct link with the Indian Ocean trading network. In addition, Great Zimbabwe
lay closer to the gold fields of present day Matabeleland. Increased trade led to increased
wealth.
 Hunting was also done by the people of Great Zimbabwe. There were archaeological
findings at the site of spearheads, arrows and remains of wild animal bones showing that
hunting was done as an economic activity. Hunting was mainly done by men and it
supplemented food supplies. They hunted animals like kudus for meat and elephants for
ivory which they used for trade. Leopards and lions were mainly hunted for their precious
skins which formed part of the royal property and regalia.
 Mining was another economic activity of the people of Great Zimbabwe. They mined
minerals like gold, copper and iron. There is some evidence at the site that gold was refined
and made into jewellery. Studies also revealed that there was evidence of iron working at
Great Zimbabwe. It must be noted that mining was a seasonal activity done off the rain
season when people had less work to do in the fields.
 Payment of tribute was another branch of the economy of Great Zimbabwe. Subjects paid
tribute to the king in form of grain, cattle, goats, iron tools, precious skins and whatever one
could produce. These items paid as tribute were distributed to the people by the king in times
of crisis like drought.
 Fishing was another economic activity of the people of Great Zimbabwe. They caught fish to
supplement their diet. They used iron fishing hooks and basket traps to catch fish.
 Pottery was also done by the people of Great Zimbabwe. They made different types of pots
for fetching and storing water and milk.
B. MUTAPA STATE
Social system of Mutapa State
 The people of Mutapa state lived according to their lineages.
 The ruling class lived in luxurious homes. They wore long robes of imported cloth, copper
and gold bangles to show their high status.
 Mutapa had similar customs as those of Great Zimbabwe, for example, language and culture.
 There was sexual division of labour. Women were entitled to carry out all domestic duties
whereas men assumed masculine duties like blacksmithing, mining and so on.
 There was specialisation which led to emergence of social classes [social stratification]
which perpetuated exploitation.
 Ownership of cattle was a status symbol.
 They practiced polygamy which was a source of soldiers and labour.
 They practiced cattle loaning system [kuronzera].
 They celebrated the birth of a new child and the coming of a new daughter in law.
 In times of drought and other disasters they assisted one another.
 Incest and bestiality were taboos.
 They practiced ‘Zunde raMbambo’. Barros wrote that the Mutapas’ captains and their men
worked in the king’s fields.
 They paid lobola to their in laws in form of cattle.
 They practiced the nhimbe system.
 Issues like prostitution, theft and witchcraft were not allowed.
 They believed in the existence of a high God [Mwari] whom they communicated with
through ancestors and spirit mediums. They did not worship God directly. According to AJ
Wills, “it is evident that the Mwenemutapa derived much of his political authority from his
religious, indeed, priestly, functions as sole communicator with the Mhondoro or ancestral
spirits of the tribe.” The ancestral spirits of the tribe were required to intercede with Mwari if
the rains or crops should fail or other disaster befell them.
 The believed in family, regional and national spirit mediums.
 They practiced religious ceremonies such as rain making ceremonies and biras where there
was music, dancing and feasting.
 The king was chosen by the spirit mediums and therefore they believed in divine kingship.
 They believed that some spirits lived in large pools, thick forests and mountains.
Political system of Mutapa State
 -The political system of Mutapa is also similar to that of Great Zimbabwe and even that of
Rozvi state. The king was the head of state and was at the helm of political and economic
power.
 Kingship was hereditary.
 The centre of the government was the Mwenemutapa and his court. This court was run by a
team of officials responsible for the various departments. The court officials included the
chancellor, court chamberlain [officer in charge of the kings’ palace], the military
commander, head doorkeeper and chief cook. The Queen mother, king’s sister and the nine
principal wives of the king were also important figures in the administration of the state.
 The king was appointed by spirit mediums that he consulted in times of crisis. According to
A J Wills, the Mutapa derived most of his political authority from his religious and priestly
function as sole communicator with the ancestral spirits who interceded with Mwari for rains
and disasters facing the nation.
 The king’s life was symbolised by a royal fire, burning at his capital throughout his reign.
Chiefs were forced to collect that fire on yearly basis as a sign of loyalty. So fire symbolised
life and unity. Rebels were easily identified by not collecting the royal fire.
 There was also a system of provincial administration where vassal chiefs were in charge of
provinces. Vassal chiefs were mainly close relatives of kings and trusted loyalists. The most
famous of the vassal chiefs were Changa and Togwa [Torwa] who controlled the two
southern provinces of Guruuswa and Mbire.
 Subjects paid tribute to the king to show loyalty. Vassal chiefs collected and surrendered
tribute to the king. Payment of tribute helped to prevent chiefs from becoming too powerful
and to enhance the wealth of the king. Items collected as tribute were distributed to the
people in times of drought.
 The king was the chief distributer of land. His power depended on his ability to control and
allocate land which he held.
 All foreign traders had to abide by rules of the state and had to pay tax as well as gifts.
 The power of the king rested in the army. He used the army to maintain law and order,
protect the state from intruders and to collect tribute. The army was also used to expand the
state and to herd the king’s cattle.
 The king appointed chiefs, army commander and other government officials.
 The king was the judicial leader, religious leader, commander in chief of the army and
controller of long distance trade.
 The king was the commander in chief of the army.
 The king was assisted by an appointed commander, Nengomasha who was the second most
powerful official in the state.
 There was a council of war [Dare reHondo]. This council ratified war decisions and
conscripted soldiers as well as training them.
 The king had a very large army which assembled when need arose.However, the king
maintained a small regular force of 200 to 500 soldiers to guard the state and maintained
peace and order at the king’s court.Drums were beaten and parapanda was sounded to
assemble Mutapa soldiers.
Economic system of Mutapa State
 Trade was one of the economic activities of Mutapa state. They did both internal and long
distance trade. Internally, they traded amongst themselves [barter trade], for example, they
could exchange iron tools for grain or baskets for precious skins. Externally, they traded with
Arabs, Swahili and Portuguese which enabled them to sustain their economy. They
exchanged ivory, gold, iron tools and various wares from activities such as basketry, pottery,
wood and stone carving. They imported products like ceramics [pots], jewellery, knives,
cloth, cowry shells, guns, glass and spirits. They employed vashambadzi who were
Portuguese salesmen. These were not honest as they sometimes took some of the goods they
traded with Mutapa or exchanged more than they were supposed to. Trade goods obtained
from foreigners were also used in further developing and building up a strong political power
base. Most historians agree that trade was the major economic activity. Although trade
played a significant role in Mutapa economy, it alone is not satisfactory in explaining the
survival of Mutapa.
 Crop cultivation was another pillar of the Mutapa economy. They grew crops like finger
millet, drought resistant bulrush millet and varieties of sorghum. They also cultivated rapoko,
cotton, beans, water melons and later on maize. Maize were however, not popular during
these days since they were believed to have been introduced by the Portuguese. Most
historians agree that most crop cultivation was from September to December because these
were the rain months. The generally favourable climatic conditions ensured successful
harvests and resulted in the accumulation of surplus grain. The Mutapa people are believed to
have practiced crop rotation and this improved their yields. This implies that there was
successful agriculture. It should be noted that agriculture and pastoralism were therefore the
backbones of the Shona economy. Agriculture not only enabled the subject peoples to
produce for themselves but for the state in order to pay tribute to their rulers.
 Animal rearing was another pillar of the Mutapa economy. Animal rearing was promoted by
the fact that pastures were abundant in the Dande area. They reared animals like cattle, goats
and sheep. They were kept for meat, milk and fat. Cattle were very important in the Shona
culture. They were used for paying lobola, for trade, for tribute, for traditional ceremonies
and for other purposes. The Mutapa people practiced the transhumance system, that is, cattle
were grazed on the Zambezi valley in winter when tsetse flies were dominant in the high
veld.
 Mining was also done in Mutapa state. They mined minerals like iron, gold, copper, silver,
tin and lead. Gold was mainly used for exporting while other minerals like iron and copper
were largely used for making tools. Mining improved the power of the state since it brought
things like guns through trade. Gold is believed to have attracted many traders because it was
panned along the Zambezi River where many foreigners made their voyages. Copper was
also used for making jewellery, for instance, copper bangles. Mining was however, a
seasonal activity done off the rain season when people did not have much work.
 Hunting was one of the economic activities of Mutapa. They hunted animals like hares and
kudus for meat, elephants and rhinoceros for ivory and leopards and cheetahs for their
precious skins. Hunting thus augmented meat supplies and ivory as well as skins for trade.
Thus these economic activities complemented each other. Hunting was done by men. It is
also believed that hunting was done for leisure as people mainly concentrated of crop
cultivation and livestock production.
 Tribute payment was also an economic activity of Mutapa. The subjects of the king paid
tribute to the king in form of cattle, goats, sheep, grain, iron tools, minerals, salt, precious
skins, baskets, pots and whatever one could produce. They also could provide labour for
agriculture [zunde] and mining as a show of loyalty. They also gave him regular presents and
gifts as well as products of hunting such as tusks [ivory] of every elephant they killed. Items
such as grain collected as tribute were redistributed to the people in times of crisis like
drought. Foreigners like Arabs, Swahili and later Portuguese traders also paid tribute in form
of luxurious goods like cloth. These foreigners paid tribute in form of curva for them to be
allowed to trade and also for protection whilst they were in the state. Tribute was also of
political importance because they could identify loyal and disloyal subjects. Failure to pay
tribute was viewed as a sign of disloyalty.
 Fishing was done by the people of Mutapa. They caught fish to supplement their diet. They
caught fish using iron fishing hooks and basket traps.
 Raiding was another economic activity of Mutapa. They raided other states for grain, cattle,
goats, sheep, women, boys and girls.
 Blacksmithing was also done by the people of Mutapa. They smelted iron to make different
types of tools and weapons like hoes, axes, knives, picks, spears, arrows and mattocks.
 Gathering was also done at Mutapa state. They gathered wild fruits, roots, berries,
mushroom, honey, insects and termites. This was very important as it helped in
supplementing their food.
 Pottery was another economic activity of the people of Mutapa. They made different types
of pots.
 Basketry was done. They wove different types of baskets like the winnowing basket.
C. NDEBELE STATE
Social system of Ndebele State
 The Ndebele had a unique social system. It was organised on a caste basis thus the society
was divided into three distinct social groups [classes] namely, Zansi, Enhla and Hole.
 The Zansi comprised of the original Khumalo from Nguniland. This constituted the superior
class and occupied most important positions. They formed the aristocratic class and
constituted about 15% of the total population.
 The Enhla was the second most important group in the state. It comprised of those
assimilated into the nation during the journey into Zimbabwe, that is, the Sotho and Tswana.
They occupied important military positions and constituted about 25% of the total
population.
 The Hole were the least important in the Ndebele state. They were also known as Lozwi.
They consisted of the Kalanga and Shona people, that is, those conquered and captured in
Zimbabwe. They consisted about 60% of the total population. Some of them were drafted
into regiments where they were taught Ndebele military skills and Ndebele language.
However, those Hole who proved themselves in battle also occupied important military
positions in the state. Due to intermarriage, most of these lost their identity. These included
the Moyos, Sibandas, Ncube and the like.
 The Ndebele practiced the inxwala ceremony. It was a call to everyone in the state to express
thanks for good crops and to renew their loyalty to the amadlozi, especially the royal
amadlozi. The ritual involved symbols of rain, female fertility, tribal potency as well as
symbols for the fertility of the land and cattle. Black cattle which were said to contain the
royal amadlozi were paraded. The amabutho were all assembled. This provided a show of
force which served as a deterrent to rebellions. Only after the Inkosi [king] himself had
ceremonially eaten the first fruits of harvest could the nation harvest and eat their crops. The
Inkosi was identified with the nation’s fertility and well-being. All Izinduna and tributary
chiefs were required to demonstrate their veneration of the amadlozi and their loyalty to the
king. Failure to attend the inxwala ceremony was seen as refusal to renew loyalty to amadlozi
and the king and invited retribution.
 The Ndebele adopted the Shona Mhondoro rain making ceremony. They recognised the ritual
authority and rain making powers of the tributary chiefs and mediums in their area as long as
they remained loyal. They even paid tribute to the mediums of the great Shona spirits like
Nyamusva, Wanewawa, Chaminuka and the like. The recognition of indigenous religion
helped to bring about unity for the Ndebele had assimilated many indigenous people.
 Ndebele was made the official language.
 They worshipped God [Unkulunkulu] through ancestral spirits.
Political system of Ndebele State
 The king was the head of state. The Ndebele title for king was Inkosi.
 The state was highly centralised.
 The king was the commander in chief of the army.
 He was the religious leader who presided over all important religious ceremonies like
inxwala.
 The king had power over life and death of his subjects.
 The king alone could sign treaties.
 The distribution of land was the king’s prerogative, that is, he was the chief distributor of
land. It should be noted that land was not a private property of the king though they had
powers over its distribution and use.
 The king was the judicial leader and he could use his judicial powers to liquidate opponents
in the state. According to J R D Cobbing, the king eliminated enemies where necessary.
 All chiefs were to show allegiance at inxwala ceremony [first fruit ceremony]. Its attendance
was compulsory. Failure to attend inxwala ceremony was tantamount to a rebellion.
 The king was assisted to rule the state by two advisory councils, the Umphakathi [inner
council] and Izikulu. The Umphakathi consisted of the original Khumalo chiefs, that is, those
who had left Zululand and knew Zulu military tactics. These chiefs made important
decisions, although the final decision came from the king on matters of national interest.
Unanimity was always the aim. The Umphakathi represented the people in the king’s
deliberations and he ruled as a king in council in major matters like those involving war and
allocation of land. The Izikulu was a body which seems to have been made up of chiefs
especially those who had been incorporated into the Ndebele state.
 The kingdom [Ilizwe] was divided into chieftaincies under the great chiefs [Induna Ezinkulu]
and these were divided into four provinces under an Induna Inkulu. Each province was
further divided into regiments [Izigava] which were led by Indunas. The posts of Indunas
were not hereditary but they were appointees. They were given responsibility of distributing
captives [abathunjiweyo] and state cattle [Inkomo zebutho].
Economic system of Ndebele State
 The Ndebele economy had suffered a number of distortions. Many Euro-centric historians
misunderstood or deliberately distorted the basis of the Ndebele economy. The myth was also
spread by missionaries, traders and hunters. They argue that the Ndebele were nomads and
their survival was solely dependent on raiding. They also argue that the Ndebele never
engaged in trade. They depicted the Ndebele as a lazy ethnic group which entirely depended
on raiding.
*However, this colonial myth had been thrown out of the window by the new thinking. Thus
on the contrary, the Ndebele economy was diverse and included crop cultivation, trade,
tribute, raiding, mining, hunting, gathering, pottery, basketry and blacksmithing.
 Raiding was one of the various components of the Ndebele economic system. Raiding seems
to have been intense during the early days of Ndebele settlement in south-western Zimbabwe.
They raided the Shona subject people for cattle, women, grain and manpower during their
early days in western Zimbabwe. Raiding was necessitated by the desire to build a powerful
and secure state. It was also meant to ensure political subservience by locally incorporated
people, that is, the Shona, Kalanga and Venda. Thus raiding was not only an economic
system but a political one as well. Recurrent drought also forced them to raid. Raiding was
also a punitive measure inflicted upon stubborn chiefs. Raiding was also done to replenish
Ndebele cattle destroyed by the lung sickness epidemic of the 1870s. After settling down and
establishing themselves, the Ndebele became involved in other economic activities like
mining, crop cultivation, trade and blacksmithing.
 Crop cultivation was the main economic activity of the Ndebele. They grew a variety of
crops like sorghum, millet, rapoko, maize, beans, pumpkins, melons, potatoes, peas and
groundnuts. Some historians believed that crop production was not very popular among the
Ndebele because of the climatic conditions in Matabeleland. This implies that it was mainly
done by the absorbed Shona people. Both men and women were involved in crop production.
Men cleared and fenced fields while women cultivated fields. Each settlement had a special
king’s field which was harvested first and the produce given to the king, for his distribution
to the poor and disadvantaged in society as well as to be eaten by visitors.
 Livestock production was the most important economic activity owing to the fact that the
Ndebele initially were not settled in Matabeleland. Cattle amongst the Ndebele were very
important just like as they were in other Nguni groups. They also kept goats and sheep. They
acquired some of the cattle during their migration, while more were obtained from the Rozvi
and other Shona through tribute. They practiced the transhumance system with cattle being
protected by both regiments and herders. There were two types of cattle, the national herd
[Inkomo Zebutho] and privately owned cattle [Inkomo Zamatanga]. The national herd was
theoretically controlled by the king and larger percent of them came through raiding. They
were distributed to the Izigava [regiments] by the Inkosi. They were often passed to
regiments as reward for doing a national service. They were distributed to the needy, loyal
and successful.
 They were also slaughtered at national ceremonies like inxwala. The king’s children often
inherited some of these. Privately owned cattle were owned by individual subjects. The
chiefs and successful warriors tended to own the largest herds. Individuals distinguished their
cattle through distinct ear marks [izimpawu or rupawu]. Individuals did what they want with
their cattle like paying fines, lobola, buying guns and so on. Cattle were very important
because during the 1896-7 uprising the loss of private cattle was one of the major Ndebele
grievances.
 Trade was also done by the Ndebele. Trade started soon after the Ndebele settlement on the
Zimbabwe plateau. They traded among themselves and with the Karanga and Venda to
obtain grain and other food stuffs. They also engaged in long distance trade with the
Portuguese and later with the British. They obtained foreign goods like guns, ammunition,
clothes and beads. Shona middlemen were often used in the trading transaction with the
Portuguese. Trade in gold and ivory and the issuing of hunting licenses were the royal
monopoly done by none other than the king. Hence the Euro-centric conception that the
Ndebele never engaged in trade is a distortion of history.
 All subjects paid tribute to the Ndebele overlords. They paid in form of cattle, grain and
sheep. Failure to pay tribute was punishable. Those who paid timeously were generally left
alone. Subjects also showed allegiance by herding the king’s cattle. They also supplied wives
and young recruits to the king. This on its own is a clear indication that the Ndebele economy
was diverse and was not only based on raiding as Eurocentrists say.
 Hunting and gathering were also done by the Ndebele. Hunting was very popular among
the Ndebele. They hunted large animals like buffaloes and even small species such as hares.
Like other pre-colonial states, the Ndebele supplemented their food by gathering. They
gathered wild fruits, mushroom and insects. This implies that the colonial myth that the
Ndebele economy was solely based on raiding has been ruled out.
 Mining was also done by the Ndebele. The Ndebele occasionally carried out some mining
activities to a limited extent. Mining was done mostly in winter, after harvest when people
did not have much work in the fields. The gold they mined was traded with the Portuguese.
They also mined iron which was mainly used for making tools. Hence the Ndebele did not
solely depend on raiding.
 The Ndebele also did craftwork. They were involved in a variety of craftwork like basketry,
weaving of cotton into cloth, pottery, wood and stone carving. They also did blacksmithing.
One must note that the Ndebele depended on the Shona for iron tools and weapons because
they were specialists in that field. Some Shona were absorbed into the Ndebele society
specifically to produce iron tools for them, for instance, the Njanja iron workers.
Colonial and post-colonial influences on African civilizations

 There are a number of environmental changes (socio-political and economic) that have
influenced African heritage and identity which include:
 slavery
 colonialism
 neo colonialism
 modernity
 technological advancement
 multiple religions
 globalization
 Slavery
 It is a condition in which individuals are owned by others, who control where they live
and what they work. A slave is a person who is the legal property of another and is
forced to obey them. The Atlantic slave trade was largely a response to the demand for
slave labour in the sugar plantations across the Atlantic Ocean. Slave trade is the
practice of trading or patterns of trading in slaves.
 The moment of sailing was traumatic. The anguish was in the mind because many West
Africans believed that Europeans were sea creatures, cannibals from the land of the dead
whose black shoe-leather was from African skin, whose red wine was African blood, and
whose gunpowder was from burnt and ground African bones. The most affected areas
include Senegambia, the Upper Guinea Coast, Sierra Leone, Gold Coast, Volta River
Basin up to Benin and Cameroon up to Angola, Niger Delta and Yoruba land.
 Similar fears existed in Mozambique and among those exposed to the Saharan slave
trade. The atmosphere in the slave quarters between decks was disgusting, sometimes
there was no light the ship crew were at times very brutal. Water to drink was a scarce
resource- limited to about one litre per day.
 Angola suffered severely during slave trade. There is evidence of depopulation.
 The slave trade led to the de-population and under-development of the continent.
The most productive age group estimated to the tune of between 15 to 30 million
people, were exported to the Americas, Europe and Asia. It is known that about 11
million people went to America alone. Hence, potential empire-builders and great leaders
were killed in the process, or they got permanently detached from their continent from
which they were capable of making lasting contribution.
 A.G. Hopkins (1973:122) is of the view that “two thirds of the s laves exported were
males. It is possible that their removal might have affected female occupational roles
.This might have affected the population growth rate”
 The massive loss to the African labour force was made more critical because it was
composed of able-bodied young men and young women. Slave buyers preferred their
victims between the ages of 15 and 35, and preferably in the early twenties; the sex ratio
being about two men to one woman.
 The slave trade brought misery, suffering and lowered the living standards of people in
East Africa. Africans were reduced to commodities which could be bought and sold for
money.
 Normal economic activities such as farming, were severely disrupted. This is
because the young and able craftsmen, traders and farmers were carried away into
slavery, causing economic stagnation as the normal workforce was either depleted or
decimated. Equally, there was a decline in the production of traditional goods such
as coffee, beans, bark cloth and iron, which greatly hindered the cash economy.
African industries either collapsed or declined due to competition from the cheap
manufactured goods from Europe.
 Given the fact that the majority of slaves were captured through war, raids and tribute.
Millions of Africans died in the process while they fought for freedom. Slave gathering
expeditions were disruptive of the day to day running of African cities.
 Slave traders offered African middleman manufactured items such as cloth, armaments,
guns and gunpowder, spirits and tobacco . These goods are better described as shoddy,
useless consumables or “assorted rubbish” to use Walter Rodney’ (1972) phrase. Most of
the goods were rejects of Europe, second hand goods or even intended to cause harm and
chaos among African societies especially spirits and guns.
*Guns --for promoting warfare and killing each other. The policy is pursued up to this
day where the divide and rule tactic is employed.
*Spirits --to cause moral and social decay (African values as a form of identity were lost).
 When slave trade was abolished it had left a dependency syndrome, divisions and chaos
on African administrations.
 Asante became crippled economically. The abolition of the slave trade and its
replacement by legitimate trade created serious problems of political and economic
control of Asante. The state found it difficult to make a transition to legitimate trade.
 Dahomey was a warrior state which used war to capture slaves, with a deep-seated
military ethos which involved a disdain for agriculture. Re-orienting Dahomey’s
overseas commerce from slaves to agricultural produce therefore implied the
undermining of this traditional militarism. Gezo, Dahomey leader protested to a
British mission which demanded the ending of the slave trade in 1850: ‘I cannot send
my women to cultivate the soil, it would kill them’ Gezo the former leader of
Dahomey had complied with abolition in favor of legitimate trade but later his
successor Glele revived slave trade. Those who had supported Gezo’s policies now
formed a dissident group within Dahomey. Opposition to Glele was especially strong
in the coastal town of Whydah, which was most committed to the trade in palm oil.
Summary of the negative impact of slavery on African heritage and identity
Social Economic Political

 Black people seized  Abolition of slavery  Chiefs sold their own
To be people, they crippled economies of subjects to slavery.
were seen as property some states due to Some chiefs became
 They had no social dependency syndrome e.g puppets of Europeans.
rights, could not even control they Asante  Disruption of internal
population. They had to “breed  Able bodied people were administration of
for their masters profit. lost African states.
 Lost their religion  Economic activities of  Division in opinion
 Denied dignity most states were disrupted within some states.eg.
 Separation from their families  Africans received cheap Dahomey.
 Ethnic fragmentation goods in return  Slavery products like
 Loss of ethnic identity/ personal guns brought war fare
identity as they were given among Africans
Christian/ European names/ their  Europeans promoted
masters surnames divide and rule among
 Constant fear and general lack of Africans. African rulers
self-esteem among people. who obtained guns
 Alcohol promoted moral decay became more powerful
and could capture more
slave too.
 However some few positives might be deduced out this practice of slavery on Africans.
 The rise of African merchants. Abolition of slave trade led to development of legitimate
trade.
 Slaves could rise to high positions if they displayed initiative with skill, and ability, for
example, Jaja of Opobo was formerly a slave from the state of Bonny and was able to set
up his own state ( Opobo) in the 1860s.
 Colonialism
 It is the direct and overall domination of one country by another on the basis of state
power being in the hands of a foreign power (For example, the direct and overall
domination of Zimbabwe by Britain between 12/09/1890-18/04/1980).
 The first objective of colonialism is political domination. Its second objective is to make
possible the exploitation of the colonized country
The social, political and economic impact of colonialism on African heritage and identity
 Under-development of African territories- The colonial education was not rooted in
African culture and therefore could not foster any meaningful development within the
African environment because it had no organic linkage. Furthermore, colonial education
was essentially literary; it had no technological base and therefore antithetical to real
or industrial development. The poor technological base of most of the present
day African states, which has been responsible for their underdevelopment stems from
their poor foundation of education laid by the colonialists. Colonial education
essentially aimed at training clerks, interpreters, produce inspectors, artisans, etc., which
would help them in the exploitation of the Africa’s rich resources. Colonial education did
not aim at industrialization of African territories or at stimulating technological
development within the African environment. Before fully embracing colonial education,
Africans were good technologists, advancing at their own rates with the resources within
their environment. For example, Africans were good sculptors, carvers (like at Great
Zimbabwe), cloth weavers (like at Kush), miners (like in Mutapa, Rozvi), blacksmiths
(like at Kongo), etc. They were able to provide and satisfy the technological
need of the various African societies. The introduction of colonial education made
Africans to abandon their indigenous technological skills and education in preference to
one which mainly emphasizes reading and writing (Africans lost their educational
identity). This was the prelude or foundation for the present poor technological base of
African states which has perpetuated their underdevelopment.
 Disarticulation(disjoint) of African economy-There was disarticulation in production of
goods, markets, traders, transport, provision of social amenities and pattern of
urbanization etc. the colonialists introduced a pattern of international division of labour
which was to the disadvantage of Africans. They assigned to Africa the role of
production of raw materials and primary products for use by their industries at home.
Africans were not allowed nor encouraged to go into manufacturing. The only industries
Africans were encouraged to build were those that would facilitate in the processing of
the raw materials for export. The African raw materials were bought at a very low price
while manufactured goods from abroad were sold at expensive price. This situation
accounted for the impoverishment of most Africans.
 As early as 1894, Africans began to lose their land. After the first Chimurenga in
Zimbabwe, the whites began to alienate African land, but had no legal rights to do so,
except on the basis that they had conquered the blacks. Reserves were created for the
black settlement, which were poor, tsetse infested and prone to drought. Many people
were pushed into newly created reserves, and by 1912 those blacks who still lived on
land outside the reserves were slapped with extra taxes, for example, grazing fees’ for
their livestock. This drove many blacks to reserves most of which were far from
railway transport and road networks. Phimister and Proctor (1991) confirm that by the
early 1920s, nearly 65% of the black population in Southern Rhodesia lived in the
reserves. The following policies were meant alienate Africans from their economic
activities in Zimbabwe:
 The 1925 Morris Carter Commission-divided the whole country into agro-zones
based on rainfall patterns – from region 1 to the lowest region 5. Africans were
relocated to regions 4 and 5.
 The 1930 Land Apportionment Act-Africans were completely stopped from
acquiring land in areas completely considered to be European. This Act reserved
some land for forests yet blacks did not have enough land. Afigbo argued that
aided by cheap labour, loans and scientific assistance, commercial farming by
whites of maize and tobacco became profitable. The whites had advantages of
cheap land, nearness to main roads, railways, markets, loans to buy machinery
and were paid much higher prices for their crops and livestock than African
farmers. There was overstocking and overpopulation in reserves. This created
serious problems in soil conservation. Overstocking and overpopulation resulted
in serious soil erosion hence reducing agricultural productivity in all African
reserves.
 The 1934 Cattle Levy Act-whites paid less at the market for cattle bought from
blacks. The government paid more to whites for their cattle. This system
impoverished the blacks who were being affected by this fraudulent commercial
arrangement.
 The 1935 Maize Control Act-There were two grades of maize; A grade was for
whites and B grade for blacks. A grade fetched a higher price while B grade
fetched a lower price. Thus there was discrimination at the market. The whites
also paid less for maize they bought from the Africans.
 The 1951 Native Land Husbandry Act-Africans were accused of inefficiency in
management of natural resources especially land. The Native Commissioner was
given power to control stock [number of cattle, goats and sheep] an individual
could have. The commissioner could stipulate a safe maximum number of cattle
in his area and excess cattle were destocked [sold forcibly at low prices]. Africans
were forced to possess grazing permits as a way of controlling stock.
 The 1969 Land Tenure Act-This replaced the 1930 LAA but it further divided
land into three categories. European land was 45 000000 acres, that is, 46, 6% of
the total land and African land was 45 000000 acres, that is, 46, 6%. The
remainder, 6 500000, that is, 6, 7% became national land.
 The Ndebele lost 80% of their cattle. According to T O Ranger, before the 1893-4 war,
the Ndebele had 250000 cattle but after the war, they were left with only 40930 cattle.
 According to D N Beach, forced labour and cattle raiding [in the name of taxation]
were the most unpleasant pressures of colonial rule, severe enough to lead many into
the First Chimurenga.
 Compound system created by colonialists impacted African economies and their
identity. Raftopoulous and Phimister argue that the compounds were closely
monitored to ensure continuous labour supplies to colonialists. A compound was like a
prison because married workers lived far away from their wives. Letters from and to
workers were read by management. Workers were frequently beaten for failing to
work hard or for any resistance which the management saw.
 Intensified tribalism and ethnicity within the African colonies-These were strategies
introduced by the colonialists in order to perpetuate or prolong their rule and domination
of African territories. An example is the British colonial policy of “Divide and Rule” in
Nigeria. Belgians favored the minority Tutsi over the majority Hutu in Rwanda which
exacerbated the tendency of the few to oppress the many, creating a legacy of tension that
exploded into violence even before Rwanda gained its independence.
 British also sided with the Shona against the Ndebele. For instance in the Bere
incident [June 1893], Lobengula wanted to teach the Shona a lesson for stealing of
his cattle but the punitive exercise disrupted the whites’ economic activities
[mining and farming] and this did not go down well with the BSAC which
regarded Victoria and Mashonaland as part of their jurisdiction and the Shona as
their subjects. The Shona had gone to seek refuge in white areas, that is, in
Victoria. Oftenly the British sided with the Shona against the Ndebele which
intensified tribalism.
 Poor demarcation of the territories in Africa left border disputes and wars e.g
conflict between Mali and Burkina Faso over the Agacher strip as well as Nigeria
and Cameroon over the Bakassi peninsular
 Disruption of African religious belief system- colonialists intended to make themselves
superior over African by using a whiteman’s image to represent God. Polygamy was
disrupted by the coming of Christianity, a religion which they used to manipulate the
African mind into accepting their hideous agenda
FURTHER READING: Letter from King Leopold II to Colonial Missionaries Heading to
Africa, 1883
 Below is a letter written in 1883 by King Leopold II of Belgium to Belgian Christian
missionaries being sent to Congo. These Christian missionaries would eventually become
the spearhead of Belgian colonialism only to be followed by Belgian traders and lastly
the Belgian army.
Reverends, Fathers and Dear Compatriots:
The task that is given to fulfill is very delicate and requires much tact. You will go
certainly to evangelize, but your evangelization must inspire above all Belgium interests.
Your principal objective in our mission in the Congo is never to teach the niggers to
know God, this they know already. They speak and submit to a Mungu, one Nzambi, one
Nzakomba, and what else I don’t know.
They know that to kill, to sleep with someone else’s wife, to lie and to insult is bad. Have
courage to admit it; you are not going to teach them what they know already. Your
essential role is to facilitate the task of administrators and industrials, which means you
will go to interpret the gospel in the way it will be the best to protect your interests in that
part of the world. For these things, you have to keep watch on dis-interesting our savages
from the richness that is plenty [in their underground. To avoid that, they get interested in
it, and make you murderous] competition and dream one day to overthrow you.
Your knowledge of the gospel will allow you to find texts ordering, and encouraging
your followers to love poverty, like “Happier are the poor because they will inherit the
heaven” and, “It’s very difficult for the rich to enter the kingdom of God.” You have to
detach from them and make them disrespect everything which gives courage to affront
us. I make reference to their Mystic System and their war fetish – warfare protection –
which they pretend not to want to abandon, and you must do everything in your power to
make it disappear.
Your action will be directed essentially to the younger ones, for they won’t revolt when
the recommendation of the priest is contradictory to their parent’s teachings. The children
have to learn to obey what the missionary recommends, who is the father of their soul.
You must singularly insist on their total submission and obedience, avoid developing the
spirit in the schools, teach students to read and not to reason.
There, dear patriots, are some of the principles that you must apply. You will find many
other books, which will be given to you at the end of this conference. Evangelize the
niggers so that they stay forever in submission to the White colonialists, so they never
revolt against the restraints they are undergoing. Recite every day – “Happy are those
who are weeping because the kingdom of God is for them.”
Convert always the Blacks by using the whip. Keep their women in nine months of
submission to work freely for us. Force them to pay you in sign of recognition-goats,
chicken or eggs-every time you visit their villages. And make sure that niggers never
become rich. Sing every day that it’s impossible for the rich to enter heaven. Make them
pay tax each week at Sunday mass.
Use the money supposed for the poor, to build flourishing business centres. Institute a
confessional system, which allows you to be good detectives denouncing any Black that
has a different consciousness contrary to that of the decision-maker.
Teach the niggers to forget their heroes and to adore only ours. Never present a chair to a
Black that comes to visit you. Don’t give him more than one cigarette.
Never invite him for dinner even if he gives you a chicken every time you arrive at his
house.
“The above speech which shows the real intention of the Christian missionary journey in
Africa was exposed to the world by Mr. Moukouani Muikwani Bukoko, born in the
Congo in 1915, and who in 1935 while working in the Congo, bought a second hand
Bible from a Belgian priest who forgot the speech in the Bible. – Dr. Chiedozie Okoro
Source: http://www.uu.se/digitalAssets/9/9594_DemaretAll.pdf
 Disempowerment of African politics- To be specific, it must be noted that colonialism
crushed by force the surviving feudal states of North Africa; that the French wiped out
the large Muslim states of the Western Sudan, as well as Dahomey and kingdoms in
Madagascar; that the British eliminated Egypt, the Mahdist Sudan, Asante, Benin, the
Yoruba kingdoms. Swaziland, Matabeleland, the Lozi and the East African Lake
kingdoms as great states. It should further be noted that a multiplicity of smaller and
growing states were removed from the face of Africa by the Belgians, Portuguese,
British, French, Germans, Spaniards and Italians. Finally, those that appeared to
survive were nothing but puppet creations. For instance, the Sultan of Morocco retained
nominal existence under colonial rule which started in 1912; and the same applied to the
Bey of Tunis; but Morocco and Tunisia were just as much under the power of French
colonial administrators as neighbouring Algeria, where the feudal rulers were removed
altogether. Sometimes, the African rulers who were chosen to serve as agents of
foreign colonial rule were quite obviously nothing but puppets. The French and the
Portuguese were in the habit of choosing their own African ‘chiefs'; the British went to
Iboland and invented ‘warrant chiefs'; and all the colonial powers found it convenient to
create ‘superior’ or ‘paramount’ rulers.
Summary of the negative impact of colonialism on African heritage and identity
Social Economic Political
 African indigenous religion was  Confiscated African land  African chiefs lost
disrupted(a form of African and cattle power and
heritage and identity)  Disrupted African independence.
 Compound system stripped economic monopoly  Divide and rule
Africans of their dignity  Forced Africans into spearheaded tribalism
 Colonial education benefited slavery. and ethnic conflicts e.g.
imperialists than Africans. in Rwanda
 Discredited African knowledge
and civilization e.g. on Great
Zimbabwe issue.
 However, euro-centric views claim they built railroads, schools, hospitals and the like for
Africans. The sum total of these services was amazingly small. Walter Rodney argues that
colonialism had only one hand — it was a one-armed bandit.
 Neocolonialism
NB “Neo” means New
 Predominantly Neocolonialism has no definite definition. It has western, Asian and African
versions of the definitions. Encyclopedia Britannica, the Worldwide accepted knowledge
book where Sandra Halperin defined neocolonialism, “Neocolonialism, the control of less-
developed countries by developed countries through indirect means.”
 Basically, Neocolonialism is a process by which colonial mother country exposed exploiting
rules and regulations to her newly independent underdeveloped countries or less developing
countries for indirect dominating; the dominating can be economic and political or cultural.
Predominantly neocolonialism has noticed in economics, although this economic exploitation
is cloaked by the political and cultural exploitation.
 The term ‘neocolonialism’ was first coined by Kwame Nkrumah the former president of
the Ghana. For Kwame Nkrumah, “neocolonialism represents the final stage of imperialism.
Neocolonialism is the worst form of Imperialism: for those who practice it, it means power
without responsibility, and for those who suffer it, it is exploitation without redress”
 He goes on further to argue that neo-colonialism of today represents imperialism in its final ,
perhaps its most dangerous stage and the highest stage of capitalism. The essence of neo-
colonialism is that the State which is subject to it is, in theory, independent and has all the
outward trappings of international sovereignty. In reality its economic system and thus its
political policy is directed from outside.
 Although the decolonization of Africa had begun in 1960’s and all African countries now
independent, the colonial powers did not give those states economic independence. Hence,
Kwame Nkrumah said, the African independence was a one kind of farce. He critiqued
this capitalist system as ‘neocolonialism’.
 For Nkrumah, it is such a system by which colonial power like Britain, Germany, France and
Belgium gave the liberation to the colony in one hand but in the other hand they robbed this
liberation. He thought, without economic independence, the political independence is vain
and the absolute liberty will not come. The war of neocolonialism is greater than the
political war. Kwame Nkrumah said, ‘‘we again rededicate ourselves in the struggle to
emancipate other countries in Africa; for our independence is meaningless unless it is linked
up with the total liberation of the African continent”. This ‘meaningless independence’
referred the economic exploitation of Africa and the process was begun from the colonial
rule.
Economic impact of neocolonialism on Africa

 Economic disadvantage through Bretton Woods institutions-The World Bank and the IMF
(International Monetary Fund), jointly known as the Bretton Woods institutions, were created
in 1944 with an aim to help rebuild the economies that had been greatly affected by World
War II. The bank is governed under a board of governors, whose voting powers are based on
the members' capital subscriptions which means the members with the greatest financial
contributions have the greatest say in the Bank's decision-making process. The US
government holds 20 percent of the vote and is represented by a single Executive Director
while the 47 sub-Saharan African countries, in contrast, have two Executive Directors and
hold only seven percent of votes between them (as of 2005). It is evident early on from this
fact that the board decisions are not likely to be in favor of the poorest members which are in
Africa which leaves African countries dependent on western countries for financial
assistance. African countries who need financial assistance will get it but through some
conditions to be met ( loss of African economic sovereignty). Though Africans have attained
independence from colonial rule, they have not gained economic independence due to the
role of these Bretton Woods institutions. According to Nkrumah, this is ‘meaningless
independence’ we had as Africans.
 Increased debts by Africans-Most African countries were in debt almost as soon as they
gained independence. The agents of the former imperialist countries, the World Bank, IMF
and IFIC had taken this opportunity appropriately to bound Africa in the neocolonial iron
curtain. The WB and the IMF are lending loans to African states with hard terms and
conditions. Debt recipient African countries have to pay back with interest that was more
than that they had accepted from the agents. Because of lacking capitals, technologies and
experts the agents compels to depend fully on them. The reality is African states have no
options to be free from the imperialist curtain. The World Bank is lending loan to more than
140 countries in the world, among the countries, 41 African states are most debt recipient’s
countries in the world. The Harvard scholar Garikai Chengu elucidated African
neocolonialism in global research; he said Africans’ second liberation war is continuing
against neocolonialism. From this, it is evident that Africa’s wealth is being repatriated to the
richer countries in the west, just like it was in the colonial days, but masked under “debt
servicing”, and thus the notion of economic colonialism.
 Indirect manipulation of African economic policies-To ensure debt repayment and economic
restructuring the IMF/World Bank imposed Structural Adjustment Programs modeled on
the neo-liberal ideology that the optimal economic system is achieved by giving free
reign to market participants, privatization, free trade, and the shrinking of government
intervention in the economy. The Structural Adjustment Programs prescribed to
all African countries, regardless of unique situations can be summarized as follows:
 Privatization of government enterprises and decreased government spending;
 Liberalization of trade and lifting of import and export restrictions;
 increased interest rates;
 Market pricing and the removal of price controls and government subsidies.
All these measures have negative effects that can arguably far outweigh the intended
economic benefit. Privatization of government enterprises is meant to curb huge government
budgets and deficits, and to essentially free up money for repayment of loans. It makes
sense to privatize government enterprises that are unprofitable and non-productive.
However there are many hindering factors such as the lack of local private capital and
entrepreneurs to take over the huge corporations. This opens the gates to foreign investors
who ultimately will repatriate profits instead of reinvesting locally to promote growth.
Ultimately the result is massive layoffs and pay cuts, and increased repatriation of income.
This how this economic colonialism can be referred to as neocolonialism. In addition reduced
government expenditure robs the citizens of essential services including health and
education. Social services, such as health and education cannot be run with the aim of profit,
so privatizing them and/or reducing government spending hurts social welfare in general.
This provides a great challenge to African citizens earn a living. Liberalization of trade also
leads to dumping of cheap products from outside such as clothes, food, and stationery. This
undermines the local industries that produce or those that would have started to produce these
products. Liberalization of export of raw materials robs local industries of raw materials
which can fetch higher prices from more efficient external competitors.
 Draining of African raw materials-the best ways to drain economy from developing or under
developing countries are draining of raw-materials to imperialist country. A research on
African economy, published on 25 may 2015 in Global Research where had explained:
A rough diamond mined in Africa costs about $40 per carat, and a diamond cut and polished
in Europe increases to $400 per carat. That same stone fetches around $900 per carat when it
reaches the consumer. Africa lack the capitals and technologies hence this compels them to
depend fully on them (Europeans). Another example is Zimbabwe, which is known for
producing the best quality tobacco in the world and the year 2016 it earned $650 million
from the sale of raw tobacco. Industry experts illustrate how Zimbabwe could have earned
$6.5 billion instead of $650 million if they had processed the crop into cigarettes, rather than
exporting tobacco as a raw good. Finally, Nigeria is said to sell its crude oil for a measly $9 a
barrel, only to then import refined gasoline, diesel and kerosene made from its own oil
resources from hundreds of dollars per barrel. In line with this argument, Nkrumah claimed
“but Africa’s resources have been and still are being used for the greater development of the
overseas interest.” He further argues that some African states are compelled to sell their
primary products at prices dictated by the developed nations and buy their manufactured
goods at the prices fixed by them.
Political impact of neocolonialism on Africa

 Infiltration into African countries’ administration- most internal conflicts in Africa have
shown a hand of Europeans. In Rwanda, the Belgian hand was behind the Hutu and Tutsi war
especially supporting the minority Tutsi. In various African states, western countries have
been supporting the regime change.
 Balkanization of African territories- balkanization refer to division of a territory into smaller
mutually hostile states or groups. Countries or groups which are anti-European are excluded
in favour of pro-European ones in bilateral or multilateral relations with these European
countries. In 1961, Nkrumah explained his vision in his book, I Speak of Freedom, ‘‘divided
we are weak; united, Africa could become one of the greatest forces for good in the world.”
He further said in his Africa Must Unite (1963), the colonial powers had divided Africa by
the balkanization.
 Modernity
 It is a quality of being contemporary i.e. pertaining to current time and style.
 It is generally agreed that ‘modernity’ refers to a powerful set of cultural, political,
economic, and spatial relationships that have fundamentally influenced the nature of
social life, the economy, and the use and experience of time and space.
 It emphasizes rationality and science over tradition and myth. Rationality is the state of
being considerate and being objective. This line of philosophy opens more room for
acceptance of cultural ideas of Xenocentrism. Homosexuality and pornography being odd
to Africa as they are, they have intruded our cultural set up due to modernity. Some
African states including South Africa, Botswana and Mozambique have accepted such
modernity traits. The identity of the African has been eroded. Belief in science has led to
secularization of our African indigenous religion. The role of our indigenous medical
personals has fallen (refer to Xenocentrism for more).
 Other African traditional practices like rain asking ceremonies and ancestral veneration
has been eroded by modernity.
 Modernity is also associated with a belief in progress and improvement. This has
contributed to the concept of urbanization(refer to notes influences to norms and values)
 Confidence in human mastery over nature; a focus on humanism, individuality, and self-
consciousness; a close association to the birth and development of market capitalism are
also concepts of modernity.
 Extended family giving way to nuclear family. Traditional African family values
breaking down very rapidly. Extended family that was wonderful instrument like a social
verve, social security in our community has given way to nuclear family. Little wonder
that there is no more respect for age; no more respect for values that we held sacrosanct
in Africa; younger ones now find it very difficult to greet elderly ones. This has affected
norms and values of Africans which are a form of their identity.
 Technological advancement
 Advancements in the use information communication technologies (ICTs) has affected

African heritage and identity (refer to influences to Zimbabwean norms and values).
 Multiple religions
 Existence of numerous religions in Africa has undermined its heritage and religion as a
form of identity.
 Christianity- The impact of Christianity has to be considered, for this has been the most
important single factor in the process of Westernization in Africa. Western education,
involving literacy and the mastery of a European language, became the condition for entry
into the modern sector. For most of the colonial period, education was in the hands of the
Christian missions, who sought not only to convert Africans but also to inculcate Western
values. Christianity challenged traditional belief systems and promoted the diffusion of
new ideas and modes of life; in particular, it sought to impose monogamy and the nuclear
family as the norm. The day of rest is not always in line with that of African religion.
Ancestral spirits are regarded as evil spirits.
 Islam- it teaches that God is one and no one partakes of his divinity. God beget not, neither
is he begotten (difference with Christianity on Jesus). This further confuses Africans as
these two religions are both contradictory on their own as well as with African indigenous
religion. Africans worshipped God through ancestors yet in Islam Allah cannot be
worshipped through any other beings neither is he in the form of Holy spirit or the
son(Jesus) as with Christianity. Such contradictions has also manifested in overt conflicts
like for instance in Nigeria where the Boko Haram Islamic Jihadist group in the north
accuses the government of siding with Christians in the southern part of Nigeria. This has
affected the religious fabric of Africa and its form of identity.
 Globalization (refer to notes on impact of globalization on norms and values)
TOPIC 4: NATURAL HERITAGE IN ZIMBABWE
 UNESCO, Convention Concerning the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural
Heritage, 1972, defines Natural heritage as natural features, geological and physiographical
formations and delineated areas that constitute the habitat of threatened species of animals
and plants and natural sites of value from the point of view of science, conservation or
natural beauty. It includes nature parks and reserves, zoos, aquaria and botanical gardens.
 Natural heritage also refers to the sum total of the elements of biodiversity, including flora
and fauna, ecosystems and geological structures.
 Heritage is that which is inherited from past generations, maintained in the present, and
bestowed to future generations. The term "natural heritage", derived from "natural
inheritance", pre-dates the term "biodiversity."
Forms of natural heritage in the local community and at national level
 Biodiversity
 Biodiversity is the variety of different forms of life on earth, including the different plants,
animals, micro-organisms, the genes they contain and the ecosystem they form. Ecosystem
refer to the collection of all living organisms in a geographic area, together with all the living
and non-living things with which they interact.
· Acquatic Ecosystems (water-based) ecosystems
· Terrestral Ecosystems (land-based) ecosystems.
 It refers to genetic variation, ecosystem variation, species variation (number of species)
within an area, biome or planet.
 Relative to the range of habitats, biotic communities and ecological processes in the
biosphere, biodiversity is vital in a number of ways including promoting the aesthetic value
of the natural environment, contribution to our material well-being through utilitarian values
by providing food, fodder, fuel, timber and medicine. Biodiversity is the life support system.
Interrelationship among plants, animals and aquatic life
 Animals depend on plants for the air to breathe, the food to eat, and sometimes water to
drink.
 Trees and plants reduce global warming by absorbing carbon which is dangerous for animal
life and aquatic life.
 Animals provide manure to the plants as well as carbon dioxide for photosynthesis
 Some animal waste feed fish and the fish waste is used in aquaculture to feed plants
 Sometimes plants may be a danger to aquatic life (various living species found in water).
Eutrophication (growth of water algae) has proved a challenge in most water bodies of
Zimbabwe. e.g. has led to the death of fish in lake Chivero. Algae takes away oxygen in
water thereby depriving fish the necessary air.
 Biodiversity is important to humans for many reasons. Biodiversity is also considered by
many to have intrinsic value—that is, each species has a value and a right to exist, whether or
not it is known to have value to humans.
 Economic—biodiversity provides humans with raw materials for consumption and
production. Many livelihoods, such as those of farmers, fishers and timber workers, are
dependent on biodiversity.
 Ecological life support—biodiversity provides functioning ecosystems that supply oxygen,
clean air and water, pollination of plants, pest control, wastewater treatment and
many ecosystem services.
 Recreation—many recreational pursuits rely on our unique biodiversity, such as
birdwatching, hiking, camping and fishing. Our tourism industry also depends
on biodiversity.
 Cultural—the Zimbabwean culture is closely connected to biodiversity through the
expression of identity, through spirituality and through aesthetic appreciation. Indigenous
Zimbabweans have strong connections and obligations to biodiversity arising from spiritual
beliefs about animals and plants.
 Scientific—biodiversity represents a wealth of systematic ecological data that help us to
understand the natural world and its origins.
Measures of biodiversity conservation
 Reforestation
 zoological gardens
 botanical gardens,
 National parks, biosphere reserves,
 Adoption of breeding techniques
 Criminalizing poaching etc.
 Geodiversity
 Geodiversity refers to the variety of the geological and physical elements of nature, such as
minerals, rocks, soils, fossils and landforms, and active geological and geomorphological
processes. Together with biodiversity, geodiversity constitutes the natural diversity of planet
Earth.
Measures to conserve minerals resources
 Use of minerals in a planned and sustainable manner, recycling of metals.

 Use of alternative renewable substitutes.
 Improvising the technology so that low-grade ores can be used profitably.
 By re-using, recuperating, and recycling methods, materials can be manufactured from
minerals, and by replacing other materials as well
 People can conserve mineral resources by utilizing renewable resources. For example, using
hydroelectricity and solar power as sources of energy may conserve mineral resources such
as coal.
 Mineral resources may also be conserved through recycling. A good example is recycling of
scrap metal.
 One should make use of new technological methods of mining. Training of miners can be
very helpful in conserving mineral resources by ensuring minimal wastage during the
mining. For e.g. minerals include iron, oil, copper, salt, gold and lead.
 Substitution, one of the important way to conserve some minerals. One can substitute
plentiful resources for scarce ones. Mineral resources that require a small amount of power
during refining, such as aluminum, should be recycled.
Soil erosion causes
 Soil erosion is one form of soil degradation along with soil compaction, low organic matter,
loss of soil structure, poor internal drainage, salinization, and soil acidity problems.
 The agents of soil erosion are water and wind, each contributing a significant amount of soil
loss.
Erosion by Water- Both rainfall and runoff factors must be considered in assessing a water
erosion problem. The impact of raindrops on the soil surface can break down soil aggregates
and disperse the aggregate material.
 Naturally the steeper the slope of a field, the greater the amount of soil loss from erosion
by water.
 Soil erosion potential is increased if the soil has no or very little vegetative cover of plants
and/or crop residues. Plant and residue cover protects the soil from raindrop impact and
splash, tends to slow down the movement of surface runoff and allows excess surface
water to infiltrate.
Erosion by Wind- Very fine particles can be suspended by the wind and then transported great
distances. Fine and medium size particles can be lifted and deposited, while coarse particles
can be blown along the surface (commonly known as the saltation effect). The abrasion that
results can reduce soil particle size and further increase the soil erodibility.
 Soil moisture levels can be very low at the surface of excessively drained soils or
during periods of drought, thus releasing the particles for transport by wind.
 The lack of windbreaks (trees, shrubs, residue, etc.) allows the wind to put soil
particles into motion for greater distances thus increasing the abrasion and soil erosion.
 The lack of permanent vegetation cover in certain locations has resulted in extensive
erosion by wind.
Soil Erosion effects
 Decrease in general yield and loss of yield quality through the loss of natural nutrients and
applied fertilizers in the soil. Subsequently, market value is lost.
 Loss of fine sand, silt, clay and organic particles from sandy soils serves to lower the
moisture holding capacity of the soil. This, in turn, increases the erodibility of the soil and
compounds the problem. Soil quality, structure, stability and texture can be affected by the
loss of soil.
 Eroded soil, deposited down slope can inhibit or delay the emergence of seeds, bury small
seedling and necessitate replanting in the affected areas.
 Sediment can be deposited on down slope properties and can contribute to road damage.
 Siltation of dams and rivers, cover fish spawning grounds and reduce downstream water
quality.
 Gully formation reduces land sizes and productive farmland
 The undermining of structures such as bridges
 Eutrophication of the water bodies thereby affecting aquatic life. Organic matter from the
soil, residues and any applied manure, is relatively lightweight and can be readily transported
off the field to rivers leading to growth of algae.
 Pesticides may also be carried off the site with the eroded soil leading to intoxication of
water.
Measures of soil conservation and erosion effects reduction
 Soil conservation is the prevention of loss of the top most layer of the soil from erosion or
prevention of reduced fertility caused by over usage, acidification, salinization or other
chemical soil contamination.
 Techniques for improved soil conservation include:
 crop rotation
 conservation tillage
 windbreaks
 Slash-and-burn
 Contour ridges
 Terracing
 Gully reclamation
 Increasing ground cover
 Awareness campaigns
Significance of natural heritage
 Social
 It offers educational role. Domboshava Hills and caves encompass an interpretive Centre,
San rock art, geological formations, and wooded vegetation which are educational in
areas of history. Chinhoyi caves also encompass geological limestone features like
stalagmites and stalactites which are educational in geomorphological studies.
 Offers historical value-Matopo Hills provide historical value because they were a
Ndebele stronghold in the 1800‘s and were the site of the second Ndebele war. The great
colonialist Cecil John Rhodes is buried in the area as well.
 It prompts environmental preservation-Taboos surrounding some forests, rivers and
mountains make people treat the natural environment with utmost respect and fear of
spiritual reprimand.
 A source of health lifestyle in communities-Nyanyadzi and Binga Hot Springs are
mythically believed to cure skin diseases, remove spots and wrinkles from ones face.
Without water, communities struggle.
 Economic
 Spearheads Heritage Tourism-In Zimbabwe, various Natural heritage sites attract tourists.
For instance as of 2017, at Victoria Falls locals paid US$7 and foreign tourists paid US$30.
 Spearheads entrepreneurship-Making traditional ceremonial tools from tree and animal
products like mbira (thump piano), Drums, Saxophones make individuals earn a living.
 Improve human livelihoods- water and soil enables agriculture, animals are a source of food
to individuals.
 Offers reliable economic cushioning- exportation of minerals like gold and diamond help
Zimbabwe’s economy stabilize even in times of general economic decline. Minerals occur
naturally hence they are reliable although exhaustible.
 Political
 Can be used as a nation’s symbol. The Hungwe bird is the national symbol in Zimbabwe.
The coat of arms is decorated with various aspects of natural heritage (name them)
 Demarcation of a nation’s boundaries. Zimbabwe is bordered with other countries using
various natural heritage aspects. E.g. the mountains on the Mozambique border, the Limpopo
river on the South African border. In Zimbabwe, various provinces are also divided using
such features.
 Naming of Zimbabwe as country- Zimbabwe means a house of stones. The name gives
testimony to geodiversity in the country
 A sign of Zimbabwe’s sovereignty- our land is our sovereignty, it is a sign that Zimbabwe is
independent. We are the sons and daughters of the Zimbabwean soil.
 Religious
 Sacrificial worship- some mountains and hills are crucial for performing rituals. Njelele
Shrine regulates the country’s spiritual affairs.
 Fosters social responsibility and good citizenship-sacred phenomena govern human
behaviour through various taboos. Over harvesting of wild fruits is controlled by nature in
some sacred forests. For fear of disappearing people do not mistreat these sacred natural
phenomena. Totemic animals are treated with great veneration.
 Link the ancestors and living-Land is sacred because it bears the remains of the ancestors
particularly in the form of graves of the chiefs. Shona religion is based on the grave. In the
central rituals of ‘kumutsa midzimu’ (rituals in honour of ancestors) the point of entry is the
grave. In other rituals libations are poured on the ground (land). In the land is also buried the
umbilical cord (rukuvhute) of people. It is the abode (residence or resting place) of the dead.
When counting members of the family the Shona always include ‘varipasi’ (those who in
underworld). According to Taringa, the Shona share with most Africans the belief that land is
sacred among. It is ancestral land. Prof G. Chavhunduka argue that, ‘’ancestors occupy a
central position in our African religion largely because of their ownership of land and their
relationship to God. Ownership of land forms the main link between politics, religion, and
spirituality in Zimbabwe.’’
 A form of identity- totemic animals are crucial in as far as enhancing human identity is
concerned. In most Shona societies, people prefer to being addressed with their totems. There
is also regulation of marriage issues.
 However, natural heritage alone without cultural heritage may not be fully utilized. Land
is preserved through various cultural elements like oral narratives. Taboos as elements of
cultural heritage are also crucial is preservation of rivers, forests etc.
Impact of colonialism on natural heritage in Zimbabwe
 Positive impact
 Creation of national boundaries

 Conservation farming e.g. The Land Husbandry Act
 Construction of water reserves e.g. Kariba dam 1956-1959 during the Federation of Rhodesia
and Nyasaland
 Division of the country into agro zones under the Land Apportionment Act
 Creation national parks e.g. Gonarezhou in 1975, Wankie (hwange) in 1930
 Negative impact
 Unequal distribution of land e.g. The Land apportionment Act which led to depletion of the
resources in the reserves
 Creation of “state forests” in 1936-41 increased resource depletion and land degradation as
people were now poaching the trees.
 Loss of cattle through Land Husbandry Act. Destocking decreased the national head
 Depletion of minerals through large company mining e.g. Rhodes’ De Beers Diamond
Company. Africans mined on small scale since they lacked equipment.
Threats and challenges on preservation and conservation of natural heritage
 Frequent droughts. This lead to death of animals, drying up of water bodies

 Climate change. Some animal and tree species are disappearing
 Poaching of rhino and elephant tasks
 Deforestation through veld fires, firewood demand. This increases greenhouse gases leading
to greenhouse effect.
 Urbanization takes away land for game reserves. Industries produced Chlorofluorocarbons
(CFCs) that destroy ozone layer. Sewage disposal into rivers increase shortage of clean water
for human and aquatic life. tarred surfaces reduced infiltration of rain water
 Illegal small scale mining. Use of mercury contaminates water and may also increase
mercury intake by humans through fish. Alluvial mining contaminates drinking water
 Use of pesticides, herbicides and fertilizers increase eutrophication
 Corruption in preservation of resources. Poaching often go unpunished at times.
Legislation governing management of natural heritage
A. EMA Act
 This Act may be cited as the Environmental Management Act [Chapter 20:27].
 The Act protects the environment through this way:
 Prevent pollution and environmental degradation; and secure ecologically sustainable
management and use of natural resources while promoting justifiable economic and social
development.(PART II)
 General functions of Minister
(1) Subject to this Act, it shall be the duty of the Minister
(a) to regulate the management of the environment and to promote, co-ordinate and
monitor the protection of the environment and the control of pollution; and
(b) to regulate the activities of all government agencies and other agencies to the extent
that their activities impact on the environment; and
(c) to lay before Parliament a report on the state of the environment at the end of every
period of five years; and
(d) to monitor the environment and trends in the utilization of natural resources and the
impact of such utilization on the environment or any segment thereof; and
(e) to co-ordinate the promotion of public awareness and education on environmental
management; and
(f) to impose penalties in terms of this Act on any persons who cause harm to the
environment; and
(g) to ensure that persons or institutions that are responsible for causing environmental
harm will meet the cost of remedying that harm;
 order may be issued in respect of one or more of the following
matters—
(a) requiring the construction or maintenance of soil or water conservation works;
(b) requiring the preservation or protection of the beds, banks or course of a public stream
or a source of water;
(c) prohibiting or restricting the depasturing or movement of stock;
(d) controlling water, including storm water;
(e) prohibiting or restricting the excavation or removal of clay, gravel or sand deposits,
including any overburden or topsoil;
(f) prohibiting or restricting the cultivation or use, or method of cultivation or use, of the
land;
(g) prohibiting any excavation or the erection of any building at any place which the
Minister considers to be too near a public stream or a source of water;
(h) controlling water tables and the disposal of irrigation drainage water;
(i) prohibiting or limiting the cutting, felling or destruction of or injury to any vegetation
whatsoever;
(j) requiring the removal and disposal of any chemical residue, effluent, waste or
hazardous substance;
(k) limiting the use of agricultural pesticides;
(l) reducing or minimising pollution of any kind;
(m) removing and disposing of litter or other refuse or waste from any land or premises;
(n) requiring the rehabilitation of a mining site
 Conservation of and access to biological diversity
(1) The Minister shall take such measures as may be necessary for the conservation of
biological diversity and the implementation of Zimbabwe’s obligations under the United
Nations Convention on Biological Diversity adopted in 1992, and may, in so doing
(a) identify the components of the biological diversity of Zimbabwe;
(b) determine the components of biological diversity which are threatened with extinction;
(c) prepare and maintain an inventory of the biological diversity of Zimbabwe;
(d) determine actual and potential threats to the biological diversity and devise such
measures as are necessary for preventing, removing or mitigating the effect of those
threats;
(e) devise measures for better protection and conservation of rare and endemic species of
wild fauna and flora;
(f) develop national strategies, plans and programmes for the conservation of the
biological diversity;
(g) promote the integration of conservation and sustainable use of biological diversity into
relevant sectoral policies, plans and programmes;
(h) require in writing any developer, including the Government, to integrate the
conservation and sustainable utilisation of the biological diversity in any project the
implementation of which has or is likely to have detrimental effects to the biological
diversity;
(i) protect the indigenous property rights of local communities in respect of biological
diversity;
(j) support the integration of traditional knowledge on conservation of biological diversity
with scientific knowledge;
(k) prohibit or restrict access by any person to or the exportation of any component of the
biological diversity of Zimbabwe.
(2) The Minister may, on the advice of the Board and in consultation with the responsible
Minister, take such action or measures may be necessary for the conservation of the
biological diversity of a specific locality and may, in so doing
(a) promote such land use methods as are compatible with the conservation of biological
diversity of that locality;
(b) select and manage environmental protection areas for the conservation of the various
terrestrial and aquatic ecological systems;
(c) establish and manage buffer zones near environmental protection areas;
(d) prohibit or control the importation of and introduction into the wild of exotic animal
and plant species;
(e) identify, promote and integrate traditional knowledge into the conservation and
sustainable utilisation of the biological diversity of that locality; and
(f) determine special measures for the protection of species, ecosystems and habitats faced
with extinction.
 Protection of wetlands
(1) The Minister may declare any wetland to be an ecologically sensitive area
and may impose limitations on development in or around such area.
(2) No person shall, except in accordance with the express written authorization of the
Agency, given in consultation with the Board and the Minister responsible for water
resources 
(a) reclaim or drain any wetland;
(b) disturb any wetland by drilling or tunneling in a manner that has or is likely to have
an adverse impact on any wetland or adversely affect any animal or plant life therein;
(c) introduce any exotic animal or plant species into the wetland.
(3) Any person who contravenes subsection (2) shall incur a fine not exceeding level
eight or imprisonment not exceeding two years or to both such fine and such
imprisonment.
B. ZIMParks Act
 This Act may be cited as the Parks and Wild Life Act [Chapter 20:14].
 Functions of Parks and Wild Life Management Authority shall be—
(a) to control, manage and maintain national parks, botanical reserves and botanical gardens,
sanctuaries, safari areas and recreational parks.
(b) To examine and report to the Minister from time to time upon—
(i) The policy which should be adopted to give effect to the objects and purposes of this Act;
and
(ii) The conservation and utilization of the wild life resource of Zimbabwe; and
(iii) The conservation and utilization of the fish resource of Zimbabwe; and
(iv) The preservation and protection of natural landscapes, wild life and plants and the
natural ecological stability of wild life and plant communities in national parks; and
(v) the preservation and protection of rare or endangered plant communities growing
naturally in the wild in botanical reserves; and
(vi) the propagation and cultivation of exotic and indigenous plants in botanical gardens; and
(vii) the protection of animals or particular species of animals in sanctuaries; and
(viii) the preservation and protection of the natural habitat and wild life in safari areas and the
facilities and opportunities given to the public for camping, hunting, fishing, photography,
viewing of animals, bird watching and such other pursuits that may be permitted therein in
terms of this Act; and
(ix) the preservation and protection of the natural features of recreational parks; and
(x) plans for the development of national parks, botanical reserves, botanical gardens,
sanctuaries, safari areas and recreational parks; taking into account in particular the
geography and geology of each area reported upon, research and management therein, the
enjoyment, education, inspiration, benefit and recreation afforded to the public thereby,
progress in implementation of land use in surrounding areas;
 Purposes of national parks and duties of Minister in relation thereto
(1) The purposes for which national parks are or may be constituted under this Act
shall be—
(a) to preserve and protect the natural landscape and scenery therein; and
(b) to preserve and protect wild life and plants and the natural ecological stability of wild life
and plant communities therein; for the enjoyment, education and inspiration of the public.
 Powers of Minister in relation to national parks
(1) the Authority shall, with the concurrence of the Minister and subject to this Act, have
power—
(a) to undertake scientific investigations within a national park; and
(b) to take or collect and remove for export or otherwise any specimen of
wild life, fish or plant from a national park; and
(c) to authorize any person—
(i) to undertake any scientific investigations within a national park; and
(ii) for the purposes of scientific investigations, to take or collect and
remove any specimen of wild life, fish or plant from a national park; and
(d) to set aside any area of a national park for special purposes; and
(e) to sell, donate or otherwise dispose of, any specimen of wild life, fish or plant taken from
a national park; and
( f ) to introduce into a national park any specimen of wild life, fish or
plant:
Provided that the Authority shall not introduce into a national park any wild life or plant
which is not indigenous to the area in which the park is situated except into a development
area set aside in terms of paragraph (k); and
(g) to do all such things and to take all such steps as it may consider necessary or desirable,
including management of the soil and plants, the construction of fireguards and the controlled
reduction of wild life and fish populations, to ensure the security of the wild life, fish and
plants within a national park and the maintenance of the wild life, fish and plants therein in a
natural state; and
(h) to authorize the removal of any wild life, fish or plants which may be captured, killed or
picked, as the case may be, as the result of any steps taken in terms of paragraph (g); and
(i) if satisfied that it will not endanger the security of the wild life, fish or plants in a national
park or the maintenance of the wild life, fish or plants therein in their natural state, and that it
is in the interests of management of facilities for visitors within the park—
(i) to construct air strips, roads, bridges, soil conservation works and water installations,
buildings, viewing platforms, harbours and fences and to carry out such other works as it may
consider necessary or desirable;
(ii) to pick plants for use within the park;
and
( j) to authorize—
(i) such measures as it may consider necessary or desirable for—
A. the prevention and control of human and animal, including domestic animal diseases; or
B. the control and limitation of quelea birds and locusts; or
C. the eradication of weeds; within a national park;
(ii) the killing or capture of any animal within a national park which is—
A. injured or sick; or
B. causing damage to property; or
C. considered to be a danger to humans
 Prohibition and regulation of certain acts in national parks
(1) Unless authorized thereto in terms of section twenty-three, no person shall—
(a) pick any plant in a national park; or
(b) hunt any wild life or take or destroy the nest thereof in a national park;
or
(c) sell—
(i) any animal or any part of an animal which has been hunted in or has died in or has been
removed from a national park; or
(ii) any fish caught in a national park; or
(iii) any plant picked in a national park; or
(d) except in terms of such regulations as may be prescribed—
(i) introduce into or convey in a national park any weapon or explosive
or any prescribed article; or
(ii) introduce into or convey or allow in a national park any animal,
including a domestic or domesticated animal; or
(iii) remove from a national park any animal or any part of an animal; or
(iv) fish in any waters in a national park or remove from the park any fish
caught in the waters of the park.
 Purposes of botanical reserves and botanical gardens and powers and duties of
Minister in relation thereto
(1) The purposes for which botanical reserves are or may be constituted in terms of
this Act shall be to preserve and protect rare or endangered indigenous plants or
representative plant communities growing naturally in the wild for the enjoyment,
education and benefit of the public.
(2) The purposes for which botanical gardens are or may be constituted in terms of
this Act shall be to propagate and cultivate exotic and indigenous plants for the
enjoyment, education and benefit of the public.
(1) No person shall—
(a) introduce any plant into a botanical reserve or a botanical garden; or
(b) pick any plant in a botanical reserve or a botanical garden;
 Purposes of sanctuaries and duties of Minister in relation thereto
(1) The purposes for which sanctuaries are or may be constituted under this Act shall be
to afford special protection to all animals or particular species of animals in the sanctuary
concerned for the enjoyment and benefit of the public.
No person shall—
(a) hunt any animal in a sanctuary; or
(b) remove any animal or any part of an animal from a sanctuary; or
(c) sell any animal or any part of an animal which has been hunted in or
has died in or has been removed from a sanctuary;
 Purposes of safari areas and powers and duties of Minister in relation thereto
(1) The purposes for which safari areas are or may be constituted under this Act shall
be to preserve and protect the natural habitat and the wild life therein in order that
facilities and opportunities may be afforded to the public for camping, hunting,
fishing, photography, viewing of animals, bird-watching or such other pursuits that
may be permitted therein in terms of this Act
The Authority, with the concurrence of the Minister, may—
(a) lease sites in a safari area to such persons and for such purposes as it
deems fit;
(b) grant hunting or other rights over or in a safari area to such persons as he deems fit
No person shall—
(a) hunt any animal in a safari area; or
(b) remove any animal or any part of an animal from a safari area; or
(c) sell any animal or any part of an animal which has been hunted in or
which has died in or which has been removed from a safari area
 Purposes of recreational parks and powers and duties of Minister in relation

thereto
The purposes for which recreational parks are or may be constituted under this
Act shall be to preserve and protect the natural features therein for the enjoyment,
benefit and recreation of the public.
 Specially protected animals
Control of hunting of specially protected animals and possession or sale of
specially protected animals and products thereof
(1) No person shall—
(a) hunt any specially protected animal; or
(b) keep, have in his possession or sell or otherwise dispose of any live
specially protected animal or the meat or trophy of any such animal
 Specially protected indigenous plants
Control of picking of specially protected indigenous plants by the need for permit to pick
specially protected indigenous plants.
Regulate sale of specially protected indigenous plants controlled
(1) No person shall sell any specially protected indigenous plant—
(a) except in terms of a permit issued to him in terms of section fifty-three; or
(b) unless he is a dealer in specially protected indigenous plants; or
(c) unless he is a member of a recognized horticultural society and the
sale is to a member of the same or any other recognized horticultural society.
(2) No person shall purchase a specially protected indigenous plant—
(a) except from a person who is the holder of a permit issued in terms of
section fifty-three; or
(b) except from a dealer in specially protected indigenous plants; or
(c) except from a stall at any fete, bazaar or other like function open to the
public; or
(d) unless he is a member of a recognized horticultural society and the
purchase is from a member of the same or any other recognized horticultural society.
C. Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora
(CITES) Convention 1973
 The Contracting States,
Recognizing that wild fauna and flora in their many beautiful and varied forms are an
irreplaceable part of the natural systems of the earth which must be protected for this and the
generations to come;
Conscious of the ever-growing value of wild fauna and flora from aesthetic, scientific,
cultural,
recreational and economic points of view;
Recognizing that peoples and States are and should be the best protectors of their own wild
fauna and flora;
Recognizing, in addition, that international co-operation is essential for the protection of
certain
species of wild fauna and flora against over-exploitation through international trade;
 The export of any specimen of a species considered endangered. “Specimen” means any
animal or plant, whether alive or dead (CITES 1973).
 An export permit shall only be granted when the following conditions have been met:
(a) A Scientific Authority of the State of export has advised that such export will not be
detrimental to the survival of that species;
(b) A Management Authority of the State of export is satisfied that the specimen was not
obtained in contravention of the laws of that State for the protection of fauna and flora;
(c) A Management Authority of the State of export is satisfied that any living specimen will
be so prepared and shipped as to minimize the risk of injury, damage to health or cruel
treatment; and
(d) A Management Authority of the State of export is satisfied that an import permit has been
granted for the specimen.
 The import of any specimen of a species considered endangered
An import permit shall only be granted when the following conditions have been met:
(a) a Scientific Authority of the State of import has advised that the import will be for
purposes which are not detrimental to the survival of the species involved;
(b) a Scientific Authority of the State of import is satisfied that the proposed recipient of a
living specimen is suitably equipped to house and care for it; and
(c) a Management Authority of the State of import is satisfied that the specimen is not to be
used for primarily commercial purposes.
D. Convention on Biological Diversity(CBD), signed in 1992 in Rio de Janeiro

 The Convention has three main goals:
• the conservation of biodiversity;
• sustainable use of the components of biodiversity; and
• sharing the benefits arising from the commercial and other utilization of genetic resources
in a fair and equitable way.
 The substantive provisions of the CBD are translated into binding commitments in
Articles 6 to 20. These articles contain key provisions on, among others: measures for
the conservation of biological diversity, both in situ and ex situ; incentives for the
conservation and sustainable use of biological diversity; research and training; public
awareness and education; assessing the impacts of projects upon biological diversity;
regulating access to genetic resources; access to and transfer of technology; and the
provision of financial resources.
 The jurisdictional scope of the CBD is stated in Article 4. Its provisions apply to
components of biological diversity within the limits of national jurisdiction of the
Parties. It also applies to processes and activities carried out under the control of
Parties both within and beyond their national jurisdictions. It calls for cooperation
between its Parties, directly or through the appropriate international organisations to
address areas beyond national jurisdictions for the conservation and sustainable use of
biodiversity.
 Under the CBD governments undertake to conserve and sustainably use biodiversity.
They are required to develop national strategies and action plans, and to integrate
these into broader strategies for the environment and development. This is particularly
important in sectors such as agriculture, fisheries, energy, forestry, transportation and
urban planning. Other treaty commitments include:
• identifying and monitoring the components of biodiversity that need to be
conserved and used sustainably;
• establishing protected areas to conserve biodiversity while promoting
environmentally sound development around these areas;
• rehabilitating and restoring degraded ecosystems and promoting the recovery
of threatened species in collaboration with local residents;
• respecting, preserving and maintaining traditional knowledge of the
sustainable use of biodiversity with the involvement of indigenous peoples and
local communities;
• preventing the introduction of, controlling, and eradicating alien species that
could threaten ecosystems, habitats or species;
• controlling the risks posed by organisms modified by biotechnology;
• promoting public participation, particularly when it comes to assessing the
environmental impacts of development projects that threaten biodiversity;
• educating people and raising awareness about the importance of biodiversity
and the need to conserve it; and
• reporting on how each country is meeting its biodiversity goals.
The indigenous knowledge systems on preserving and conserving natural heritage
 Indigenous knowledge refers to the understandings, skills and philosophies developed by
societies with long histories of interaction with their natural surroundings.
 Matsika (2012, 209-210) defines indigenous knowledge (IK) as:
‘the traditional and local knowledge that exists and is developed through the experiences of
the local community in the process of managing the conditions or context that challenge the
people’s everyday life’
 This knowledge is integral to a cultural complex that also encompasses language, systems of
classification, resource use practices, social interactions, ritual and spirituality.
 Indigenous knowledge can be called by various names such as indigenous knowledge of
knowing [Mapara, 2009], traditional knowledge, rural knowledge as well as ethno science
[Altieri,1995] Indigenous knowledge is therefore generated by a particular society within a
geographical area and transmitted from one generation to another in order to provide
solutions to the existing problems of that time.
 Indigenous knowledge is the local knowledge that is unique to a given culture or society. It is
the basis for local decision making in agriculture, health, food education and environmental
management [Warren, 1991]. It covers local, traditional, non-western beliefs, practices,
andcustoms and usually refers to informal forms of knowledge [Horsthemke, 2004].It is the
knowledge of people of a particular geographical area that has survived for a long period of
time [Langil, 1999; Mapara, 2009]. According to Kalawole [2001] and Stone [2007]
indigenous knowledge refers to what indigenous people know and do, and what they have
known and done for generations, practices that have evolved through trial and error and
proved flexible enough to cope with change. In many cases traditional knowledge has been
orally passed for generations from one person to another and this can be expressed through
stories, songs art and even laws.
 Prior to colonisation and import of western education indigenous people had education
grounded in their culture, taboos, totems and respect for ancestral spirits.
(a) Taboos
 These are moral sanctions that help in shaping a person’s unhu (virtue) in the human
community. Taboos (Zviera) are strong sanctions that discourage certain forms of human
behaviour (Tatira 2000) In Zimbabwe the use of taboos, totems and sacred places have been
used to protect and preserve the environment. Tatira [2000] observed that taboos have been
used to maintain the values and respect for life especially the endangered, small and
powerless creatures such as pythons and pangolins. Taboos have penalties for the offenders
such as failing rain if one kills a python [Chemhuru and Masaka, 2010]. The Shona also have
taboos in relation to cutting or destroying certain trees. There is a belief that all large trees
belong to the ancestral spirits. For example, Daneel found this among the Karanga Shona. He
comments, ‘Virtually all large trees (miti mikuru) were protected as they belonged to the
‘samarombo’-ancestors who were believed to dwell in tree branches.’
 Taboos which prohibit social vices or ills such as incest and bestiality (makunakuna).
These are sexual relations with animals and/or close relatives. Therefore, the violation of
such taboos can be seen as a direct provocation of ancestral spirits who are the custodian of
the moral code.
 The concept of ‘chisi’ among the Shona communities also made sure that the land had a day
of rest. For fear of angering the ancestors people could not cultivate land on such a day.
 Cleanliness of environment is ensured by taboos. For instance Ukaitira tsvina munzira,
unoita mamota kumagaro (If you excrete on the road, you develop boils on the buttocks).
i. Taboos on sacred forests and mountains

 The fear for the unknown was good enough for one not to temper with sacred forests and
other animal species. Tempering with sacred forests, taboos and totems had penalty to the
offender such as illness, death, drought and disappearance. These ensured forests, water
resources and animals were protected from destruction and extinction. Spiritual beliefs about
the environment can influence how resources are managed. Local communities conserve the
environment as they would not want to go against their beliefs [Langil, 1999]. The Shona
consider it morally wrong to cut trees in these places called ‘rambatemwa.’ Firewood and
building material is fetched from places other than these sacred places. Some forests are also
believed to be sacred. According to Mapira and Mazambara (2013), examples include:
Gonakudzingwa in Gonarezhou, Chipangai in Mwenezi , Chirinda in chipinge, Chiumbulu in
Triangle, Chiseure in Mwenezi, and Umguza in Matebeleland north. Visitors to Chiumbulu
are not allowed to divulge what they see lest they risk madness. At Chiseure, they should
avoid the use of vulgar language, gossip, plucking down fruits or using smelly soap when
bathing. They should also clap their hands before drinking water and never smile as long as
they are in the forest. Chirinda Forest is ever green due to its rainy climate. This is because
its ecosystem has not been disturbed by human activities.
 Some mountains are considered sacred. Durika in Chipinge is believed to be characterized by
mysterious sounds of drums. Nyanga, Hanyanya and Guruguru have similar reports and are
regarded as sacred by local communities. In some cases people are not allowed to climb these
mountains without conducting some rituals. In others, such as Rasa in Gutu visitors should
avoid negative language or speech. Some mountains are considered so sacred that they
should not be climbed at all. This is the case with Nyarushangwe in Chivi District, Masvingo
Province. Although these beliefs lack scientific validity, they have been instrumental in the
conservation of the mountainous environments for centuries. (Mapira and Mazambara
2013). Open access to them would have led to degradation and damage of natural ecosystems
leading to the disappearance of endangered forms of flora and fauna (Chenje and Johnson,
1994).
ii. Taboos on totems
 Animals are mostly personified in the principle of totem-animal (mutupo). This is a
religious idea around which the Shona understand their relationship to each other and the
rest of the world. A clan adopts a particular animal species as its progenitor or mutupo.
 Totemic animals have mythical and religious significance. This is why they feature in
Shona praise poetry. Animals were also protected from extinction through various respects
of totems. Each clan has got a totem belonging to an animal which the clan would not kill
and eat. It is strongly believed eating one’s totem will result in loss of teeth [Bourdilon,
1976].
 For example, during hunting operations, members of the ‘zebra’ clan would not kill zebras
as they were considered as sacred to them. The same applied to those who venerated the
buffalo, eland, lion, elephant, baboon, kudu, birds, snakes and ants. Consequently,
totemism encouraged selective rather than indiscriminate hunting thereby preserving any
endangered species from possible extinction.
iii. Taboos on water bodies

 Water bodies/wetlands are sacred because they are the abode of animals associated with
spirits. The Shona use the concept kuyera in relation with this. The closest English
translation of kuyera is abstinence. This means people should approach sacred water
bodies carefully and observe taboos. For e.g. they should not use iron buckets to draw
water from these places. They must use gourds, wooden or clay containers, which have
not been used for cooking. The guardians of wetland are animals such as the python and
njuzu (water spirits). The Shona believe that these animals keep these waters on behalf of
varipasi (underworld). Wrong doers may be drowned in the pool by these animals. Water
sources have also been kept clean and protected by adhering to taboos regarding to the use
of water [Chemhuru and Masaka, 2010]
 Ukauraya datya matenga, anotadza kunaisa mvura (If you kill a frog, heavens will fail to
bring down rain). This limit killing of aquatic life and threat to aquatic ecosystems.
 Some rivers, water bodies and natural caves are also regarded as sacred. Rivers include:
Save (Buhera), Runde (Mwenezi), Mvumvumvu (Chimanimani), Musirizwi (Chipinge)
and Musairezi (Shurugwi). Water bodies such as: Lake Kariba (Zambezi River), Lake
Chivero (near Harare), Manjerenje Dam (Chiredzi) and Lake Mutirikwi (Masvingo) are
also believed to be sacred as they are associated with mermaids. People who violate their
taboos risk mysterious disappearance into the water bodies. Consequently these natural
resources have to be treated with great caution and respect, a fact which accounts for their
preservation. Waterfalls, which are regarded as sacred in Zimbabwe are: Victoria
(Zambezi River), Bridal Veil (Chimanimani) and Chizindima (Chipinge) (Mapira and
Mazambara 2013)..
(b) Traditional leaders’ authority

 The chief is respected because of his connection with sovereignty over land (nyika). Land is
sacred because it bears the remains of the ancestors particularly in the form of graves of the
chiefs. Shona religion is based on the grave. In the central rituals of ‘kumutsa midzimu’
(rituals in honour of ancestors) the point of entry is the grave. Primarily it is the chiefdom
that stands in special relations to the land. It is the land bequeathed (handed down) to chief
by the ancestors.
 In land management the chief also ensures that people follow certain taboos in relation
to land and the natural environment. For example, there is a taboo that forbids
commoners to eat the flesh of an ant bear because it burrows the land. But the ant bear is
a delicacy of the chief.
 Further the chief also authorizes through ritual the gathering of wild fruits in forests regarded
as sacred. Chiefs also prohibits the cutting of certain trees and the hunting of certain animals
and the pollution of certain water bodies.
 For the Shona people land has primarily a value linked to a tribe, its chief and the spirits of
their ancestors. Overall the chief is sacred. His authority is linked to the land and the spirits
that own it. This is why in Shona the chief (mambo) is called ‘owner of the land’ (muridzi
we nyika). Nyika is the Shona name commonly used for land.
 A chief may ask for a fine. This can be a sacrificial goat, sheep or cow for conciliatory ritual
with the ancestors in case of violation of taboos like chisi.
 Chiefs also divide land for various purposes which was beneficial for its preservation.
 Arable land (minda)
 Grazing land (mafuro), and
 Un-inhabited forests (masango).
(c) Myths
 A myth is a traditional story which embodies a belief regarding some fact or phenomenon
of experience, and in which often the forces of nature and of the soul are personified. Some
examples of myths that protect the environment are:
 The belief that there are trees which can-not be used as firewood. Some plant species such
as muzhanje and mutohwe were not used for fire arguing that it would cause a lot of smoke
yet the idea was that these were fruit trees not to be destroyed [Duri and Mapara, 2007].
 Harvesting of fruits in sacred forests
 Use of objects which do not go on fire when fetching water.
 Not cutting down Mutiusinazita (the nameless tree)
 The bad omen (munyama) myth. The Shona associate other animals that are not totemic
animals such as the owl, tortoise, tsukukuviri (a snake with two heads) with bad omen.
Killing such animals is believed to be bad omen because the Shona believe these animals
to be familiars that witches use.
 Eating totemic animals
 The Guruuswa myth.
 According to this story Mwari traveled with his people from Guruuswa and provided the
with food miraculously through a tree known as Mutiusinazita (the nameless tree).The
Karanga elders narrate that they were following the voice (izwi) of Zame/Mwari which was
heard through grasses, trees, rocks and birds. Through the guidance of the voice the
karanga people conquered their enemy as well as avoid dangerous routes until they reached
Great Zimbabwe where the voice of Mwari was consulted. Finally, the voice of Zame left
Great Zimbabwe and settled at Mabweadziva popularly known as Matonjeni in the Matopo
hills. According to the Karanga elders the voice of Zame can be still heard at this sacred
shrine today (Aschwanden, 1982).
 The story explains how the Mwari cult originates as well as the emergence of the
sacredness of the Matopos shrine. In this case the Karanga people through this myth can
explain that Zame is the God of cosmos and is mainly associated with rain. However he is
not a fertility God but he is in charge of all earthly affairs and is easily angered by grave
acts such as incest (makunakuna) He can also be angered by shedding of human blood. As
a result he has the power to hold rains and sent disease and pestilences to affect his people
as a way of punishment.
 Other indigenous practices which protect the environment include:
 Respect of the communal ownership of the land. Communal ownership give every
member use rights and ensured that no individual could be landless.
 Gathering of medicine nekufushira midzi (covering roots).
 Taking leaves only not the whole branch kufura mashizha (leave brousing).
 Kutora many’ana eshiri chete (taking the young ones of birds only)
 Proverbs e.g. regai dzive shiri mazai haana muto
 cow dung manuring
Contemporary ways of preserving and conserving natural heritage.
(a) Legislation (refer to previous notes for more)
 Zimbabwe has responded to environmental problems by ratifying various International and
Regional Conventions on environmental management in order to conserve the environment.
The Convention of International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES) was implemented
through establishment of Communal Areas Management Programme for Indigenous
Resources (CAMPFIRE). The programme involved local communities looking after their
resources such as animals and forests and in turn benefit from the proceeds from these
resources. The proceeds such as money from the sale of animals can be used for projects
such as construction of schools. In 1995 Zimbabwe adopted the Convention on Biological
Diversity and in 1996 ratified the Convention to combat Desertification. Its main focus was
on irrigated crops, trees and livestock production in dry areas. The Montreal Protocol on
Pollution and climate as well as Agenda 21 has been adopted in order to conserve the
environment (UNEP, Global Environment Outlook, 2000; Chenje, Sola and Paleczny, 1998]
 The implementation of some of these International agreements was done through various
educational programs. These included Better Environmental Science Teaching (BEST) in
which the science curriculum in schools included environmental issues (Chikunda, 2007] The
Secondary Teacher Training Environmental Education Programme (STTEEP) was
introduced in the three Secondary Teachers’ Colleges namely Mutare, Belvedere and
Hillside. The main aim of the programme was to introduce environmental education in all
subjects [STTEEP Project Document, 2003-2006] The report of the Presidential Commission
of Inquiry into Education Training [1999] saw the need for training people about
environmental issues and to integrate environmental education into examinable subjects.
Tertiary Institutions such as Great Zimbabwe University, Midlands State University and
University of Zimbabwe all offer some courses on environmental management.
(b) Game reserves and national parks
 There are institutions in Zimbabwe meant to conserve biodiversity. These include National
Parks such as Chimanimani, Gonarezhou and Hwange National Parks. They are in place
mainly to preserve and protect animals and vegetation.
(c) Botanical gardens
 Botanical Gardens such Harare and forest reserves such as Rusitu and Chirinda forest have
been used to conserve indigenous forests.
TOPIC 5: CULTURAL HERITAGE
 In order to have a better definition of “Cultural Heritage” it may be worth taking a
look at the etymology of the terms of ‘Culture’ and ‘Heritage’. As an anthropologist,
Edward Burnett Tylor in his “Primitive Culture”(1871) stated, “Culture, or civilization,
taken in its broad, ethnographic sense, is that complex whole which includes
knowledge, belief, art, morals, law, custom, and any other capabilities and habits acquired
by man as a member of society.” Geertz (1973) provided a classical “cognitive” definition
of culture, as, “[...] a historically transmitted pattern of meanings embodied in symbols,
a system of inherited conceptions expressed in symbolic form by means of which
men communicate, perpetuate, and develop their knowledge about and attitudes toward
life.”
 According to the Oxford English Dictionary on historical principles (1901),“Heritage” or
other form: eritage, erytage, heiritagie, etc., all come from the Latin root hereditagium,
which means, “[…] that which has been or may be inherited: any property, and esp. land,
which devolves by right of inheritance”. “The fact of inheriting; inheritance, hereditary
succession”. “Anything given or received to be a proper and legally held possession”
and “That which comes from the circumstances of birth; an inherited lot or portion; the
condition or state transmitted from ancestors”.
 Based on the above meanings, if we want to give a full definition of the word of
“Cultural Heritage”, “Heritage” is a property, something that is inherited from past, and
transferred from previous generations. Moreover, the concept of ‘culture’ denotes a lot of
meanings, but we can understand it to mean social organization, custom and tradition,
religion, language, art and literature, form of government, economic system.
 Cultural heritage is the legacy of physical artifacts and intangible attributes of a group or
society that is inherited from past generations.
 Cultural Heritage is an expression of the ways of living developed by a community and
passed on from generation to generation, including customs, practices, places, objects, artistic
expressions and values. Cultural Heritage is often expressed as either Intangible or Tangible
Cultural Heritage (ICOMOS, 2002).
 As part of human activity Cultural Heritage produces tangible representations of the value
systems, beliefs, traditions and lifestyles. As an essential part of culture as a whole, Cultural
Heritage, contains these visible and tangible traces form antiquity to the recent past.
Types of cultural heritage
 Tangible cultural heritage-refers to physical artefacts produced, maintained and
transmitted intergenerationally in a society. It includes artistic creations, built heritage such
as buildings and monuments, and other physical or tangible products of human creativity
that are invested with cultural significance in a society.
 Intangible cultural heritage -consists of non-physical aspects of a particular culture, more
often maintained by social customs during a specific period in history. The concept
includes the ways and means of behavior in a society, and the often formal rules for
operating in a particular cultural climate. These include social values
and traditions, customs and practices, aesthetic and spiritual beliefs, artistic
expression, language and other aspects of human activity. The importance of intangible
cultural heritage is not the cultural manifestation itself but rather the wealth of knowledge
and skills that is transmitted through it from one generation to the next.
 Movable cultural heritage- Moveable heritage includes books, documents, moveable
artworks, machines, clothing, and other artifacts, that are considered worthy of preservation
for the future. These include objects significant to the archaeology, architecture, science or
technology of a specified culture.
 Immovable cultural heritage- Immovable heritage includes building so (which themselves
may include installed art such as organs, stained glass windows, and frescos), large
industrial installations, residential projects or other historic places and monuments.
Language (refer to elements of culture for more)

 Language is a system of symbols that allows people to communicate with one another e.g
Shona, Ndebele ,English
 Perhaps our most important set of symbols is language. In English, the word chair means
something we sit on. In French, the word chaise means the same thing. As long as we agree
how to interpret these words, a shared language and thus society are possible. By the same
token, differences in languages can make it quite difficult to communicate. For example,
imagine you are in a foreign country where you do not know their language and they do not
know yours. Worse yet, you forgot to bring your dictionary that translates their language into
yours, and vice versa, and your iPhone battery has died. You become lost. How will you get
help? What will you do? Is there any way to communicate your plight?
 As this scenario suggests, language is crucial to communication and thus to any society’s
culture. Children learn language from their culture just as they learn about shaking hands,
about gestures, and about the significance of the flag and other symbols. Humans have a
capacity for language that no other animal species possesses. Our capacity for language in
turn helps make our complex culture possible.
 Language is a key symbol of any culture. Humans have a capacity for language that no other
animal species has, and children learn the language of their society just as they learn other
aspects of their culture.
 Language not only allows communication but is also the key to cultural transmission, the
process by which one generation passes culture to the next.
 Language is crucial in this instances:
 Provides a Social or Shared Past- Without language, our memories would be
extremely limited, for we associate experiences with words and then use words to recall the
experience.
 Provides a Social or Shared Future- Language also extends our time horizons forward.
Because language enables us to agree on times, dates, and places, it allows us to plan
activities with one another
 Allows Shared Perspectives- Our ability to speak, then, provides us a social
(or shared) past and future. This is vital for humanity. It is a watershed that distinguishes us
from animals.
 Allows Shared, Goal-Directed Behavior- Common understandings enable
us to establish a purpose for getting together. Let’s suppose you want to go on a picnic. You
use speech not only to plan the picnic but also to decide on reasons for having the picnic
 Language is clearly a big part of culture. Edward Sapir and his student Benjamin Whorf
thought that language was central in determining social thought.
 The Sapir-Whorf thesis states that people see and understand the world through the cultural
lens of language. The thesis also states that:
 Because people can conceptualize the world only through language, language precedes
thought. Thus, the word symbols and grammar of a language organize the world for us.
 Language is not a given. Rather, it is culturally determined, and it encourages a distinctive
interpretation of reality by focusing our attention on certain phenomena (Sapir 1929).
Oral tradition and expression

 Oral tradition, or oral lore, is a form of human communication wherein knowledge, art, ideas
and cultural material is received, preserved, and transmitted orally from one generation to
another. The transmission is through speech or song and may include folktales, ballads,
chants, prose or verses. In this way, it is possible for a society to transmit oral history, oral
literature, oral law and other knowledge across generations without a writing system, or in
parallel to a writing system.
 Oral tradition is information, memories, and knowledge held in common by a group of
people, over many generations; it is not the same as testimony or oral history. In a general
sense, "oral tradition" refers to the recall and transmission of a specific, preserved textual and
cultural knowledge through vocal utterance.
 Proverbs/Izaga/Tsumo/Svivuriso
 These are condensed but memorable sayings embodying some important fact of eperience
that is taken as true by many people. Elders are the custodians of the culture and usually use
the proverbs in their speech. These proverbs play a very important role in the African culture.
Importance of proverbs
• They address contemporary social ills, for example youth indiscipline.
• They encourage obedience to mothers. For example, the Shona proverb which goes, “Mai
musuva usingasewi muto/Mother is a morsel not to be dipped in soup which entails that the
elderly is sacred and require all respect due.
• They put checks to behaviour in society that may be contrary to acceptable norms and cultural
teachings for example the”Chara chimwe hachitswanyi inda”/”one finger cannot crush a louse”
has been adopted all over the world. This proverb means that individualism has no gain.
• They add value to indigenous languages. Language is a very important aspect of culture which
gives an identity to people. Proverbs enrich the language.
• Proverbs are used as an indirect means of saying something without the risk involved in stating
it explicitly. For example, when trying to advise someone on the idea that one should be wise
and not be pressured to.do illicit thing by others. In Sotho, one can use the proverb, ‘Dithotho Ice
lefa lobe bohale’ (Fools are stepping stones of the wise). This statement can be easily uttered
without offending anyone because of the use of the proverb.
• They give weight to a statement. Proverbs have authority of tradition as at times they start with
the formulaic phrase, Vakuru vczkati (The elders said ). This is done to quote from tradition.
Among the Shona, age is related with wisdom and request. This is because the elders would have
been exposed to the realities in life and it is this experience that is valued by the people.
 Riddles/Zvirahwe/Mitsheketo/Dilotho/Svitheketelo
 These are true statements presented as questions which require critical thinking in order for
the listener to catch, interpret and locate in its proper context. They are the traditional
equivalent of brain-teasers. The ideal time for posing riddles among the Shona is during the
evening around a glowing fire, usually led by an elder when all family members have
finished their various chores and are preparing to go to bed. Posing riddles, any other time of
the day would be considered a distraction of other important human duties.
Importance of riddles
• Riddles train the youth to think within a short period for example the Sotho dilotho (riddle),
Monna e molelele e mosweu (A tall white man). The answer is the highway.
• They are a form of entertainment. It may involve a game in which one child challenges another
and the winner is the one who knows more.
• Interprets and explains natural phenomena from the known to unknown. For instance, in the
Shona riddle chitima chemusango (the wild train) the known case is the train (chitima) and the
unknown case is the organism that resembles a train. This organism is a millipede. A train has
many wheels, a millipede has many legs.
 Taboos (refer to notes on indigenous ways of preserving the environment)
 Taboos are Indigenous cultural aspects that shape that conduct of its people.
 Categories
 - those that intend to promote good health,
- prevent bad habits and those
- that discourage cruelty to other living creatures.
- those that help in shaping human conduct and
- fostering eco-friendly behaviour.
 For the Shona, ukagara paduri, vakadzi vose vaunoroora vanofa (if you sit on the mortar in
which grain is pounded, all the wives that you marry would die). Such a taboo
discourages both young and old males from doing such a bad act because it threatens very
serious consequences to the one who may be tempted to violate it. The bad habit of sitting on
the mortar is avoided because of the fear of ngozi. The Shona people are discouraged from
sitting on hearthstones (pfihwa)on the common understanding that doing so would lead one
to murder his wife or one’s wife will die. Through fear of losing a wife as a result of such an
undesirable habit of sitting on hearthstones, one would avoid doing so. However, the real
reason why people are discouraged from sitting on hearthstones has nothing to do with
causing death to one’s partner but is a sanction meant to inculcate virtues of cleanliness in
individuals
 Ukatasva imbwa, unozoita muroyi (If you ride a dog, you will become a witch).
Significance of Taboos
 Unhu as understood by the Shona entails a state of character that is acceptable not only by the
person concerned but more importantly by his society (see Menkiti, 1984). Such
commendable traits are derived from moral education administered and influenced by, among
others, parents, family sages and group practices. Thus, a sound moral education
administered through taboos help in preparing and perfecting the young to earn an ethical life
external to the family confines and in the public domain.
 Though scholarship has tended to come up with various categories of taboos (Gelfand,
1979; Tatira, 2000b), this paper argues that taboos have one central goal in that they aim
towards the perfection of one’s character in all facets of human life.
Performing arts
 These are arts involving performance such as drama, dance , music etc
 Dance
 Dances have been Zimbabwean culture and entertain people. They are conducted according
to the events example, religious, social and political. Dances help to teach
ubuntu/unhu/vumuntu, encourage people to work, console people at funeral proceedings,
festivals and to connect with ancestors.
 There are basically 12 prominent traditional dances in Zimbabwe
• shangara • mbira dance • dinhe • mbakumba • muchongoyo • jerusarema • mhande
• isitshikitsha • amabhiza • ingquza • chinyobera • ngungu
Jerusarema dance
 The Jerusarema dance, also known as mbende, is widely regarded as one of the most
important and distinctive dances of Zimbabwe. Jerusarema is performed at funerals, festivals
and other celebrations. Jerusarema is practiced by the Zezuru tribe in Murehwa and
UzumbaMaramba-Pfungwe (UMP) districts in Mashonaland East, Zimbabwe. The dance was
originally performed during the marriage ceremony of a chief’s daughter, but it is now open
to everybody. The dance is characterised by a single poly-rhythmic drum sound accompanied
by woodblock clapper sounds, handclapping, yodeffing and blowing whistles.
 The music is performed by one master drummer. In the course of the dance, men often
crouch while jerking both arms and vigorously kicking the ground with the right leg in
imitator. of a burrowing mole.
 ‘This ancient fertility dance was called mbende, the Shona word for mole which was
regarded as a symbol of fertility, sexuality and family.
Mhande dance
 Is mostly popular among me Karanga people of Masvingo, Zimbabwe. The dance uses
indigenous ritual context or spirituality (known as Chikaranga). It is characterized by strict
rhythms and melodies, slow and dignified foot movements and the use of hand-held objects
and substances such as snuff and ceremonial beer which symbolise interaction between the
community and the ancestors. Mhande dance is commonly performed at the popular kurova
guva ceremony which is performed by Shona people to welcome the return of a deceased
family member’s spirit (mudzimu).
Muchongoyo
 The dance is popular among the Ndau people in Chipinge. Interviews conducted with the
Mtetwa family reveals that muchongoyo was originally a war dance meant to boost the
morale of the warriors as they entered the battle. However, since the end of the war that
brought liberation, muchongoyo is now performed for entertainment. ‘The dance is
characterized by elaborate choreography (dance composition) and rhythmic drumbeats. Both
men and women do the singing and dancing, but women take the lead while men mostly do
the chanting. Typical of the Ndau mannerism, muchongoyo is such a humorous dance which
exploits dramatics such as miming and summer. In entertainment, women dance
provocatively, enticing men as they demonstrate sexual receptiveness. The dance is
significant in celebrating communally shared values like ubuntu/unhu/vumunhu, sexuality
and unity.
 Drama
 Drama is an act or performance in front of an audience. However, drama is also the portrayal
of life, a character or telling a story through action and dialogue.
Forms of drama
 Drama can be a one man act or a group performance. It can be either in prose or verse.
Prose - continuous sentences and paragraphs.
Verse - composed in lines and stanzas.
Drama is a form of dialogue and stage directions, hence actors know exactly what to say when
on stage.
Types of drama
(a) Comedy - The story is based on real life characters and funny experiences of life or any
funny-provocative Jim situation. Gringo, Kapfupi and Timmy naBonzo are some of the
comedians in Zimbabwe. Comedies usually have a happy ending.
(b) Farce - There are highly improbable or unexpected and stereotyped characters for example
Sabhuku Vharazipi. There is a lot of exaggeration and imaginative situations.
(c) Melodrama - There is exaggeration of emotions and this lures the audience or viewers to
continue watching. Usually it portrays good and bad evil aspects of the characters involved.
(d) Fantasy - This is a complete fixation where characters display supernatural skills and this is
more appealing to children. Usually, there is presence of angels and super heroes involved in
action.
(e) Music - Is the use of music in conveying a message or telling a story. The use of dance is also
present. It is important to note that the music should be in sync with the action. The music is
used for self-expression.
Importance of drama
Education and employment
 Teaches people life that is outside their world. Drama is created with the aim of allowing
people to gain knowledge from it. Drama gives moral lessons and socializes people about
their cultural values. It must teach us something, but not always.
Socialization
 It teaches us about social norms and values
Entertainment
 It is a form of leisure
Social practices (refer to notes on Zimbabwean norms and values)

 Inheritance
 Marriage
 Religious
Rituals and festive events

 The word ritual is the work of different scholars Mbiti (1992) defined ritual as a set form of
carrying out a religious ceremony .some
 A ritual may thus simply be defined as an action usually prescribed by a religion, by the
traditions of a community or by political laws because of the perceived efficacy of those
actions. More technically, rituals can be defined as, ‘highly symbolic acts that confir
transcendental significance and meaning on certain life events or experiences.” Such a
technical definition sets a border line thus distinguishing ritual from mere habits or what are
often called ritualized behaviors like smoking a cigar alter every meal or giving a kiss to
one’s kids before they go to bed. Unlike a mere habit, a ritual is an act of transcendental
significance.
 Rituals are powerful vehicles of meaning on life’s events and they offer the opportunity to
contain and express emotion such a transcendental significance of rituals is usually shared
within a group. Thus a community is allowed to come together, witness and interpret an
event for its own survival. A ritual enforces a particular collective identity.
 In Shona and Ndebele religion, the rituals are common, these rituals are named as the rites of
passage .It includes the following.
 Birth rite
 Puberty rite
 Marriage rite
 Death rite
 Burial rite
 Birth rituals (refer to birth rites of various cultures in Zimbabwe which were discussed
previously)
 Naming of children. At birth the child is named, in the Shona and Ndebele religion a child
will be given a name that defines the character of the child in the near future it should be
noted that in some cases the born child is given the name of the deceased.Names in Sotho
generally have meanings that express the values of the parents or of the community.
Common personal names include Lehlohonolo(Good Fortune), Mpho(Gift) Names may also
be given to refer to events. For example, a girl born during a rainstorm might be called
Puleng,meaning "in the rain." Individuals may also be named after clan heroes. Surnames are
taken from relatives on the father's side of the family. Among the Kalanga for instance,
should there be a death in the family at the time or about the time of a child’s birth, they
would name her Mihodzi or Mishodzi (depending on the dialect), a word which means ‘tears’
(mishodzi), a name usually given to a girl. If it is a baby-boy, they could call him ‘Lufu’
(rufu), which means death.
 Dropping of the umbilical cord (rukuvhute) rituals.
 Putting charms in the child’s waist
 Some Shona societies of Manyika and Maungwe give the give the baby water with the soil
from the home yard to make the baby acclimatized to the environment.
 Puberty rite
 The Chewa practice chinamwali for boys and girls
 The Shangani rite of male circumcision is one of the fundamental
rites of passage in Shangani culture. It is a practice that involves cutting off a boy child’s
foreskin of the penis as a mark of transition from childhood into manhood. The rite is
performed in a faraway enhoveni (the forest area), which lies about ten kilometres from
the rest of the community.
 Male initiation in the form of circumcision is practiced among most Xhosa groups. The
abakweta (initiates-in-training) live in special huts isolated from villages or towns for several
weeks.
 Among the Khoisan, a boy is taught how to track an Eland and how to kill it. A boy is
considered an adult once he kills it.
 The girl soon after beginning menstruation she performs an Eland Bull Dance. In this dance
they imitate the Eland cows behaviour when mating while the man play the part of as an
eland bull.
 Among the Venda, vhusha puberty rites for girls are performed soon after their first
menstruation. At this ceremony girls are taught their future roles as wives and mothers
Tshikanda is the second phase in the girls’ initiation. At tshikanda, considerable time is spent
practicing marriage-related laws which were introduced during the vhusha phase .Domba is
the third and final phase in the girls’ initiation. It is the final qualification for Venda
customary law marriage. This phase is characterized by a special dance which symbolizes the
mystical act of sexual communion, conception, the growth of the foetus as well as the child-
birth.
 Marriage rite
 According The Herald of 20 April 2012 ,the BaNambya practice the following:
 Testing the groom’s bravery. Early in the morning, the time that elephants normally bath in
the Zambezi, (euphemistically known here as Kasambabezi) before daybreak, the girl’s
aunts or grandmothers take the groom to the river for his first test. Quickly they strip him
and bath him in cold river water, systematically watching out for the crocodile. He should
not shiver, for, shivering and gnashing of teeth from the cold is a sign of weakness.
 Bride price payment. For the couple to be pronounced husband and wife, the groom has to
go through a process that shows appreciation by paying what ishasha. The payment would
be in the form of goats. Payment is categorized differently and includes chivulandomo,
imbuji yokwa tate namai and, pyangi lani yo kuno.
 Mashaja test. In this case, a meal of sadza and meat is prepared and placed in one plate from
which the bridegroom and the bride eat at the same time and throw the first morsels away at
the same time.
 Reproductive tests. The young man is made to suck a row egg and if he vomits then he is
not productive and if he can stand the raw egg then he is a man.
 The bride’s virginity test.
 Death and burial rite
 The following rites are common among the Shona:
 Shrouding the dead(kupeta mufi)
 Payment of Chema (bereavement fee)
 Eating Nhevedzo meal inide the hut where the corpse is
 Kutema rukawu ritual which include marking out the area
 Cleansing ritual soon after coming from burial
 Rumuko ritual to check the place of burial one day after burial. This is done to check
whether the grave wasn’t tempered with.
 Gata ritual to ascertain the cause of death
 Sharing of the deceased’s clothes
 Reincarnation/ bringing back ceremony(kurova guva)-this is done for those who died and
left behind children
Significance of kurova guva
1. It brings hope and confidence into the family considering the unpredictability of the spirit of
the deceased.
2. It marks the end of mourning in the homestead which is referred to as musha mutema .The
widow will no longer veil her head with black cloth or wear the symbolic black dress of
mourning — return to mourning.
3. It resolves problems and tensions caused by death by the spirit of the deceased among the
family’s spirit guardians. The living and the dead would have restrengthened their cowardice
relationship.
4. It allows one of the most important rituals in Shona culture to take place i.e. inheritance
ceremony “NHAKA”
5. From a general point of view the ceremony celebrates Shona religious practices and
communities and re unites the people to the flindamental tradition of their culture
6. It strengthens relationship — ties as both close and distant relatives converge at one place for a
common purpose. So it reaffirms social ties.
Festive events
 Bira
 Bira is a Shona term derived from the word kubira/kuyambuka which means to cross. This
ceremony refers to the movement from the world of physical objects to a spiritual world. The
Shona and Ndebele seek, in the context of ceremonies called bira, spiritual guidance from
their ancestors (vadzimu/cimadlozi) in resolving serious problems that affect individuals,
families or entire communities. Bira may also be performed to address mashave spirits (a
class of spirits including those of animals and of humans who were not given proper burials).
 The bira is also intended to rectify misfortunes such as barrenness, illness and war. A b/ru
may also be held simply to remain in contact with the ancestors. Spirit mediums (svikiro) are
typically invited to the bira and are the individuals most likely to get possessed. The primary
driving force of the ceremony is its music. Other participants in the ceremony are inspired to
contribute through clapping, dancing, and singing.
 Spirit mediums are often not possessed until after midnight. Ritual beer brewed specially for
the ceremony is consumed by all participants, and spirit mediums frequently use snuff to aid
in their possession. Upon being possessed the ancestor speaks on the issue at hand and offers
advice or helps to cure the ailment. When in a state of possession, they become the
mouthpiece for the spirit whose advice is being sought. Bira typically takes place in a
traditional circular hut such as the kitchen in a family compound.
 Rainmaking ceremonies
 Rainmaking ceremonies are conducted in the event of a drought Rainmaking ceremonies
involve singing sexual songs, sexual dances as a symbolic way of seducing the ancestors to
release the rain. It is done at the onset of summer. It isi based on the belief that the process of
rainmaking depends on rain spirits.
 It is also an accepted age-old tradition that people do not own the land but the land owns the
people, so if the land is angry, there would be low rainfall leading to drought. So, to appease
the land there would be a rainmaking ceremony. This belief is held by the BaTonga, Shona,
Ndebele and other African communities such as Mali, Uganda and Nigeria. The Kalanga
people of Matebeleland Province perform Amabhiza traditional music during their
rainmaking ceremonies. Mhande1 by the Karahga people is done during the mutoro, a
rainmaking ritual. The Ndebele’ culture’s rainmaking dance is called iHosana.
 Independence day celebrations (further research)
 Defense forces and heroes day celebrations (further research)
Traditional craftsmanship
 Indigenous ceremonial tools
 Mbira (thumb piano)

 Marimba
 Ngoma (drums)
 Hosho (shakers)
 Flute
 Leg Rattles (magagada)
 Bhosvo (trumpet)
 Indigenous hunting tools

 Spears
 Bows and arrows
 Knives
 Axes
 Indigenous productive tools

 Hoes
 Dengu
 Rusero (winnowing baskets)
 Paste and mortar (duri ne mutswi)
 Guyo (grinder)
 Hari nema Gate (claypots)
 Other crafts among the indigenous Zimbabweans include:

 Mats
 Traditional and ceremonial dresses
Knowledge and practices concerning nature and the universe
 Tripartite world view
 The indigenous people believe in the existence of both a physical or human realm,
natural world and spirit world. This is called the tripartite world view. It comprises belief
in in the existence of 3 worlds that is the human world, the natural world and the
spiritual world. These three worlds are linked.
 The natural world provides the habitat for the spirits and sends message from the
spiritual world to the human world.
 The spirit world provides guidance, punishment and blessing to the human world. For
the African every plant, animal and natural phenomena are a carrier of the divine. In
order to appease the spirit world, people have to perform rituals and make sacrifices. The
human world has to relate to both the natural and the spirit world.
 Therefore, various forms of communication with the spirits exists in I.R. Communication is
“the transfer of information from the sender to the receiver with the information being
understood by the receiver”. Communication is “the transmission of common understanding
through the use of symbols”. In the indigenous communities’ people communicate with the
spirits through different ways or forms. NB see J.S Mbiti
 Gelfand notes that, “one of the fundamental tenets of Shona religion is the belief in real
communication with the world of spirits through the medium or host of the particular
spirit whose help is sought.The Shona accepts revelation through their mediums in a way
that is not completely different from that in which a Christian accepts revelation from
reading his Bible.”
 The communication process in I.R occurs through the natural environment, religious
rites or ceremonies, sacred places, symbols and mediumship involving various religious
practitioners.
 The spirit mediums – communication follow a set pattern of a hierarchy of spirit beings
up to God the Creator. The channel incorporates the spirit mediumancestral
spiritsGod the Creator.
 Gelfand states that among the Shona when the medium is under spirit possession they
hear the "voice" of the spirit calling or addressing them through the medium, and see this
as proof of the existence of the spiritual world. It is not the medium who is talking but the
spirit who has made use of the body and voice of the host.
 The Shona think that they make a real contact with a spirit for once the medium becomes
possessed he is no longer the same as when he is not possessed. When the spirit possesses
him he acquires an altered personality. The medium is a bridge between the present and
the spiritual worlds in one being, he himself is drawn into the spiritual world in an ecstatic
state.
 Mhondoro - the mhondoro medium communicates or intercedes between the human and
the spirits in IR. The mhondoro is the overall spirit of the whole clan or tribe
whose concern is the good of the people as a whole. In the case of the tribal medium
(mhondoro) or family medium (mhondoro ormudzimu mudiki wapamusha) possession
has a special reason such as incest or the misbehavior of one member of the family
towards another. In this instance the spirit often enters the medium in the early hours of
the morning. He is heard emitting noises which waken others who hurry into the hut to see
what is happening. Then the spirit speaks through its host and explains the reason for
its concern.
 The Shona believe that they bring rain, are responsible for the bumper harvests.
Mhondoro Yemvura (rain maker) presides over the rainmaking (mukwerera, Gasva,
marenje or chipwa). ‘Mhondoro yemvura’ presides over the ceremony and speaks or
pleads with the ancestors for rain. In the ancient times chiefs whose areas were affectedby
drought would sent their agents called ‘mbonga’ (unmarried women) to Matonjeni or
Mabweadziva (Matopos) to entreat the great spirit medium to intercede for rain. God
would speak from a rock and pronounce the procedures and rituals to be performed for
the rains to come. Rainmaking ceremonies are now rare given the advent of Christianity,
rain makers are now rare and the use of scientific cloud seeding.
 Indigenous knowledge systems concerning natural environment (refer to previous notes)
Foreign influence on indigenous cultural heritage
 Arab influence
 Arabs are members of the Semitic people, inhabiting much of Middle East
The BaLemba/BaVenda-Arab links
 According to Mullan(1969),they have been noticed, though somewhat briefly, by a
number of prominent writers and authorities, who are nearly all agreed that the Lemba
are of Semitic origin. Some of these writers refer to them as the African or Bantu Jews,
though most writers see in them an Arab people, or at least a people with long and close
connections with the Arabs.
 While the Ba-Lemba in general would appear to be ignorant as to their origin,
nevertheless there are those among them who have a strong tradition that they are Arabs.
This information has been obtained from this secretive people by Dr. N, J. Van Warmelo,
who is an authority on the Ba-Lemba, and who has written of his discovery in a
pamphlet, published in West Germany. According to this tradition, the Ba-Lemba tribal
historians state that their forefathers came to the land we know as Rhodesia as traders, but
owing to the intervention of a certain unknown or unstated circumstance, they found that
they could not return to their own land. Thereafter, in course of time, they consequently
were forced to take wives from among the natives, and so at the present time have almost
lost their Arab identity.
 According to Mullan(1969), evidence to support the this Lemba-Arab link include the
following:
 Arabic/Jewish Law of Kosher-So strictly is this law observed among the Ba-Lemba
that not even their womenfolk dare eat the meat of an animal which had not been
killed by the approved method of cutting the animal's throat. Then too, with an animal
devoted to sacrifice, great care must be taken so that the contents of the stomach do
not emerge from the beast's throat to defile the sacrifice. Among the Ba-Venda, when
a beast is to be killed they will usually permit a Mu-Lemba to slit the animal's throat so
that he may also partake of the meat, or otherwise he dare not eat it. Animals regarded
by the Ba-Lemba as unclean, such as the pig, though eaten with relish by the other
tribes among whom they dwell, are taboo to these people.
 Circumcision- Another strict law which would appear to indicate that the Ba-Lemba
are of Arab origin is that of circumcision, practised, not as with the Jews, the eighth
day after birth, but later, as with the Arabs—in early youth—after the manner of
Ishmael's circumcision. Some of the tribes among whom the Ba-Lemba dwell, adopted
circumcision from them
 Burial practices- The Ba-Lemba place the straightened out corpse in a cavity made in
the side of the grave and not in the actual pit which would normally be the grave after
the European fashion.
 Other sources are of the view that DNA tests confirmed that the Lemba people have Arab
connections. Early genetic testing supported some Lemba oral traditions related to origin
of male ancestors in the Middle East. A Y-DNA genetic study in 1996 of 49 Lemba
males suggested that more than 50% of the Lemba Y-chromosomes are West Asian in
origin, and shared by both Arabs and Jews.
 According to Adem Yidi Wadi (2013) the DNA tests review that the Varemba tribe in
Zimbabwe have some blood trends of the Arabs who came to the Mapumbabwe Empire
which they developed into what is known today as the Monomotapa Empire. These Arab
Traders came from Yemen through the east coast of Africa Zanzibar then Mozambique
and finally Zimbabwe through the Zambezi River. In the Monomotapa Empire, the Arabs
practised intermarriage with the local people being the Kalanga and the Varozvi and
produced off springs known today as the Varemba People. They gained control and
influence especially in the chiefs like Changamire Dombo and many others, and also
affected even the vernacular language Shona.Most of the the Shona words and names of
places in Zimbabwe are Arabic origin in nature. To clarify my point, take for an example
the word ‘BUHEIRA’ it is a name of a place believed to be given by the Arabs because in
this area they used to be many small rivers.
Arabic influence on Zimbabwe’s history

 The earliest written sources referring to the Zimbabwe plateau [the area between Zambezi
and Limpopo] came from Arab visitors [traders]. Journals of the Arab traveler Ibn Said
[1214-1286] revealed that the builders of Great Zimbabwe were the Shona.
 The Early Iron Agers started to mine iron, copper and gold which was traded with the
Swahili and Arab traders on the Indian Ocean coast.
 Interference into Mutapa politics. The death of Goncalo was a plot by Muslims and some
fractions of disgruntled Mutapa people as a result of the influence of Arabs. Goncalo’s
death soured Portuguese-Mutapa relations. The incident provided the Portuguese with an
excuse of invading the Mutapa state.
 Early Europeans
A. The Portuguese
 These early came to Zimbabwe with the following ambitions among others:
 They wanted to take control of trade from the Arabs and Swahili.
 They penetrated Mutapa for humanitarian reasons. They believed that Africa was a ‘dark
continent’ which was very backward and which needed to be enlightened. As such, they
wanted to spread Christianity, civilization and to prepare Africa for Portuguese
domination.
 They wanted to control land in the Zambezi valley for agricultural purposes. They wanted
to establish farms [prazos].
 They wanted to avenge the death of Goncalo da Silveira.
Portuguese interference in Mutapa
 Delaying in paying curva (tribute).
 Grabbing of land without permission of Mutapa kings. The Portuguese decided to gain direct
entry into the interior. They started by conquering the Manyika and Uteve. They were now
using military force of their way into the interior. They used the pretext of the death of
Goncalo da Silveira [1561] to directly interfere in Mutapa politics. They argued that he was
killed at the instigation of Moslems and Mutapa traditionalists and they came in to revenge.
 Interference with Mutapa succession of kings. The Portuguese sponsored puppet Mutapas.
The Mutapas of the 17th and 18th C were puppets or vassals of the Portuguese.
 Gatsi Rusere sought and solicited the support of the Portuguese by signing a treaty of
military assistance with the Portuguese. In the treaty, Gatsi Rusere agreed to give all his
gold, copper, tin, lead and iron to the Portuguese. He was also forced to give his child and
his heir to the Portuguese who turned to bring him up as a Christian so that he would be
loyal to Portuguese when he had come to Mutapa. This son was sent to Goa, India where
he became a Catholic Priest and he never returned to Africa. However, the people of
Mutapa refused to reveal where the mines were and this soured relations.
 In 1624, Gatsi Rusere died and his death was followed by a civil war between his sons.
Rusere was succeeded by his son Nyambo Kapararidze in 1627. Old councilors of his
father were replaced by new, young and energetic advisors. These advisors advised him to
kill all Portuguese in the state. They realised that they would take away their
independence. According to S I G Mudenge, Kapararidze proceeded and killed Portuguese
officials like Bairos because he had not paid his curva in time. He went on to declare a
‘mupeto’ against all Portuguese in the Empire. This was seizure of their items. This
naturally created direct confrontation with the Portuguese. The Portuguese mobilised their
resources towards removing Kapararidze from the throne hence their sponsorship of
Mavura into power.
 In 1629, Mavura Mhande sought and got the support of the Portuguese to overthrow
Nyambo Kapararidze. Kapararidze was killed in 1629 by the Portuguese who installed
Mavura. Following his installation, Mavura was asked to sign a treaty of vassalage with
the Portuguese [1629]. The state was nearly destroyed by Mavura’s agreement with the
Portuguese, which was a very damaging treaty. By this treaty Mavura agreed that he had
received his throne in the name of the king of Portugal whose sovereignty he now
acknowledged. Mutapa was made a vassal of the king of Portugal. Mavura also agreed to
cede all his silver and gold mines to the Portuguese. He agreed to allow complete freedom
of passage throughout his empire to all Portuguese traders. Mavura agreed to allow
Dominican missionaries to preach in the empire freely. Mavura was to stop the curva
system and instead he was to pay tribute to the Portuguese.
 Mavura and his wife were subsequently baptised into the Roman Catholic Church and
their names were changed to Domingos and Luiza respectively. The Portuguese fought the
Shona, took away their cattle [the backbone of their economy] and often enslaved them
[domestic slavery] and Mavura took no action.
 The Portuguese suddenly became controllers on land and they created chaos and anarchy,
individualism and the Portuguese adventurers established prazos.
 The Prazo System-Prazos were very large farms owned largely by Portuguese traders in
Mutapa state. The prazo system comprised of the prazero [owner], the peasants [colono] and
the achikunda [prazero’s army]. The prazero used African chiefs and their subjects as
labourers and the chiefs were given power voluntarily to recruit labourers. Some Africans
who lived in the Portuguese prazos were sold to the East African slave trade. Prazeros lived
luxurious lives and co-habited with African women resulting in the coloured population
[mulattos].
Effects of Portuguese in Mutapa state
Constructive /Positive effects

 The Portuguese brought new and improved farming methods, which in turn improved food
production, for instance, the introduction of prazos and crop rotation.
 Modern civilisation was introduced, for example, clothing.
 The spread of Christianity by the Portuguese reduced barbarism and paganism
Destructive / Negative effects
 The Portuguese interfered in Mutapa political affairs. This was seen in taking sides in
succession disputes leading to the advent of puppet kings like Mavura and Gatsi Rusere.
 The Portuguese formed private armies and became wild and lawless
 As more and more Portuguese came into Mutapa state and grabbed more prazos, they began
forcing the Africans to work for them on these plantations.
 African women were raped by Portuguese and this caused chaos in the state. As a result
children of mixed races were born whom they called mulattos. The mulattos were also due to
intermarriage between Portuguese men and African women.
 African culture was destroyed and there was loss of tribal identity.
 African chiefs and kings lost their powers to the prazeros and were forced to supply slave
labour and were also forced to pay tribute
 Christianity brought division among Africans. Some were converted into Christians whilst
others refused and remained with their religion. As such these two groups with different
religions could not co-exist
 Early Christian missionaries

Aims of missionaries in Zimbabwe
 They wanted to spread Christianity to Africans. The African continent was considered to
be lacking in religion. The missionaries therefore believed that they had a spiritual duty
to convert the Africans.
 They wanted to open up Africa to commerce by the introduction of legitimate commerce.
Legitimate trade is the trade in raw materials. They thought that European commerce was
a weapon against both slave trade and the traditional African society, both of which
would need to be destroyed if missionary work was to have a hope of real success.
 They wanted to spread European culture throughout much of Africa. They assumed the
superiority of European culture and Christianity would unavoidably go hand in glove in a
civilizing mission.
 They wanted to make Africans literary [to educate Africans], that is, through teaching
them to read, write and to do arithmetic. This would enable them to follow and carry out
basic instructions and to be able to read the bible.
 They wanted to spread western civilisation. It was believed that Africa was a ‘dark
continent’. So they wanted to enlighten Africans.
 They wanted to pave way for European colonisation. This meant that they wanted to
prepare Africans for European imperialism. However, this is debatable.
 They wanted to introduce medical technology in Africa.
 They wanted to end slave trade.
 They wanted to replace ‘barbaric African customs’ [vices], for instance, killing of twins
[infanticide], human sacrifices, raiding, polygamy, witchcraft, ancestral worship and even
the names of people.
 They wanted to develop an indigenous middle class to maintain church staff.
 They wanted to introduce new agricultural methods, for example, to turn subsistence
farming into commercial farming.
 They wanted to introduce new crops in the area.
 They wanted to introduce new skills such as carpentry and needle work.
 They wanted to promote equality of mankind.
 They wanted to open up mission stations, mission schools, mission hospitals and clinics.
 They wanted to treat the sick people and inoculate livestock.
Effects / Impact of missionary activities in Zimbabwe
 Missionary activities among the Ndebele and the Shona had both negative and positive
effects.
Benefits / Positive effects of missionary activities in Zimbabwe
 Treatment of the sick people caused happiness to the local people. Most missionaries had
medical knowhow because they had to survive in an environment that was disease prone.
They therefore brought with them medical kits. J S Moffat, for instance, used his kit to treat
Lobengula who was suffering from gout.
 Inoculation of cattle by missionaries was another benefit. When there was a cattle disease
around 1860 missionaries were able to source vaccines mainly from South Africa which
theyused to inoculate Ndebele cattle. This served many Ndebele cattle which could have
died.Hence the presence of missionaries in Zimbabwe was a blessing to the Ndebele.
 Missionaries promoted trade in Matabeleland by either bringing the goods for trade
themselves or binging traders. However, not many of them did so. Archaeologists dug out
foreign goods like beads, clothes and so on, obtained through trade with ivory. Examples of
traders brought by Robert Moffat [in Matabeleland] in 1854 included S Edwards and a hunter
called Jan Viljoen. These benefits were however limited in nature.
 Missionaries improved agriculture in Zimbabwe. They brought in new farming equipment.
They had to produce their own food. They were forced to farm and during the process of
farming; they introduced new [modern] farming equipment like ploughs, cultivators and
sickles they brought from South Africa. Later on they introduced the planter. Missionaries
also brought new crops like vegetables and foreign fruits. This improved the diet of the local
people.
 There was an improvement in infrastructure. This was through the building of schools,
mission stations, churches, hospitals and clinics.
 The missionaries reduced social ills like infanticide. In the Shona tradition twins had to be
killed at birth [infanticide] because they were considered a bad omen for the living.
 They introduced various trades and skills in Zimbabwe. These included building, carpentry
and needle work. This helped in creating employment and made rural economies viable and
self-sustaining. People therefore started self-help projects.
Non-benefits / Negative effects / Destructive effects of missionary activities in Zimbabwe
 The missionary activities in Zimbabwe led to divisions among the local people. The
converted were given foreign goods so as to attract more. Those converted were also forced
to attack their own culture. This sector looked down upon those who were not converted. The
traditionalists [those not converted], that is, the king and ordinary, like wise looked down
upon the few who were converted like Mangeba, Mzilikazi’s most trusted Induna. The
converted were labeled as out casts. Thus the society was sectorised into two. Thus
missionaries created divisions in an otherwise very united state.
 Missionaries attacked African traditional customs. It was very normal for all missionaries to
attack African customs, values and norms as barbaric. This was expressed in many different
ways, for example, any convert was to take a European name. They also attacked traditional
customs like Motontiso. Thomas Morgan Thomas, for instance, influenced the converts not
to honour it. The Africans were asked to adopt white values because they were seen as
superior, civilised and were more human than African ones.
 The missionaries left missionary work to be employed by concession companies. This was
the case with the LMS whose members were in the pay role of the British South Africa
Company [BSAC]. Missionaries thus became accomplices who assisted in the subjugation of
the Africans. They worked against the local people as interpreters and witnesses and
misinformed African rulers about the realities of colonisation. C D Helm and J S Moffat
brought the real curse to the Ndebele. J S Moffat, for example, took advantage of the
traditional family friendship between the Moffats and the Khumalos to mislead Lobengula to
accept signing the Moffat treaty [February 1888] which excluded concession seekers, hunters
and traders from other European nations. This treaty literally bound Lobengula to the British.
It was this treaty that Rhodes was to build to sign the Rudd concession [October 1888] using
C Helm, whose terms were expressed in a language that amounted to sheer cheating of
Lobengula into giving away not only his mineral rights but his country to Rhodes.
 The missionaries wrote negative reports about Zimbabwe. Thomas Morgan Thomas, for
instance, wrote a number of articles to the International Press portraying the Ndebele and the
monarchy as blood thirsty and also as objects that retarded the spreading of civilisation and
the gospel into the area between Zambezi and Limpopo. It was such demonisation of the
Ndebele which Rhodes used to justify himself for taking over the Ndebele state.
 Nguni incursions
 The Nguni incursions can be seen in the bands of Nguni groups which passed through the
state as they were escaping the disturbances in Nguniland [Mfecane]. There were at least six
groups which included NgwanaMaseko, Zwangendaba’s Ngoni, Nyamazana’s Ngoni,
Nxaba’s group and the Ndebele under Mzilikazi.
Negative effects
 Shona states like Rozvi were overwhelmed. A series of invading groups from the south
burst into the Rozvi territory with great destructive effects. The invasion of the Rozvi state by
Zwangendaba and his Ngoni led to its demise. They caused much suffering on the Rozvi
state and brought about its downfall. The Ngoni destroyed Rozvi villages and killed
thousands of people. According to T O Ranger, archaeologists have found vivid evidence of
their violence and many human skeletons were discovered in the great elliptical building.
Some Shona people were forced to join them. The Ngoni under Nyamazana,
Zwangendaba’s female relative also plundered the state in 1830s. Nyamazana defeated the
Rozvi easily and succeeded in disrupting the state to the extent of killing its Changamire,
Chirisamhuru II, the son of Gomoremvura at Manyanga around 1836. One tradition says he
was skinned alive. Another tradition says his heart was cut out to prove that Mambos were
not double hearted. Birmingham and Martin described the disruption by Nyamazana as
cataclysmically suddenness.
 Other Shona groups’ lives were disrupted. Soshangane and his Gaza-Nguni were set out to
create an empire east of the Save River and between the Zambezi and Limpopo Rivers, an
area occupied by thousands of Shona speakers. Many Ndau men were conscripted into the
Gaza armies.
 The Shona people were subjected to constant raids. Soshangane sent raiding parties from
Chirinda and subdued the local Ndau and Chopi ethnic groups. He established the Gaza state
and continued to plunder as far as Nyanga. The Nxaba stayed in the Rozvi territory for some
time, raiding the Shona for cattle and wives. The Ndebele under Mzilikazi also made
constant raids on the Shona societies. The Ndebele settled in Western Zimbabwe. They
established their state in the area forcing some of their neighbours to pay tribute.
 Portuguese- Shona trading activities collapsed. The long established tradingsystem between
the Portuguese and Shona paramount was shaken and prosperity of both parties to trade
declined. The Shangani raids were also made on Portuguese trading posts of Sofala, Tete and
Sena and the Portuguese were forced to pay tribute to Soshangane.
Positive effects
 Language diversity was established. Soshangana settled in the Shangani area and the Ndebele
in west of Zimbabwe.
 There population increase in the country which was key for military reasons. The Ndebele
played an important role during White encroachment.
 Nguni incursions marked the end of the Prazo system in the Zambezi.
 There was the spreading of the Zulu military tactics to other people north Limpopo which
these Nguni groups carried away with.
 Christianity/Alternative religions
Negative effects
 It challenged various practices of indigenous religion:
 Rain making ceremonies
 Reincarnation ceremonies
 Polygamy
 Ancestral veneration
 Medium ship roles
 Led to clashes between those who believe in the traditional religion and those who accepted
Christian doctrines
 Undermined traditional authority as most Kings felt their powers were curtailed by its
doctrine. Christianity preached equality of all.
 Christian missionaries used it as a tool to make Africans passive to colonialism. The
missionaries published pagan practices by Africans which needed the attention of
European governments. Missionaries invited their government to destroy the Ndebele state
after failing to get converts.
Positives effects
 It ended barbaric practices such as killing of twins
 Ending polygamous marriages empowered women
 Christian missionaries came with developments in health, education and other necessary
infrastructures
 It ended slavery.
 Colonization
Negative effects
 Indigenous rulers lost their powers. Chiefs for instance, were flogged for failure to obtain
labour recruits. This implies that local rulers were deprived of their powers and were
therefore made only the mouthpiece and not formulators of policies. Chiefs even lost their
powers to distribute land and try cases and without these powers it became apparent that they
lost their respect, dignity and political status.
 The creation of boundaries was done without regard to tribal affiliations [connections]. These
boundaries did not correspond with pre-colonial boundaries. As such, the boundaries cut
across pre-colonial ethnic groups. For instance, the border between Zimbabwe and
Mozambique separated the Ndau, Manyika and the Shona. The Tonga were cut across by the
Zimbabwe-Zambia border. The Shangani were cut across by the border between Zimbabwe,
South Africa and Mozambique. Through creation of boundaries, some ethnic groups were
scattered in two or more different states. In many cases, these boundaries disregarded the
plight of unity of many people or ethnic groups. Thus these boundaries created more
problems than they intended to solve.
 Theorists argue that infrastructure built by colonialists was not at all developmental. Walter
Rodney [1990] argues that some roads and railway lines facilitated suppression of anti-
colonial movements. Ake [1981] says colonisers set up infrastructure in order to exploit
Africans. W Rodney [1972] argues that roads and railways were not built for Africans to visit
their friends or to facilitate African internal trade but to extract African wealth, as a result, all
roads andrailways led to the sea and where exports were available, for instance, the railway
line linking Bulawayo and Beira was built to siphon wealth. Rodney argues that whatever
benefits infrastructure brought to Africa were purely incidental or were purely by accident
and not by design. This was evidenced by the fact that areas with little resources had few or
no communication networks at all.
 Colonialism discouraged the establishment of manufacturing industries in Zimbabwe. The
export of goods [raw materials] to Europe discouraged the growth of local industries. Hence
African technology was not given the chance to improve.
 Colonialism impoverished Zimbabweans. This was largely due to colonial policies like
taxation, forced labour, seizure of land and seizure of cattle. Zimbabweans, for instance, lost
their traditional land and were forced to live in reserves like Gwai and Shangani which were
poorly watered, tsetse fly infested, unproductive and inhabitable.
 Colonialism led to the banning of Shona lucrative trade with the Portuguese where they
acquired guns, beads and cloth. This was replaced by exploitative trade with the BSAC
where Africans were not given room to bargain. The goods coming from South Africa
through the BSAC were expensive than those acquired from the Portuguese. This disruption
of trade with the Portuguese which had flourished for centuries was a thorn in the flesh of the
Shona.
 It brought about racial discrimination. Africans were not accepted as equals to the whites and
more often they were subjected to serious racial, social and political inequalities. There were
separate health, recreational and educational facilities and regarded Africans as inferior. In
towns Africans were to live in shanties [overcrowded areas].
 Health facilities were meant primarily for whites. W Rodney [1972 p227] argues that the
building of few hospitals for Africans was an economic investment for colonial benefit
because “more could be gained out of the African worker who maintained basic health”.
Thus a company or plantation would have a hospital specifically for its own workers,
completely ignoring those in surrounding areas. It was only after independence that these
hospitals were used ordinarily.
 Lingua Franca prevented the development of vernacular languages into national languages.
 Colonial education was not meant to benefit Africans, but to serve the following purposes [1]
to train a few Africans who were to become effective colonial functionaries. [2] To make
Africans accommodate Europeans and colonialism. [3] As a tool to dilute African culture.
They wanted educated Africans to see anything African as barbaric. [4] To teach Africans
European languages to enhance communication at work. Colonial administrators put in place
a limited education programme for a few Africans. This is because if they educated all
Africans, they would end up competing with Europeans. The curriculum [direction of the
system] was formulated to meet colonial needs and Africans were trained for semi-skilled
jobs. According to W Rodney [1972 p264], “Colonial schooling was education for
subordination, exploitation, the creation of mental confusion and the development of
underdevelopment”. They wanted to create humble and cheap labour.
Positive effects
 It brought tribal wars to an end, for instance, the skirmishes [conflicts] between the Ndebele
and the Shona came to a halt as soon as the British ventured into the interior.
 Colonialism brought with it new judicial system and civil service. It should be noted that this
judicial system and civil service have endured to this day in exactly the same manner it was
implanted.
 There was establishment of political boundaries in Zimbabwe. This united the warring tribal
groups and created nationhood which the Ndebele and the Shona did not have. They did not
have even the potential to create a nation. Before the advent of the British, Zimbabwe had no
clearly marked boundaries. It should be noted that these boundaries endured to this day.
 There was an improvement in communication networks. The colonial administrators did put
huge sums of money in constructing railway lines, roads, bridges and telegraphs. There was
also introduction of radios and televisions. Bulawayo and Beira, for instance, were linked by
a railway line. It should be noted that in Zimbabwe, no railway line has been constructed
after independence. All railway lines in Zimbabwe today are legacies of colonialism.
According to J C Caldewell, the provision of communication and infrastructure is something
which Africa should acknowledge. This made every part of the country [and Africa in
general] accessible.
 There was introduction of cash crop farming. Several Zimbabweans were used to subsistence
farming. However, with the advent of imperialism they were introduced to commercial
agriculture, that is, the growing of cotton, groundnuts, coffee, tobacco, tea and so on, for sale
and money obtained was used in industrialization of Zimbabwe.
 Industries were launched in Zimbabwe. This created employment. These employment
opportunities given to the Shona and Ndebele earned them money and the life of Africans
was uplifted and they created a new class of Africans. Being a wage earner enabled Africans
to acquire wealth.
 Colonial rule greatly accelerated the growth of urbanization or big towns. This implies that
urbanization was not unknown in pre-colonial Zimbabwe. Urbanization during the colonial
rule had high levels than previously. Big towns like Salisbury and Bulawayo grew faster
during this period. In these cities, modern social facilities particularly health and education
were offered to the residents hence they began to enjoy high standards of living.
 There was introduction of western education. This gave rise to African educated elite, most
of whom dominated the civil service soon after independence. This was very positive also as
these educated Africans led the struggle for independence and were to become rulers soon
after independence. Western education trained Africans along modern lines of politics though
not direct. Such a class of educated people came to constitute the ruling party in the newly
independent Zimbabwe.
 There was introduction of a new common language for communication [Lingua Franca] that
is English. This facilitated communication between numerous linguistic groups in Zimbabwe
like the Ndebele and Shona. It should be noted that this prevented tribalism. This foreign
language, English has remained the official language up to today and it became a media in
schools.
The Importance of cultural heritage
 Economic
 Heritage Tourism is one of the economic significance of cultural heritage. Cultural heritage is
a key player in the visitor attraction sector with heritage visitor attractions representing an
‘integral component of the tourism product in many countries’ (Leask et al. 2002, p.247).
Indeed it has been suggested that ‘often tourism is based on local heritage resources such as
older buildings and customs that attract visitors’ (Madden and Shipley 2012, p.103). In
Zimbabwe, various cultural heritage sites attract tourists. For instance, the Great Zimbabwe
ruins.
 Employment creation is also enabled. For instance, sculptors and weavers sell their
traditional wares to tourism. Curio shops are also opened to sell Souvenirs. Others earn a
living through Nyao dances, playing drums and mbira.
 Traditional medicine practitioners can benefit through selling the medicine
 Political
 Great Zimbabwe ruins influenced the naming of the country Zimbabwe.
 The Great Zimbabwe bird became the national symbol.
 The National Heroes Acre and Mass graves of Zimbabwe around and in other countries show
the country should remain a sovereign nation.
 Njelele Shrine regulates the country’s spiritual affairs.
 Language is integral in the singing of the national anthem
 Social
 According to UNESCO (2019) the Matobo Hills still provide a strong focus for the local
social activities. Mupisa et al (2017) notes that one such shrine in Matopo Hills is the
Njelele where people from all over Zimbabwe come to ask for rain. These rain making
ceremonies help bring peace as drought is controlled, unity as people will be meeting for a
common goal and Unhu/Ubuntu as people learn to respect the shrines as well as the
mediums.
 Oral narratives mould human behaviour. E.g. proverbs
 Cultural institutions facilitates learning of the country’s cultural heritage.
 National symbols are educative of the country’s cultural heritage. For instance, the
Zimbabwean bird enlightens people on history of Great Zimbabwe people of the Hungwe
totem.
 Religious
 Religious beliefs plays a role in controlling human behavior.
 Taboos are integral in preservation of the environment.
 Totems are important in regulating marriage.
 Ancestral veneration control morals.
 Religious practices are also crucial through these ways:
 Reincarnation brings back the spirit in the family for protection
 Rain making is crucial for drought relief
Comparison of the importance of cultural heritage in the precolonial and postcolonial era.
Precolonial Postcolonial
 Polygamy ensured that families had  Monogamous marriages due to
enough labour in the fields. It also Christianity resulted in limited
generated more kinship ties as one kinship ties but however offer more
will be related to more people. emancipation of women
However, freedom of women was a  Some barbaric practices like killing
bit restricted. of twins was abolished as people
 Rain making is crucial for drought now believe in equality of all
relief. people.
 Reincarnation brings back the spirit  Nuclear families due to nature of
in the family for protection the economy promote more
 People valued more extended individualism which hampers
families than nuclear families cooperation. However it ensures
 Human behaviour was governed by that family members are bonded
more by taboos which were written more.
in people’s minds.  Human behaviour governed by the
 Traditional leadership and spirit constitution of the country.
mediums guided the people. However laws may lack enough
awareness
Threats to cultural Heritage

 Political
 Colonialism and neo colonialism(refer to previous notes)
 Globalization (refer to previous notes)
 Economic
 Tourism. It has greatly affected the indigenous culture, especially in relation to the belief
systems of the indigenous culture. Zimbabwe, as a developing country, largely depends on
foreign currency earnings through tourism. This has been made possible by the fact that
Zimbabwe is a popular tourist destination. In an effort to promote the tourism industry,
lodges and recreation facilities have been built at cultural heritage sites. This has happened
because the government and the responsible authorities have put more importance on foreign
currency earnings from tourism at the expense of indigenous material culture.
 Another example of the Zimbabwe material culture under threat is Domboshava Rock Art
Landscape. At this place, the responsible authority which is the NMMZ, fenced off the site to
prevent the locals from carrying out rainmaking ceremonies on the site. Their explanation for
keeping out the locals is that rainmaking ceremonies put at risk the rock art at risk because of
the smoke from fires the locals built carrying out these activities. Such practices alienate the
people from their heritage hence leads to conflicts arising between bodies like the NMMZ
and locals. At Domboshava Rock Art Landscape the locals retaliated to this by panting the
rock art using modern paint.
 Economic hardships. Economic hardships are also another threat to indigenous culture.
These hardships have also affected the availability of researches conducted on the local
culture. Education has been vital in informing about the local languages and most of the
information has been based on researches carried out by colonialists. Although remarkable
researches have been done still more needs to be done to provide the necessary information
to be availed to the locals.
 This has left the locals, especially the youth, not fully knowledgeable about their culture.
Economic hardships have also negatively affected the preservation of cultural heritage sites.
There is not enough money to carry out these activities. Economic hardships also have made
it difficult to carry out sacrificial ceremonies in the sense that many men have left their
homes to go to urban centres to look for employment. This means the continuation of
sacrificial ceremonies and perpetuation of vital traditional cultural practices is now at risk.
 Social
 Urbanisation.it refers to the social process whereby cities grow and societies become more
urban. Urbanisation is a threat to the survival of indigenous culture. The expansion of cities
and development projects has put the various cultural heritage places at risk. One such
example is the Impali Rock Art site in the Midlands a few kilometres west of Shurugwi town
where the building of Unki Mine stands. This means the locals can no longer have their
unlimited access to the places. Besides that indigenous culture perceives mountains and
forests as the habitat of the ancestral spirits. Some sacred mountains and forests have been
destroyed by development projects like mining. The Western education has dominated the
education system in Zimbabwe and most western names of children have gained more
popularity than African names.
 Urbanization has brought about mass exodus of people from rural areas into urban areas and
the fabrics that tie the families together have been broken and some of the family ties are
ignored.
 Modernity and ICT: This includes Information Communication Technology gargets like cell
phones, computers, media both print and electronic. These have exposed the generation and
led to the erosion of Ubuntu. Through ICT tools, people are exposed to things like
Pornography, dirty music, western cultures, violent movies, drugs and other things which are
vices in relation to Ubuntu.
 Modernity is gradually leading to the burial of traditional religious practices. The media has
seen the portrayal of various cultures which has influenced the dance, music and belief
systems of the indigenous people. Through the use of the internet, television and other forms
of media people have been exposed to other cultures. This has led to the embracing of
foreign dress, music and values. This has seen the coming up of situations of polyandry (a
situation where a woman has more than one husband) which were not part and parcel of the
traditional Zimbabwean culture. Homosexuality is slowly being adopted in the Zimbabwean
cultural system although its popularity has been mitigated by laws which do not allow for its
acceptance. Traditional courtship is slowly being replaced by online dating platforms.
Marriage is no longer respected; people are now adopting western culture of casual
relationships.
 Environmental effects. The environmental effects can be noted on cultural objects like dry
stone wall structures and rock art sites. Notable weathering has greatly affected these cultural
objects and put this heritage at risk. Renovations have been made but have also removed the
originality of the structures. Their preservation and conservation is also very expensive.
 Religious
 Christianity. The introduction of the Christian religion changed the indigenous people’s
religion. Christian missionaries ensured a fast decline in traditional culture. Written church
hymns replaced African religious songs. Christianity as a religion also brought with it dress
codes and dancing styles which were alien to the religious performances of the people. The
traditional music instruments like the mbira and the drum were regarded as unholy.
Christian faith also targeted cultural heritage sites which the Africans viewed as sacred
shrines at which they communicated with the ancestors and preached that they were evil. For
example, the building of the church at Hope Fountain which was Lobengula’s residence was
an attempt to desecrate a place which was important in the religious lives of the indigenous
Ndebele.
In addition to this the burial of Cecil John Rhodes at the Matobo Hills was a move to
desecrate the sites. This is because the whites regarded the places as sources of resistance
power for black people. Early missionaries falsely argued that Africans did not believe in a
Supreme Being. They also wrongly claimed that indigenous people had no a religion. It is
from this that they preached and spoke against African Traditional Religion which even
today they see as heathen. The survival of African traditional religion because of Christianity
is under serious threat.
Indigenous knowledge system (IKS) on cultural heritage
What are Indigenous knowledge Systems (IKS)?
 Indigenous knowledge refers to the understandings, skills and philosophies developed by

societies with long histories of interaction with their natural surroundings. For rural and
indigenous peoples, local knowledge informs decision-making about fundamental aspects of
day-today life. Sophisticated knowledge of the natural world is not confined to science.
Societies from all parts of the world possess rich sets of experiences, understanding and
explanations. This knowledge is integral to a cultural complex that also encompasses
language, systems of classification, resource use practices, social interactions, ritual and
spirituality.
 These unique ways of knowing are important facets of the world’s cultural diversity, and
provide a foundation for locally- appropriate sustainable development.
 Mwaura (2008) argues that indigenous knowledge is the aggregate sum of all facts that a
community knows, which has been obtained through involvement or learnt through
observing the knowledge being put into practice.
 Eyong (2007) understands indigenous knowledge to be that knowledge which indigenous
people have come to know and do. It also includes what they have known from their past and
for future generations. For Melchias (2001) these are practices that became established
through trial and error and have proven flexible enough to cope with change. For Flavier et al
(1995) indigenous knowledge is the societal knowledge reservoir, the facilitator of
communication in all decision making processes.
 While the World Bank accepts that defining indigenous knowledge depends on differing
perspectives, Chirimuuta, Gudhlanga and Bhukuvhani (2012) similarly agree that defining
indigenous knowledge depends on whether one is an educationist, social scientist,
representative of traditional religions, an agriculturalist, environmentalist, a medical
practitioner and so forth.
 From the information above, it becomes apparent that there are as many definitions of
indigenous knowledge as there are scholars who attempt to define it. What is common to
most definitions, is that indigenous knowledge is heterogeneous, as communities differ in
terms of their knowledge. This fact renders attempts, especially by the western
epistemologies and ontologies, to homogenize knowledge with western knowledge as the
normative, futile and mischievous. Indigenous knowledge systems are the sum of a
community’s culture and tradition, including their beliefs and practices. While knowledge
can be shared, it cannot be imposed upon another alternative type of knowledge. When that
happens it is violence and lack of respect.
 This knowledge, according to Mawere (2014:7), in Zimbabwe is referred to as ruzivo
rwevana vevhu [ knowledge of the children of the soil]. It is, in most cases, enshrined
in the minds and hearts of its practitioners.
According to Ward (1989), IKS in Africa are known by various names such as:
a) People’s science
b) Ethno-science
c) Folk-ecology
d) Village science, and
e) Local knowledge
What are the characteristics and the significance of Indigenous Knowledge System?
Indigenous Knowledge is:
1. Local: It is rooted to a particular set of experiences, and generated by people living in those
places. It has been said that transferring that knowledge to other places runs the risk of
dislocating it. A home grown form of knowledge, which is derived from the solution of
everyday life problems.
2. Orally transmitted, or transmitted through imitation and demonstration. Writing it down
changes some of its fundamental properties. Often it is not documented but has passed from
one generation to another through oral history
3. The consequence of practical engagement in everyday life, and is constantly reinforced by
experience and trial and error. This experience is characteristically the product of many
generations of intelligent reasoning, and since its failure has immediate consequence for the
lives of its practitioners its success is very often a good measure of Darwinian fitness. It is, as
Hunn (1993:13) neatly puts it, “tested in the rigorous laboratory of survival”.
4. Characteristically shared to a much greater degree than other forms of knowledge, including
global science. This is why it is sometimes called “people’s science”, an appellation which
also arises from its generation in contexts of everyday production. However, its distribution
is still, segmentary, that is socially clustered (Hobart 1993). It is usually asymmetrically
distributed within a population, by gender and age, for example, and preserved through
distribution in the memories of different individual. Specialists may exist by virtue of
experience, but also by virtue of ritual or political authority.
5. Focused on particular individuals and may achieve a degree of coherence in rituals and other
symbolic constructs, its distribution is always fragmentary: it does not exist in its totality or
individual, Indeed, to considerable extent it is devolved not in individuals at all, but in the
practices and interactions in which people engage themselves engage.
Indigenous people view the world we live in as an integral whole. Our beliefs, knowledge,
arts and other forms of cultural expressions have been handed down through the generations.
Integrated in these elements is the knowledge
6. As a dynamic form of knowledge, it changes in line with events that may be taking place in a
society
However, in spite of their diversity and versatility, IKS have been neglected in most
academic and non-academic disciplines. The main reasons for their marginalization by
outsiders (Webster, 1990) include:
a) Lack of documentation
b) Cultural prejudice
c) Professional pride
d) Problems of language
e) Political power exercised by outsiders, and
f) The gap between practitioner and academic cultures.
Examples of indigenous knowledge practices in Zimbabwe
Local controls remain the building blocks for common property resource institutions in many
parts of Zimbabwe (Campbell et al, 1997). In a study of traditional institutions and local
controls relating to trees and spaces of the local environment in Nyamaropa Lands, Nyanga
District, Mandondo (1997) observes that “controls” could be broadly considered as inclusive
framework incorporating codified rules, taboos and regulatory norms. The aforementioned
rules, taboos and norms have implications on the organisation of the local environment and
regimes of resource utilisation occurring in them.
1. Burial places, were accorded special reverences because of their status as spaces where the
dead who became spirits of the clan resided. They were held to be sacred and extraction of
resources from such areas constituted gross desecration of their sacral significance and could
attract secular, political and religious censure. Although there was scope for evading political
censure by human beings, Africans generally believed that ancestral spirits could be evaded
maintaining a universal omnipotent surveillance over the affairs of the living
2. Ancestral spirits were believed to unleash divine (visitations) upon those who in their
extraction and utilisation of resources violated the rules of the land. Spirits were also
believed to inhabit certain flora and fauna as their hosts. Afzelis quanzesis (Mugoriwondo),
for instance, was believed to play host to rain spirits while Ficus Capensis (Muonde) and
Cusonia Spicatus(Mushenje) were favoured by hunter spirits.
3. Sithole’s (2014) research nhimbe [work party] as a community-based development has

discovered that local communities in Chipinge, Gwanda and Tsholotsho in Zimbabwe use
nhimbe, known by various terms in other African communities, as a work party that makes
communities pool resources for sustainable development of their communities. Nhimbe is an
IKS that has been used by local communities from time immemorial. Communities come
together to carry out a task and is commonly used in agriculture. Nhimbe is traditionally used
during the weeding and harvesting seasons, where families come together and help each
other in weeding or ploughing each family’s field. Work that can take a month is completed
in a day or two. This does not only save time but ensures that the workload is minimized, and
food security is achieved. It has even been extended to other work parties such as building
schools, clinics and resourcing schools by pooling resources such as computers to improve
the quality of education in African communities.
4. Nhimbe as an IKS, has equivalence in Zunde raMambo in Zimbabwe. These indigenous

work parties have become safety valves for local communities. They have tremendously
improved the livelihoods of people for the respective local communities in which they are in
use. They have not only transformed livelihoods, but this activity has resulted in sustainable
development as clearly local communities do have indigenous ways of ensuring health, food
security and environment management.
5. ‘Bota reshupa’ (herbal porridge).This term refers to the indigenous herbal porridge made
by the Ndau people. Muyambo (2015) defines bota reshupa as a herbal porridge which is
prepared by using a concoction of traditional herbs soaked in water. The watery substance,
which is kept in a calabash (or dumbu in Ndau language) is then mixed with millet or rapoko
to prepare the porridge. According to Muyambo’s study of the Ndau IKS, one respondent
said “Shupa inoita kuti vana vakure vakagwinya.” [Herbal porridge ensures that children
grow up healthy]. Kugwinya [being healthy] in this instance referred to the child’s ability to
resist attacks from diseases and infections. One grows up not easily susceptible to illnesses.
Scholars such as Chavunduka (1994, 1998), Shoko (2007) and Chinsembu (2015) affirm this
when they state that traditional medicine administered through tree bark, roots and leaves
enhances people’s immunity. The porridge also cures a child’s chipande [the fontanelle]
which affects the centre of the child’s head. Once these symptoms are detected in the child,
the child is quickly taken to its grandmother or a traditional healer who then administers
shupa as a medicine to heal the child. If shupa is ready at the homestead, the mother is urged
to constantly and consistently administer the shupa to the child.
6. Maposa (2011) also demonstrates how IKS are the hallmark of a people’s identity. In a
study among the Shangani people of Masvingo province in Zimbabwe, Maposa discusses a
traditional practice known by the locals as hoko [the rite of circumcision]. He found that
hoko, which is largely an indigenous knowledge system practice, “constitutes a vital socio-
religious syllabus of existential life for the initiates to develop a wholesome pattern of
behaviour through education which enables them to live a stable life in society” (Maposa
2011:483). Hoko in contemporary Zimbabwean society has proven to be useful in the context
of HIV and AIDS. It has proven that indigenous knowledge from the elders could be
solutions to problems afflicting societies. What is needed, therefore, is more research into
these indigenous knowledge systems in order to link them to solutions for existential
problems. Male circumcision or hoko according to Maposa’s research, is a hallmark of the
Shangani people’s identity but more so, research has proven that male circumcision reduces
HIV infection from male to female by 60%. This means a cultural practice that has been in
existence from time immemorial has provided a well sought-after solution to HIV and AIDS
in the world. More practices of this nature should become topics of investigation and
research as humanity continues to search for answers to existential problems.
Management and preservation of cultural heritage
 Management of cultural heritage entails the administration of the legacies of physical
artifacts and intangible attributes of a group or society that is inherited from past generations
for the benefit of future generations.
 Preservation of heritage entails the protection of the ways of living developed by a
community and passed on from generation to generation, including customs, practices,
places, objects, artistic expressions and values.
Legal frameworks on cultural heritage

 Convention on the protection and promotion of cultural diversity
 According to this convention, “Cultural diversity” refers to the manifold ways in which the
cultures of groups and societies find expression. These expressions are passed on within and
among groups and societies. Cultural diversity is made manifest not only through the
varied ways in which the cultural heritage of humanity is expressed, augmented and
transmitted through the variety of cultural expressions, but also through diverse modes of
artistic creation, production, dissemination, distribution and enjoyment, whatever the means
and technologies used.
 Article 1:objectives
The objectives of this Convention are:
a) to protect and promote the diversity of cultural expressions;
b) to create the conditions for cultures to ﬂourish and to freely interact in a mutually
beneficial manner;
c) to encourage dialogue among cultures with a view to ensuring wider and balanced cultural
exchanges in the world in favour of intercultural respect and a culture of peace;
d) to foster inter culturality in order to develop cultural interaction in the spirit of building
bridges among peoples;
e) to promote respect for the diversity of cultural expressions and raise awareness of its value
at the local, national and international levels;
f) to reaffirm the importance of the link between culture and development for all countries,
particularly for developing countries, and to support actions undertaken nationally and
internationally to secure recognition of the true value of this link;
g) to give recognition to the distinctive nature of cultural activities, goods and services as
vehicles of identity, values and meaning;
h) to reaffirm the sovereign rights of States to maintain, adopt and implement policies and
measures that they deem appropriate for the protection and promotion of the diversity of
cultural expressions on their territory;
i) to strengthen international cooperation and solidarity in a spirit of partnership with a view,
in particular, to enhancing the capacities of developing countries in order to protect and
promote the diversity of cultural expressions.
 Article 7 measures to Promote cultural expressions
“Cultural expressions” are those expressions that result from the creativity of individuals,
groups and societies, and that have cultural content. Parties shall endeavor to create in their
territory an environment which encourages individuals and social groups:
a) to create, produce, disseminate, distribute and have access to their own cultural
expressions, paying due attention to the special circumstances and needs of women as well as
various social groups, including persons belonging to minorities and indigenous peoples;
b) to have access to diverse cultural expressions from within their territory as well as from
other countries of the world. Parties shall also endeavor to recognize the important
contribution of artists, others involved in the creative process, cultural communities, and
organizations that support their work, and their central role in nurturing the diversity of
cultural expressions.
 Article 10 education and Public awareness
Parties shall:
a) encourage and promote understanding of the importance of the protection and promotion
of the diversity of cultural expressions, inter alia, through educational and greater public
awareness programmes;
b) cooperate with other Parties and international and regional organizations in achieving the
purpose of this Article;
c) endeavor to encourage creativity and strengthen production capacities by setting up
educational, training and exchange programmes in the field of cultural industries. These
measures should be implemented in a manner which does not have negative impact on
traditional forms of production.
 Article 11 Participation of civil society
Parties acknowledge the fundamental role of civil society in protecting and promoting the
diversity of cultural expressions. Parties shall encourage the active participation of civil
society in their efforts to achieve the objectives of this Convention.
 Constitution of Zimbabwe amendment (No.20) Act 2013

 Section 16 Culture
1. The State and all institutions and agencies of government at every level must promote and
preserve cultural values and practices which enhance the dignity, well-being and equality of
Zimbabweans.
2. The State and all institutions and agencies of government at every level, and all
Zimbabwean citizens, must endeavour to preserve and protect Zimbabwe's heritage.
3. The State and all institutions and agencies of government at every level must take
measures to ensure due respect for the dignity of traditional institutions.
 Section 33 Preservation of traditional knowledge
The State must take measures to preserve, protect and promote indigenous knowledge
systems, including knowledge of the medicinal and other properties of animal and plant life
possessed by local communities and people.
 Section 63. Language and culture
Every person has the right—
a. to use the language of their choice; and
b. to participate in the cultural life of their choice
 Section 282. Functions of traditional leaders
1. Traditional leaders have the following functions within their areas of
jurisdiction--
a. to promote and uphold cultural values of their communities and, in particular, to promote
sound family values;
b. to take measures to preserve the culture, traditions, history and heritage of their
communities, including sacred shrines;
c. to facilitate development;
d. in accordance with an Act of Parliament, to administer Communal Land and to protect the
environment;
e. to resolve disputes amongst people in their communities in accordance with customary
law; and
f. to exercise any other functions conferred or imposed on them by an Act of Parliament.
2. Except as provided in an Act of Parliament, traditional leaders have authority, jurisdiction

and control over the Communal Land or other areas for which they have been appointed, and
over persons within those Communal Lands or areas.
3. In the performance of their functions, traditional leaders are not subject to the direction or
control of any person or authority, except as may be prescribed in an Act of Parliament.
4. An Act of Parliament must provide for the regulation of the conduct of traditional leaders.
 Section 283. Appointment and removal of traditional leaders

An Act of Parliament must provide for the following, in accordance with the prevailing
culture, customs, traditions and practices of the communities concerned--
a. the appointment, suspension, succession and removal of traditional leaders;
b. the creation and resuscitation of chieftainships; and
c. the resolution of disputes concerning the appointment, suspension, succession and removal
of traditional leaders; but--
i. the appointment, removal and suspension of Chiefs must be done by the President on the
recommendation of the provincial assembly of Chiefs through the National Council of Chiefs
and the Minister responsible for traditional leaders and in accordance with the traditional
practices and traditions of the communities concerned;
ii. Disputes concerning the appointment, suspension and removal of traditional leaders must
be resolved by the President on the recommendation of the provincial assembly of Chiefs
through the Minister responsible for traditional leaders;
iii. The Act must provide measures to ensure that all these matters are dealt with fairly and
without regard to political considerations;
iv. The Act must provide measures to safeguard the integrity of traditional institutions and
their independence from political interference.
Legislation governing management of cultural heritage
 National museums and monuments Act Chapter 25:11
AN ACT to establish a board of trustees to administer museums and monuments Zimbabwe; to
provide for the establishment and administration of museums; to provide for the preservation of
ancient, historical and natural monuments, relics and other objects of historical or scientific value
or interest; to provide for the payment of pensions and other benefits to members of the staff of
the board of trustees; and to provide for matters incidental to or connected with the foregoing.
Part IV Monuments and Relics
 According to this Act, “relic” means any—
(a) Fossil of any kind; or
(b) Drawing or painting on stone or petroglyph known or commonly believed to have been
executed in Zimbabwe prior to the 1st January, 1890; or
(c) Weapon, implement, utensil or ornament of historical, archaeological or other scientific
value or interest known or commonly believed to have been used in Zimbabwe prior to the
1st January, 1890; or
(d) Anthropological or archaeological contents of any ancient monument or ancient working;
or
(e) Other object, whether natural or made or executed by man, of historical, archaeological or
other scientific value or interest which is prescribed as being a relic for the purposes of this
Act
 Notification of discovery of ancient monument or relic
(1) The discovery of any ancient monument or relic, other than a relic referred to in
paragraph (e) of the definition of “relic” in section two, shall be notified in writing to
the Board without delay by—
(a) the discoverer thereof; and
(b) the owner or occupier of the land upon which such ancient monument or relic is
discovered when the discovery comes to his notice:
Provided that, where in the course of any mining operations in pursuance of a right
acquired in terms of the Mines and Minerals Act [Chapter 21:05] any person
discovers a fossil and complies with the provisions of this section with respect to that
fossil, that person shall be relieved of any further duty to report in terms of this
section the discovery of any further such fossil in the course of the same mining
operations.
 No alteration, damage or removal without consent of Executive Director
Any person who desires to remove from its original site or to export from Zimbabwe any
national monument, ancient monument or relic or any part thereof to which the provisions of
subsection (1) apply shall, when applying to the Executive Director for his consent, supply
the Executive Director with a drawing or photograph of the monument or relic or part thereof
in question and shall state the exact locality in which it is situated and the place to which and
the purpose for which he desires to remove or export it.
 Notice of alterations and demolitions to be given to Executive Director
Any person who proposes to alter materially or demolish any building erected before the 1st
January, 1910, shall give written notice of such a proposal to the Executive Director so as to
be received by him at least fourteen days prior to the commencement of such alteration or
demolition.
 Traditional medical practitioners Act Chapter 27:14
AN ACT to establish a Traditional Medical Practitioners Council; to provide for the

registration and regulation of the practice of traditional medical practitioners; and to
provide for matters incidental to or connected with the foregoing.
Part III registrar and register of traditional medical practitioners
 Register of traditional medical practitioners and certificates of registration

The Registrar shall establish a Register of traditional medical practitioners.
(2) It shall be the duty of the Registrar—
(a) to enter in the Register, in relation to a registered traditional medical practitioner, his
name, address and date of first registration and such other particulars as the Council may
from time to time determine;
(b) to make in the Register any necessary alterations in the name, address or other particulars
of a registered traditional medical practitioner;
(c) to delete from the Register the name of a registered traditional medical practitioner who
dies;
(d) when required to do so by or under this Act—
(i) to mark in the Register the registration of a person or, as the case may be, the suspension
from practice of a registered traditional medical practitioner; and
(ii) to delete from the Register the registration of a registered traditional medical practitioner;
and generally, in connection with the Register, to comply with the provisions of this Act.
(3) Where the Registrar deletes from the Register the name of a registered person, he shall
enter in the Register a record of the reasons therefor.
(4) If, in the performance of the duties imposed upon him by or under this Act, the
Registrar—
(a) registers an applicant, he shall issue to him a certificate of registration;
(b) deletes from the Register the name of a registered person or marks in the Register the
suspension from practice of a registered person, he shall, if possible, notify him in writing
accordingly.
(5) On an application by a registered person the Registrar may issue to that person a
duplicate certificate of registration—
(a) if he is satisfied as to the identity of the applicant; and
(b) on production by the applicant of an affidavit certifying that the certificate of registration
has been lost or destroyed; and
(c) on payment by the applicant of the appropriate fee, if any, prescribed.
 Offences in connection with Register, etc.

A person who—
(a) makes or causes to be made an unauthorized entry or alteration in, or deletion from, the
Register or a certified copy thereof or extract therefrom or on a certificate of registration; or
(b) procures or attempts to procure for himself or another person
registration or a certificate of registration by means of fraud, a false representation or the
concealment of a material fact; or
(c) makes or causes to be made in connection with an application for registration a false
declaration in a document used for the purpose of establishing his identity; or
(d) wilfully destroys or injures or renders illegible or causes to be destroyed, injured or
rendered illegible an entry in the Register; or
(e) without the permission of the holder, wilfully destroys, injures or renders illegible or
causes to be destroyed, injured or rendered illegible a certificate of registration; or
( f ) forges or utters, knowing the same to be forged, a document purporting to be a certificate
of registration; shall be guilty of an offence and liable to a fine not exceeding level seven or
to imprisonment for a period not exceeding two years or to both such fine and such
imprisonment.
Part IV registration
 Honorary traditional medical practitioners

The Minister, after consultation with the Council and any one or more associations, may direct
the Registrar to register as an honorary traditional medical practitioner, with or without the
qualification as a spirit medium, any person who, by reason of his special standing as a
traditional medical practitioner, deserves to be so registered;
 World Heritage Convention 1972 (convention concerning the protection of the world
cultural and natural heritage)
Article 5
To ensure that effective and active measures are taken for the protection, conservation and of the
cultural and natural heritage situated on its territory, each State Party to this Convention shall
endeavor, in so far as possible, and as appropriate for each country:
(a) To adopt a general policy which aims to give the cultural and natural heritage a function in
the life of the community and to integrate the protection of that heritage into comprehensive
planning programmes;
(b) To set up within its territories, where such services do not exist, one or more services for the
protection, conservation and presentation of the cultural and natural heritage with an appropriate
staff and possessing the means to discharge their functions;
(c) To develop scientific and technical studies and research and to work out such operating
methods as will make the State capable of counteracting the dangers that threaten its cultural or
natural heritage;
(d) To take the appropriate legal, scientific, technical, administrative and financial measures
necessary for the identification, protection, conservation, presentation and rehabilitation of this
heritage; and4
(e) To foster the establishment or development of national or regional centers for training in the
protection, conservation and presentation of the cultural and natural heritage and to encourage
scientific research in this field
Article 8
An Intergovernmental Committee for the Protection of the Cultural and Natural Heritage of
Outstanding Universal Value, called "the World Heritage Committee", is hereby established
within the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization.
Article 11
1. Every State Party to this Convention shall, in so far as possible, submit to the World Heritage
Committee an inventory of property forming part of the cultural and natural heritage, situated
in its territory and suitable for inclusion in the list provided for in paragraph 2 of this Article.
This inventory, which shall not be considered exhaustive, shall include documentation about
the location of the property in question and its significance.
2. On the basis of the inventories submitted by States in accordance with paragraph 1, the
Committee shall establish, keep up to date and publish, under the title of "World Heritage
List," a list of properties forming part of the cultural heritage and natural heritage, as defined
in Articles 1 and 2 of this Convention, which it considers as having outstanding universal
value in terms of such criteria as it shall have established. An updated list shall be distributed
at least every two years.
3. The inclusion of a property in the World Heritage List requires the consent of the State
concerned. The inclusion of a property situated in a territory, sovereignty or jurisdiction over
which is claimed by more than one State shall in no way prejudice the rights of the parties to
the dispute.
4. The Committee shall establish, keep up to date and publish, whenever circumstances shall so
require, under the title of "list of World Heritage in Danger", a list of the property appearing
in the World Heritage List for the conservation of which major operations are necessary and
for which assistance has been requested under this Convention. This list shall contain an
estimate of the cost of such operations. The list may include only such property forming part
of the cultural and natural heritage as is threatened by serious and specific dangers, such as
the threat of disappearance caused by accelerated deterioration, large-scale public or private
projects or rapid urban or tourist development projects; destruction caused by changes in the
use or ownership of the land; major alterations due to unknown causes; abandonment for any
reason whatsoever; the outbreak or the threat of an armed conflict; calamities and cataclysms;
serious fires, earthquakes, landslides; volcanic eruptions; changes in water level, floods and
tidal waves. The Committee may at any time, in case of urgent need, make a new entry in the
List of World Heritage in Danger and publicize such entry immediately.
5. The Committee shall define the criteria on the basis of which a property belonging to
the cultural or natural heritage may be included in either of the lists mentioned in paragraphs
2 and 4 of this article.
6. Before refusing a request for inclusion in one of the two lists mentioned in paragraphs
2 and 4 of this article, the Committee shall consult the State Party in whose territory the
cultural or natural property in question is situated.
7. The Committee shall, with the agreement of the States concerned, co-ordinate and
encourage the studies and research needed for the drawing up of the lists referred to
in paragraphs 2 and 4 of this article.
 The 2003 Convention for the Safeguarding of the Intangible Cultural Heritage
Article 1 Purposes of the Convention
The purposes of this Convention are:
(a) To safeguard the intangible cultural heritage;
(b) To ensure respect for the intangible cultural heritage of the communities, groups and
individuals concerned;
(c) To raise awareness at the local, national and international levels of the importance of the
intangible cultural heritage, and of ensuring mutual appreciation thereof;
(d) To provide for international cooperation and assistance.
Article 2 Definitions
The ‘Intangible Cultural Heritage’, is manifested inter alia in the following domains:
(a) oral traditions and expressions, including language as a vehicle of the intangible cultural
heritage;
(b) performing arts;
(c) social practices, rituals and festive events;
(d) knowledge and practices concerning nature and the universe;
(e) traditional craftsmanship.
Article 11 Role of States Parties

Each State Party shall:
(a) take the necessary measures to ensure the safeguarding of the intangible cultural heritage
present in its territory;
(b) among the safeguarding measures referred to in Article 2, paragraph 3, identify and define
the various elements of the intangible cultural heritage present in its territory, with the
participation of communities, groups and relevant non-governmental organizations.
Article 12 Inventories
1. To ensure identification with a view to safeguarding, each State Party shall draw up, in a
manner geared to its own situation, one or more inventories of the intangible cultural heritage
present in its territory. These inventories shall be regularly updated.
2. When each State Party periodically submits its report to the Committee, in accordance with
Article 29, it shall provide relevant information on such inventories.
Article 13 Other measures for safeguarding
To ensure the safeguarding, development and promotion of the intangible cultural heritage
present in its territory, each State Party shall endeavor to:
(a) Adopt a general policy aimed at promoting the function of the intangible cultural heritage in
society, and at integrating the safeguarding of such heritage into planning programs;
(b) Designate or establish one or more competent bodies for the safeguarding of the intangible
cultural heritage present in its territory; 10. The Convention
(c) Foster scientific, technical and artistic studies, as well as research methodologies, with a view
to effective safeguarding of the intangible cultural heritage, in particular the intangible cultural
heritage in danger;
(d) Adopt appropriate legal, technical, administrative and financial measures aimed at:
(i) Fostering the creation or strengthening of institutions for training in the management of the
intangible cultural heritage and the transmission of such heritage through forums and spaces
intended for the performance or expression thereof;
(ii) Ensuring access to the intangible cultural heritage while respecting customary practices
governing access to specific aspects of such heritage;
(iii) Establishing documentation institutions for the intangible cultural heritage and facilitating
access to them.
Article 14 Education, awareness-raising and capacity-building
Each State Party shall endeavor, by all appropriate means, to:
(a) Ensure recognition of, respect for, and enhancement of the intangible cultural heritage in
society, in particular through:
(i) Educational, awareness-raising and information programmes, aimed at the general public, in
particular young people;
(ii) Specific educational and training programmes within the communities and groups concerned;
(iii) capacity-building activities for the safeguarding of the intangible cultural heritage, in
particular management and scientific research; and
(iv) Non-formal means of transmitting knowledge;
(b) Keep the public informed of the dangers threatening such heritage, and of the activities
carried out in pursuance of this Convention;
(c) Promote education for the protection of natural spaces and places of memory whose existence
is necessary for expressing the intangible cultural heritage.
Article 15 Participation of communities, groups and individuals
Within the framework of its safeguarding activities of the intangible cultural heritage, each State
Party shall endeavor to ensure the widest possible participation of communities, groups and,
where appropriate, individuals that create, maintain and transmit such heritage, and to involve
them actively in its management.
Cultural heritage-traditional leadership and the role of religion in cultural heritage
management
NB. Refer to the notes on constitution of Zimbabwe above for more.
 The duty of the traditional Chief in the traditional Karanga society was to provide the link
between people and the ancestor of the tribe on account of their inherited position.
It was commonly believed that the ancestors of the Chiefs had direct contact with ancestral
spirits of every family. There were so many social norms and values in the traditional
Karanga society. Some people violate these cultural values and laws of the land and these
cases were reported to the chief For example, if a father might be caught having a sexual
relationship with his daughter (makunakuna) or incest the matter was taken straight to the
Chief to preside over such cases.
 Other cases such of sexual abuse (mubobobo and chibharo) were also dealt by the chief.
 The chief was also responsible for distributing land to the headmen who later on allocates
small piece of land to the kraal head who finally distributed it to family members.
 The rain making rituals were also contacted at the Chiefs homestead if there was no other
place. He gave instructions to the rain messengers (Nyusa) or ordained other religious
functionaries to perform a rainmaking ritual at Mabweadziva in the Matopo hills (a religious
shrine known as Matonjeni) (Daneel, 1970).
 They intervene in marital dispute such as divorce. But other marital disputes such as quarrells
and fights were solved at family level by family members. If the members of the family
failed to resolve the dispute they approached the kraal head and latter on to the headman and
lastly to the chief As a result, social disputes may affect children and they find cases they
report to the chief.
 Together with spirit mediums they designated which forests people could hunt, where they
could graze, where they could bury their dead, which days people could rest and not plough
or work in the fields (Chisi) and many other duties.
 Punishing those who violate chisi, sacred places etc.
The role of institutions in managing cultural heritage

 Cultural institutions are organizations within a culture that works for the preservation or
promotion of culture.
 National Museums
 Facilitate citizens’ interaction and engagement with cultural heritage.
 Provide tangible evidence to support the oral tradition e.g. photographs, artifacts like the
Ngoma Lungundu of the Venda.
 The National Gallery
 Allow exhibition of the works of art
 Allow for the conservation of the works of art as others can come and take a leaf from others’
initiatives
 Libraries and archives
 Allows documentation of cultural heritage
 Interpretation of cultural heritage through reading
 historical societies and sites
 the national heroes acre provides evidence of how the country got independence
 The Matobo hills also make people remember the famous Anglo-Ndebele war, Rhodes’
grave is a reminder of how the country fought for its freedom from British colonial rule.
 Great Zimbabwe ruins shade more light on the artistic endeavors of the Shona people. The
ruins give more meaning and clarity to the name ‘Zimbabwe’.
 Schools
 Transmission of culture across generations.
 Promotion of cultural understanding and intercultural dialogue and cultural diversity.
However:
 Financial constrains affect the development of museums
 Climate change has destroyed some historical artifacts e.g. at Great Zimbabwe. Some rock
paintings around the country are suffering from degradation

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VOLUME ONE

2. CULTURE: NORMS, VALUES AND SOCIALISATION______ _30

3. AFRICAN CIVILIZATION AND IDENTITIES______________ 55

4. NATURAL HERITAGE IN ZIMBABWE___________________ _89

Analysis of Arnold’s definition

Analysis of Tylor’s definition

 Natural heritage is usually in the form of tangible heritage

(b) Cultural heritage

 It refers to physical artefacts produced, maintained and transmitted intergenerationally in a

Intangible Cultural Heritage

(c) Mixed heritage (natural and cultural heritage)

(b) Cultural relativism

(c) Cultural ethnocentrism

 The source (https://www.modernghana.com/news/638984/the-lost-of-african-values-

Religion in Zimbabwe (2017)

Strengths of cultural Xenocentrism

 Xenocentrism can help to shed light on cultural deficiencies, whether it be ideas or

 Therefore, the applicability of Xenocentrism on African can be evidenced by a growing youth

(a) Scientific value

(d) Historical value

(g) Political value

 Chewa (also known as Nyanja) is a Bantu language spoken in much

 FURTHER READING: Common words in TjiKalanga and ChiKaranga language(The

 The Ndau (refer to Shona for more)

 Bafana Bafana, - South African national football team.

Importance of norms amongst Africans

Pre-colonial African civilization

Factors which led to the growth of African civilization

Case studies on pre-colonial civilizations in different African societies

 Kingdom of Aksum (East Africa) (300 C.E.-700 C.E.)

 kingdom of Kush (northern Africa)

 Kingdom of Kongo/Congo (Central Africa)

 Great Zimbabwe (southern Africa) 1000 C.E.-1400 C.E.

African people had prior to colonialism. Below is a summary of the developments

Colonial and post-colonial influences on African civilizations

Summary of the negative impact of slavery on African heritage and identity

Social Economic Political

Reverends, Fathers and Dear Compatriots:

Summary of the negative impact of colonialism on African heritage and identity

Social Economic Political

Economic impact of neocolonialism on Africa

Political impact of neocolonialism on Africa

 Advancements in the use information communication technologies (ICTs) has affected

 Globalization (refer to notes on impact of globalization on norms and values)

 Use of minerals in a planned and sustainable manner, recycling of metals.

Soil erosion causes

Soil Erosion effects

Measures of soil conservation and erosion effects reduction

Significance of natural heritage

Impact of colonialism on natural heritage in Zimbabwe

 Creation of national boundaries

Threats and challenges on preservation and conservation of natural heritage

 Frequent droughts. This lead to death of animals, drying up of water bodies

Legislation governing management of natural heritage

 Purposes of recreational parks and powers and duties of Minister in relation

D. Convention on Biological Diversity(CBD), signed in 1992 in Rio de Janeiro

The indigenous knowledge systems on preserving and conserving natural heritage

i. Taboos on sacred forests and mountains

iii. Taboos on water bodies