Domination in Graphs 2

DOMINATION IN GRAPHS
Linda Annam Varghese1, Ambily S2 and Binoy Sebastian3

1,2,3
Assistant professor, Department of basic science, Mount Zion College Of Engineering,
Pathanamthitta,linda
Abstract— Graph theory is one of the most flourishing branches of modern mathematics and
computer applications. In many applications of domination number, bondage number, or domatic
number, it becomes necessary to construct a graph with as few vertices and/or edges as possible with
a given domination number or bondage number or domestic number. It is in this context the usage of
elementary number theoretic principles will help in the constructions of such graphs. This project
consist the study of domination in graphs and its application to several fields. It includes domination
number of a graph and different types of bounds for a domination number.
Keywords—graph theory, tree, cardinality, vertices, loop
I. INTRODUCTION
Domination in graphs has been an extensively researched branch of graph theory. Graph
theory is one of the most flourishing branches of modern mathematics and computer applications.
The last 30 years have witnessed spectacular growth of Graph theory due to its wide applications to
discrete optimization problems, combinatorial problems and classical algebraic problems. It has a
very wide range of applications to many fields like engineering, physical, social and biological
sciences; linguistics etc., the theory of domination has been the nucleus of research activity in graph
theory in recent times. This is largely due to a variety of new parameters that can be developed from
the basic definition of domination. The NP-completeness other basic domination problems and its
close relationship to other NP-completeness problems have contributed to the enormous growth of
research activity in domination theory. It is clearly established from the exclusive coverage of the
“Topics on domination in graph” in the 86th issue of the Journal of Discrete mathematics (1990),
that the theory of domination is a very popular area for research activity in graph theory. The
rigorous study of dominating sets in graph theory began around 1960, even though the subject has
historical roots dating back to 1862 when de Jaenisch studied the problems of determining the
minimum number of queens which are necessary to cover or dominate a n x n chessboard. In 1958,
Berge defined the concept of the domination number of a graph, calling this as “coefficient of
External Stability”. In 1962, Ore used the name “dominating set‟ and “domination number‟ for the
same concept. In 1977 Cockayne and Hedetniemi made an interesting and extensive survey of the
results know at that time about dominating sets in graphs. They have used the notation (G) for the
domination number of a graph, which has become very popular since then. The survey paper of
Cockayane and Hedetniemi has generated lot of interest in the study of domination in graphs. In a
span of about twenty years after the survey, more than 1,200 research papers have been published on
this topic, and the number of papers continued to be on then crease. Since then a number of graph
theorists Konig, Ore, Bauer, Harary, Lasker, Berge, Cockayne, Hedetniemi, Alavi, Allan, Chartrand,
Kulli, Sampthkumar, Walikar, Armugam, Acharya, Neeralgi, NagarajaRao, Vangipuram many
others have done very interesting and significant work in the domination numbers and the other
related topics. Recent book on domination [3], has stimulated sufficient inspiration leading to the
expansive growth of this field of study. It has also put some order into this huge collection of
research papers, and organized the study of dominating sets in graphs into meaningful sub areas,
placing the study of dominating sets in even broader mathematical and algorithmic contexts.
Vasumathi&Vangipuram[8] and Vijayasaradhi&Vangipuram [9] obtained domination parameters of
an arithmetic Graph and also they have obtained an elegant method for the construction of a
DOI:10.21884/IJMTER.2016.3160.U31ZU 135
International Journal of Modern Trends in Engineering and Research (IJMTER)
Volume 03, Issue 12, [December – 2016] ISSN (Online):2349–9745; ISSN (Print):2393-8161
arithmetic graph with the given domination parameter. In most of the researches in Graph theory, the
investigators are content with establishing the existence of a graph with a given graphical parameter.
For example, given domination number as n does there exist a graph with this as the domination
number? Similarly does there exist a graph with given bondage number or with given domatic
number? These problems have been investigated successfully. However in the matter of applications
of these results to real life situations it becomes necessary to evolve the method of constructing such
a graph with a given parameter. Construction of a graph with a given Graph theoretic parameter is
generally difficult by the usual graph theoretic methods. In many applications of domination number,
bondage number, or domatic number, it becomes necessary to construct a graph with as few vertices
and/or edges as possible with a given domination number or bondage number or domestic number. It
is in this context the usage of elementary number theoretic principles will help in the constructions of
such graphs. In Vasumathi and Vangipuram [8], the construction of a graph with a given domination
number has been given, using such a method. A similar method of construction using again
elementary principles of number theory helped in the construction of a graph with a graceful degree
sequence by Vijayasaradhi and Vangipuram.
II. DOMINATING SETS IN GRAPHS
2.1 Definition
A subset S of V of vertices in a graph G=(V,E) is called dominating set if every vertex vεV is
either an element of S or is adjacent to an element of S.
2.2 Definition
For a subset S of V ,a vertex vєS is called an enclave of S if N[v] is a subset of S and vєS is
an isolate of S if N[v] is a subset of V-S.A set is said to be enclave less if it does not contain any
enclaves.
2.3 Defenition
A subset S of V of vertices in a graph G=(V,E) is a dominating set if and only if
 For every vertex vєV-S there exist a vertex uєS such that v is adjacent to u.
 For every vertex vєV-S ,d(v,S)≤1
 N[S]=V
 For every vertex vєV-S,|N[v]пS|≥1 ie;every vertex vєV-S is adjacent
 For every vertex vєV,|N(v)пS|≥1
 V-S is enclave less.
2.4 Remark
If S is a dominating set of a graph G then every superset S‟ of S is also a dominating set. On
the other hand, not every subset S” of S is necessarily a dominating set.
2.5 Definition
A dominating set S is a minimal dominating set if no proper subset S” of S is a dominating
set.
2.6 Theorem
A dominating set S is a minimal dominating set if and only if for each vertex u є S, one of the
following two conditions holds:
 U is an isolate of S,
 there exists a vertex v є V-S for which N(v)п S={u}
Proof: Assume that S is a minimal set of G.T hen for every vertex u є S, S-{u} is not a
dominating set. This means that some vertex v in V-SU {u} is not dominated by any vertex in S-
{u}.Now either v=u, in which case u is an isolate of S, or v є V-S. If v is not dominated by S-{u},
but is dominated by S then the vertex v is adjacent only to a vertex u є S, that is N(v)Пs={u}.
Conversely suppose that S is a dominating set and for each vertex u є S, one of the two stated
conditions holds. We show that S is a minimal dominating set. Suppose that S is not a minimal
dominating set. That is, there exists a vertex u є S such that S-{u} is a dominating set. Hence „u‟ is
@IJMTER-2016, All rights Reserved 136

adjacent to at least one vertex in S-{u}.That is, condition (a) does not hold for u. Thus condition
(a)nor (b) holds, which contradicts our assumption that at least one of these conditions holds.
2.7 Remark
The set of all minimal dominating sets of a graph G is denoted by MDS (G). (the set
{1,3,5}),four (the set{3,6,7,8}) and five (the set{2,4,6,8})Remark2.7:The first three theorems about
dominating sets in graphs were given by Ore in his 1962 book ,Theory of Graphs, as follows;
2ₒ 4 ₒ 2 ₒ 4ₒ
1 ₒ 3 ₒ 5ₒ ₒ6 1ₒ 3ₒ 5ₒ 6ₒ
8 ₒ 7ₒ 8 ₒ 7 ₒ
Figure 1. Minimal Dominating Sets
2.8 Defenition
Let S be a set of vertices, and let u є S. Then a vertex v is said to be a private neighbor of
u(w. r .t S) if N[V] ={u}.
Furthermore, we define the private neighbor set of u , with respect to S, to be
P ={v:N[V] ={u}}
2.9 Remark
Note that u є P if u is an isolate in <S>, in which case we say that u is its own
private neighbor.
2.10 Example
Consider the minimal dominating set {3, 6, 7, 8} in the graph in figure 2.1.Vertex 3 has
vertices 2 and 4 as private neighbors, vertex 8 has vertex 1 as a private neighbor, while vertices 6 and
7 are their own private neighbors.
2.11 Theorem
Every connected graph G of order n≥2 has a dominating set S whose complement V-S is also
a dominating set.
Proof: Let T be any spanning tree of G, and let u be any vertex in V. Then the vertices in T fall into
two disjoint sets S and S‟ consisting respectively ,of the vertices with an even and odd distances from
u in T. Clearly, both S and S‟=V-S are dominating sets for G.
2.12 Theorem
If G is a graph with no isolated vertices , then the complement V-S of every minimal
dominating set S is a dominating set.
Proof: Let S be any minimal dominating set of G. Assume vertex u є S is not dominated by any
vertex in V-S .Since G has no isolated vertices, u must be dominated by at least one vertex in S-
{u},that is S-{u} is a dominating set, contradicting the minimality of S, Thus every vertex in S is
dominated by at least one vertex in V-S and V-S is a dominating set.
2.13 Definition
The domination number γ(G) of a graph G equals the minimum cardinality of a set in
MDS(G),or equivalently the minimum cardinality of a graph in G.
2.14 Definition
The upper domination number Г(G) equals the maximum cardinality of a set in MDS(G),or
equivalently the maximum cardinality of a minimal dominating set of G.
2.15 Definition
For the graph G in figure 2.1 γ(G)=3 while Γ(G)=5.And note that S={1,3,5} is a dominating
set of minimum cardinality. This is called a γ-set of G. Notice further that S is an independent set.
This is also called an independent dominating set of G.

2.16 Definition
The minimum cardinality of an independent dominating set is the independent domination
number i(G).
2.17 Definition
A set S is a total dominating set if N[S]=V, or equivalently if for every vertex vεV, there
exists a vertex uεS ,u≠v , such that u is adjacent to v.The total domination number equals the
minimum cardinality of a total dominating set of G.
2.18 Definition
The connected domination number equals the minimum cardinality of a dominating set S
such that <S> is connected.
2.19 Definition
A set S which is a subset of V of a graph G=(V,E) is called distance 2- dominating set if
every vertex not on S is within distance 2 of at least one vertex in S.
III. BOUNDS ON THE DOMINATION NUMBER
3.1 Bounds In Terms Of Order
An obvious upper bound on the domination number is the number of vertices in the graph.
Since at least one vertex is needed to dominate a graph, we have 1≤γ(G)≤n for every graph of order n
. Both of these bounds are sharp. A graph obtains the lower bound if and only if it has a vertex of
degree n-1 and it achieves the upper bound if and only if the graph G is a set of isolated vertices.
3.1.1 Remark
Each isolated vertex of a graph must be in every dominating set.
3.1.2 Theorem
If a graph G has no isolated vertices then γ(G)≤n/2
3.1.3 Lemma3.3:
If G is a connected graph and γ(G)=n∕2, then there is at most one end vertex adjacent to each
v ε V, except for possibly one vertex which may be adjacent to exactly two end vertices when n is
odd.
Proof : Let G be connected with γ(G)=n/2 and assume that X is the set of end vertices adjacent to a
vertex v, where │X│=t. then the induced sub graph H=<V-{XU{v}}> has no isolates and theorem
3.2 gives ,γ(H)≤(n-t-1)/2.
If n is even say n=2k, then,
k=γ (G) ≤1+(2k-t-1)/2,Which implies that t≤1 as required.
If n is odd say n=2k+1, then,
K=γ (G) ≤1+(2k-t-1)/2
And we deduce that t≤2.Assume in this case (that is, n is odd),that R is the set of vertices that
are adjacent to exactly two end vertices ,where │R│=r .Note that each vertex of R is in any
minimum dominating set of G .Let G‟ be the sub graph formed by removing R and all end vertices
that are adjacent to vertices in R. The set I of isolates of G‟ is dominated in G by R. The graph G‟-I
is isolate-free and has at most 2k+1-3r vertices. Hence by theorem 3.2,
γ(G‟-I)≤(2k+1-3r)/2
A dominating set of G‟-I together with R dominates G: hence,
K=γ(G)≤r+(2k+1-3r)/2
We deduce that r≤1 , completing the proof.
3.1.4 Definition
The corona of two graphs G and H is the graph G‟=G o H from one copy of G and │V(G)│
copies of H where the it vertex of G is adjacent to every vertex in the ith copy of H.
3.1.5 Definition
A graph G is claw-free or net-free, if it do not have a claw or,a net respectively, as an
induced sub graph.

3.2 Bounds In Terms Of Orders And Degree

3.2.1 Theorem
For any graph G, n/(1+Δ(G))≤γ(G)≤n-Δ(G).
Proof: Let S be a γ-set of G.First we consider the lower bound .Each vertex can dominate at most
itself and Δ(G) other vertices.Hence γ(G)≥n/(1+Δ(G))
For the upper bound ,let v be a vertex of maximum degree Δ(G).Then v dominates N[v] and
the vertices in v-N[v] dominate themselves.Hence v-N[v] is a dominating set of cardinality n-
Δ(G).So γ(G)≤n-Δ(G)
3.2.2 Definition
A subdivision of an edge uv is obtained by removing edge uv ,adding a new vertex w,and
adding edges uw and vw.
3.2.3 Definition
A wounded spider is a graph formed by subdividing at most t-1 of the edges of a star for t≥0.
3.2.4 Theorem
For any tree T, γ(T)=n-∆(T) if and only if T is a wounded spider.
Proof: If T is a wounded spider, it is easy to check that γ (T) +∆(T)=n. Let T be a tree with
∆(T)+γ(T)=n and v be a vertex of maximum degree . If T-N[v]=φ, then T is a star K₁ ‚t with t≥0 ( a
wounded spider).So assume there exist at least one vertex in T-N[v].Let Ι be any maximal
independent set of <T-N[v]>.Then IU{v} is an independent dominating set for T .Hence
n=γ(T)+∆(T)≤|I|+1+∆(T)≤n implying that V-N[v] is an independent set. Furthermore N[v] is also is
an independent set, since any edge in N[v] creates a cycle. The connectivity of T implies that each
vertex in V-N[v] must be adjacent to at least one vertex in N[v].More over if anyone vertex in V-
N[v] is adjacent to two or more vertices in N[v], then a cycle is formed. Hence each vertex in V-
N[v] is adjacent to exactly one vertex in N[v].To ensure that ∆(T)+1 vertices are necessary to
dominate T, there must be at least one vertex in N[v] which is not adjacent to any vertex in V-N[v]
and each vertex in N[v] has either 0 or 1 neighbors in V-N[v]. Therefore T is a wounded spider.
3.3 Bounds In Terms Of Degree, Diameter And Girth
3.3.1 Remark
In a graph G of diameter 2 the open neighborhood of any vertex v є V(G) dominates G and
the following upper bound is immediate.
3.3.2 Theorem
If a graph G has diam(G)=2, then γ(G)≤ δ(G).
Proof: Since diam(G)=2, for any u є V(G),N(u) is a dominating set. But |N(u)|=d(u).There fore for
each vertex u є V(G), there is a dominating set of cardinality d(u).Hence the cardinality of the
minimal dominating set is less than or equal to δ(G).That is, γ(G)≤∆(G).
3.3.3 Theorem
For any connected graph G, (diam(G)+1)/3 ≤γ(G)
Proof: Let S be a γ-set of a connected graph G. Consider an arbitrary path of length diam(G).This
diametral path includes at most two edges from the induced sub graph <N[v]> for each v є S.
Furthermore since S is a γ-set, thediametral path includes at most γ(G)-1 edges joining the
neighborhoods of the vertices of S. Hence diam(G)≤2γ(G)+γ(G)-1=3γ(G)-1 implies that
,(diam(G)+1)/3≤γ(G).
3.3.4 Theorem
If a graph G has no isolated vertices and diam(G)≥3 then γ( )=2.
Proof: Let x and y be vertices of G such that d(x , y)= diam(G)≥3.Obviously x and y dominate
since there is no vertex in G adjacent to both x and y. Hence {x, y} dominates and γ( )≤2.If
γ( )=1, then G has an isolated vertex, which is a contradiction to the hypothesis.
IV. APPLICATIONS OF DOMINATION IN GRAPHS
Domination in graphs has applications to several fields. Domination arises in facility location
problems, where the number of facilities (e.g., hospitals, fire stations) is fixed and one attempts to

minimize the distance that a person needs to travel to get to the closest facility. A similar problem
occurs when the maximum distance to a facility is fixed and one attempts to minimize the number of
facilities necessary so that everyone is serviced. Concepts from domination also appear in problems
involving finding sets of representatives, in monitoring communication or electrical networks, and in
land surveying (e.g., minimizing the number of places a surveyor must stand in order to take height
measurements for an entire region).
4.1 School Bus Routing:
Most school in the country provide school buses for transporting children to and from
school Most also operate under certain rules, one of which usually states that no child shall haveto
walk farther than, say one quarter km to a bus pickup point. Thus, they must construct a route for
each bus that gets within one quarter km of every child in its assigned area. No bus ride can take
more than some specified number of minutes, and Limits on the number of children that a bus can
carry at any one time. Let us say that the following figure represents a street map of part of a city,
where each edge represents one pick up block. The school is located at the large vertex. Let us
assume that the school has decided that no child shall have to walk more than two blocks in order to
be picked up by a school bus. Construct a route for a school bus that leaves the school, gets within
two blocks of every child and returns to the school.
4.2 Radio Stations:
Suppose that we have a collection of small villages in a remote part of the world. We would
like to locate radio stations in some of these villages so that messages can be broadcast to all of the
villages in the region. Since each radio station has a limited broadcasting range, we must use several
stations to reach all villages. But since radio stations are costly, we want to locate as few as possible
which can reach all other villages. Let each village be represented by a vertex. An edge between two
villages is labeled with the distance, say in kilometers, between the two villages Let us assume that a
radio station has a broadcast range of fifty kilometers. What is the least number of stations in a set
which dominates (within distance 50) all other vertices in this graph? A set (B, F, H, J} of cardinality
four is indicated in the following figure(b). Here we have assumed that a radio station has a
broadcast range of only fifty kilometers, we can essentially remove all edges in the graph, which
represent a distance of more than fifty kilometers. We need only to find a dominating set in this
graph. Notice that if we could afford radio stations which have a broadcast range of seventy
kilometers, three radio stations would sufficient.
4.3 Locating Radar Stations Problem:
The problem was discussed by Berge. A number of strategic locations are to be kept under
surveillance. The goal is to locate a radar for the surveillance at as few of these locations as possible.
How a set of locations in which the radar stations are to be placed can be determined.
4.4 Nuclear Power Plants Problem:
There are various locations and an arc can be drawn from location x to location y if it is
possible for a watchman stationed at x to observe a warning light located at y. How many guards are
needed to observe all of the warning lights, and where should they be located? At present,
domination is considered to be one of the fundamental concepts in graph theory and its various
applications to ad hoc networks, biological networks, distributed computing, social networks and
web graphs [1, 25, 27, 47] partly explain the increased interest. Such applications usually aim to
select a subset of nodes that will provide some definite service such that every node in the network is
„close‟ to some node in the subset. The following examples show when the concept of domination
can be applied in modeling real-life problems.
4.5 Modeling Biological Networks:
Using graph theory as a modeling tool in biological networks allows the utilization of the
most graphical invariants in such a way that it is possible to identify secondary RNA (Ribonucleic
acid) motifs numerically. Those graphical invariants are variations of the domination number of a

graph. The results of the research carried out in show that the variations of the domination number
can be used for correctly distinguishing among the trees that represent native structures and those
that are not likely candidates to represent RNA.
4.6 Modeling Social Networks:
Dominating sets can be used in modeling social networks and studying the dynamics of
relations among numerous individuals in different domains. A social network is a social structure
made of individuals (or groups of individuals), which are connected by one or more specific types of
interdependency. The choice of initial sets of target individuals is an important problem in the theory
of social networks. In the work of Kelleher and Cozzens, social networks are modeled in terms of
graph theory and it was shown that some of these sets can be found by using the properties of
dominating sets in graphs.
4.7 Facility Location Problems:
The dominating sets in graphs are natural models for facility location problems in operational
research. Facility location problems are concerned with the location of one or more facilities in a
way that optimizes a certain objective such as minimizing transportation cost, providing equitable
service to customers and capturing the largest market share. 2.9 Coding Theory The concept of
domination is also applied in coding theory as discussed by Kalbfleisch, Stanton and Horton and
Cockayne and Hedetniemi . If one defines a graph, the vertices of which are the n-dimensional
vectors with coordi- nates chosen from{1,..., p}, p > 1, and two vertices are adjacent if they differ in
one coordinate, then the sets of vectors which are (n, p)- covering sets, single error correcting codes,
or perfect covering sets are all dominating sets of the graph with determined additional properties.
2.10 Multiple Domination Problems An important role is played by multiple domination. Multiple
domination can be used to construct hierarchical overlay networks in peer-to-peer applications for
more efficient index searching. The hierarchical overlay networks usually serve as distributed
databases for index searching, e.g. in modern file sharing and instant messaging computer network
applications. Dominating sets of several kinds are used for balancing efficiency and fault tolerance as
well as in the distributed construction of minimum spanning trees. Another good example of direct,
important and quickly developing applications of multiple domination in modern computer networks
is a wireless sensor network.
V. CONCLUSION
By doing this project I reached the conclusion that the dominations in graphs has application
to different fields. Concepts from domination also appear in problems involving communication or
electrical networks and facility location problems.
REFERENCES
[1] Teresa W. Haynes, Stephen T. Hedetniemi & Peter J. Slater (1998), Fundamentals Of Domination In Graphs.
[2] Jennifer M. Tarr (2010), Domination In Graphs.
[3] Paul Andrew Drayer, Jr (2000), Applications and Variations of Domination In Graphs.
[4] http://scik.org
[5] www.willamette.edu/~Jlaison
[6] Preeti Gupta ,Domination In Graph with Application.

Domination in Graphs 2

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Domination in Graphs 2

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DOMINATION IN GRAPHS

Linda Annam Varghese1, Ambily S2 and Binoy Sebastian3

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3.2 Bounds In Terms Of Orders And Degree

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