MINERALS

A mineral is a naturally occurring (produced in nature, not in factories or laboratories),

homogeneous (has the same composition and structure throughout), crystalline solid (solid in which
atoms are not distributed randomly, but rather remain fixed in a specific, orderly pattern) that has a
definable chemical composition (contains specific elements in specific proportions) and, in most cases, is
inorganic (compounds which do not contain carbon).

CRYSTALLINE STRUCTURE AND GROWTH OF MINERALS

Every mineral has a crystalline structure, and therefore every mineral is a crystal. A crystal is any
solid element or compound whose atoms are arranged in a regular, periodically repeated three-
dimensional pattern. This orderly, repetitive arrangement of atoms is the crystalline structure of a
mineral.

The process of crystal growth starts with the chance appearance of a seed, meaning an extremely
tiny crystal. Once the seed exists, other atoms in the surrounding material attach themselves to the faces
of the seed. As the crystal grows, its faces move outward, so that at any given time, the youngest part of
the crystal lies at the crystal face. Crystal faces maintain the same orientation relative to each other as
they grow. A crystal’s shape depends both on the geometry of the crystal lattice and on whether the
crystal can grow faster in one direction than the others.

A crystal face is a flat surface that develops if a crystal grows freely in an uncrowded
environment If a mineral grows without being inhibited by its surroundings, it becomes a euhedral
crystal. When a mineral grows freely, it commonly forms a symmetrical crystal with perfectly flat faces
that reflect light like a mirror. If, however, the surroundings inhibit the growth of a mineral, an anhedral
crystal develops. In nature, mineral crystals often impede the growth of adjacent crystals. For this reason,
minerals rarely show perfect development of crystal faces.

FORMATION OF MINERALS

1. Solidification of a melt: The process by which a liquidtransforms into a solid is called

solidification or freezing. During solidification, atoms or ions lock into lattice positions at the
surface of a crystal.

2. Precipitation from a liquid solution: During precipitation, ions dissolved in liquid bond
together, forming a solid crystal that separates from the liquid.

3. Diffusion in solids: Diffusion involves the migration of atoms or molecules through a material.
Formation of certain minerals involves diffusion of atoms through a solid, a process that happens
much more slowly than does diffusion through air or water. Diff using atoms can move to a new
location within a solid and attach to other atoms or can rearrange within a solid. Both processes
allow a new crystal of a different mineral to grow.

4. Biomineralization: Some minerals form at the interface between the physical and biological
components of the Earth System. Th is process, called biomineralization, occurs when
metabolism in living organisms causes atoms to precipitate either within or on the organisms’
cells or immediately adjacent to their cells.
 5. Precipitation from a gas: Around volcanic vents, where volcanic gases and steam enter the
atmosphere and cool very quickly, minerals precipitate directly from the gas to form deposits
around the vent.

CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF ROCKS

Most common minerals consist of a small number of different chemical elements—usually two to
five. A total of 88 elements occurs naturally in Earth’s crust. However, eight elements—oxygen, silicon,
aluminum, iron, calcium, sodium, potassium, and magnesium—make up more than 98 percent of the
crust. However, the eight abundant elements commonly combine in only a few ways. As a result, only
nine rock-forming minerals (or mineral “groups”) make up most rocks of Earth’s crust.

A few minerals are made up of a single element. Most minerals, however, are made up of two to
five essential elements. More than 3,500 minerals are known.

Group Example minerals Economic use

Oxides Hematite Ore of iron
Corundum Gemstone; abrasive
Magnetite Ore of iron
Chromite Ore of chromium
Sulfides Galena Ore of lead
Pyrite Fool’s gold
Chalcopyrite Ore of copper
Cinnabar Ore of mercury
Sulfates Gypsum Plaster
Anhydrite Plaster
Barite Drilling mud
Halides Halite Common salt
Sylvite Fertilizer
Native elements Gold Electronics, jewelry
Copper Electronics
Diamond Gemstone, abrasive
Sulfur Drugs, chemicals
Platinum Catalyst
Graphite Pencil lead, lubricant
Silver Photography, jewelry
Silicates Olivine Slag conditioner
Jadeite Gemstone
Muscovite Insulator
Quartz Glassmaking, ceramics
Garnet Gemstone
Hornblende Construction
Biotite Filler
Feldspars Glassmaking, ceramics

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF MINERALS

1. Crystal Habit. This refers to the characteristic shape of an individual crystal and the manner in
which aggregates of crystals grow. If a crystal grows freely, it develops a characteristic shape that
 the arrangement of its atoms controls. Some minerals occur in more than one habit. They could
be described as acicular, bladed, tabular, equant, blocky, platy, prismatic, etc.

2. Cleavage. This is the tendency of some minerals to break along flat surfaces. The surfaces are
planes of weak bonds in the crystal. The number of cleavage planes, the expression—or quality—
of cleavage, and the angles between cleavage planes all help in mineral identification. A flat
surface created by cleavage and a flat crystal face can appear to be very similar. However, a
cleavage surface is repeated when a crystal is broken, whereas a crystal face is not.

3. Fracture. This is the manner in which a mineral breaks other than along planes of cleavage.
They could be described as conchoidal, fibrous, hackly, parting, etc.

4. Hardness. This 0is the resistance of a mineral to scratching and is one of the most commonly
used properties for identifying a mineral. It is easily measured and is a fundamental property of
each mineral because it is controlled by the bond strength between the atoms in the mineral. To
measure hardness more accurately, geologists use a scale based on 10 minerals, numbered 1
through 10. Each mineral is harder than those with lower numbers on the scale—so 10 (diamond)
is the hardest and 1 (talc) is the softest. The scale is known as the Mohs hardness scale, after
Friedrich Mohs, the Austrian mineralogist who developed it in the early 19th century. Because
the minerals of the Mohs scale are not always handy, it is useful to know the hardness values of
common materials.

Mohs Number Mineral Common Objects with Similar Hardness

10 Diamond
9 Corundum
8 Topaz
7 Quartz
6 Orthoclase Steel file
5 Apatite Knife blade; window glass
4 Fluorite
3 Calcite Copper penny
2 Gypsum Fingernail
1 Talc

5. Specific Gravity. This is the weight of a substance relative to that of an equal volume of water.
Most common minerals have a specific gravity of about 2.7. Metals have a much higher specific
gravity. Gold has the highest specific gravity of all minerals at 19.

6. Color. This results from the way a mineral interacts with light. The color you see when looking
at a mineral represents the colors of the light spectrum that the mineral doesn’t absorb. Some
minerals always have the same color, but others come in a range of colors. Color variations in a
mineral may be due to impurities in the crystal lattice.

7. Streak. This refers to the color of the fine powder of a mineral. It is observed by rubbing the
mineral across a piece of unglazed porcelain known as a “streak plate.” Many minerals leave a
streak of powder on the plate with a diagnostic color. Streak is commonly more reliable for
identification than the color of the mineral itself.
 8. Luster. This is the manner in which a mineral reflects light. They could be metallic, submetallic,
or nonmetallic (vitreous, splendent, resinous, adamantine, greasy, waxy, pearly, silky, earthy,
etc.)

9. Other properties

a. Feel (e.g., graphite)

b. Smell (e.g., sulfur)
c. Taste (e.g., halite)
d. Double refraction (e.g., calcite)
e. Reaction to acid (e.g., calcite and some other carbonate minerals)
f. Magnetism (e.g., magnetite)
g. Radioactivity (e.g., carnotite)
h. Fluorescence (property to emit visible light when they are exposed to ultraviolet light, e.g.,
sodalite)
i. Phosphorescence (property to continue to emit light after the external stimulus ceases, e.g.,
willemite)

ECONOMICALLY IMPORTANT MINERALS

1. Industrial society depends on metals such as iron, copper, lead, zinc, gold, and silver.
2. Ore minerals are minerals from which metals or other elements can be profitably recovered.
Most metals are chemically bonded to other elements.
3. Industrial minerals are not metal ores, fuels, or gems but have economic value nonetheless. For
example, halite is mined for table salt, and gypsum is mined for plaster and sheetrock, apatite and
other phosphatic minerals are sources of the phosphate fertilizers crucial to modern agriculture,
calcite is a raw ingredient of cement, native sulfur is used to manufacture sulfuric acid,
insecticides, fertilizer, and rubber
4. A gem is a mineral that is prized primarily for its rarity and/or beauty, although some gems, such
as diamonds, are also used industrially. Depending on its value, a gem can be either precious or
semiprecious. Precious gems include diamond, emerald, ruby, and sapphire. Several varieties of
quartz—including amethyst, agate, jasper, and tiger’s eye—garnet, olivine, topaz, turquoise, and
many other minerals are semiprecious gems.

HARMFUL AND DANGEROUS MINERALS

In nature, most environmentally hazardous rocks and minerals are buried beneath the surface,
where they are unavailable to plants and animals. Natural weathering and erosion expose them so slowly
that they do little harm. Most minerals that contain toxic metals or other elements are also relatively
insoluble. In most natural environments, they weather so slowly that they release the toxic materials in
low concentrations. However, if pollution controls are inadequate, mining, milling, and smelting can
concentrate and release hazardous natural materials at greatly accelerated rates, poisoning humans and
other organisms.

Some examples include:

1. Asbestos is an industrial name for a group of minerals that crystallize as long, thin fibers.
Asbestos is commercially valuable because it is flame-proof, chemically inert, and extremely
strong. Asbestos has been used to manufacture brake linings, fireproof clothing, insulation,
shingles, tile, pipe, and gaskets but now is allowed only in brake pads, shingles, and pipe.
Asbestos is a powerful carcinogen—a cancer-causing substance.
2. Radon is one of a series of elements formed by the radioactive decay of uranium. Uranium occurs
naturally in small concentrations in several minerals and in all types of rock, but it concentrates in
two abundant rocks—granite and mudstone. It is also found in soil that formed from granite and
mudstone, and in construction materials made from those rocks, such as aggregate or concrete.
Radon is itself radioactive, and it decays quickly into other radioactive elements. Because of their
radioactivity, radon and its decay products are carcinogenic, and because it is a gas, we inhale
radon into our lungs.

3. Sulfide ore minerals are combinations of metals such as lead, zinc, copper, cadmium, mercury,
and other heavy metals addition to the metals. These minerals are mined for their metals, which
are essential to modern industrial societies. However, mining and refining sulfide ore minerals
can create serious air and water pollution problems. When these minerals are mined or refined
without adequate pollution control, sulfur escapes into streams, groundwater, and the atmosphere,
where it forms hydrogen sulfide and sulfuric acid. Waterborne sulfides poison aquatic organisms,
and atmospheric sulfur compounds contribute to acid precipitation. The sulfuric acid that forms
from the weathering of sulfide ore minerals can cause other minerals from the rock in and around
the mining site to be dissolved. Dissolution of these minerals releases into solution the metals
they contain in their crystal structure. Once dissolved, the metals can quickly become part of the
groundwater and surface water systems if not contained. Arsenic, lead, zinc, and copper are
several of the metals that are common pollutants in areas affected by acid mine drainage.

4. Most common minerals such as feldspar and quartz are harmless in their natural states in solid
rock. However, if these minerals are ground to dust, they can enter the lungs and cause serious
and even fatal inflammation and scarring of the lung tissue, called silicosis. On-the-job exposure
to silica dust can occur in mining, stonecutting, quarrying, building and road construction,
working with abrasives, sandblasting, and other occupations and hobbies.