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10 Reasoning

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6 views18 pages

10 Reasoning

Uploaded by

namanmaurya000
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© © All Rights Reserved
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Download as KEY, PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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Symbolic reasoning under

uncertainty
Reasoning

Reasoning is the process of thinking;


reasoning is logically arguing; reasoning is
drawing inference.
When a system is required to do something,
that it has not been supposed to do, it must
reason. It must figure out what it needs to
know from what it already knows.
Reasoning is the act of deriving a conclusion
from the available set of data and
information.
Reasoning Under Uncertainty

The world is an unknown place; often the


knowledge is imperfect which causes
uncertainty. Therefore reasoning must be
able to operate under uncertainty.
AI systems must have ability to reason
under conditions of uncertainty.
Example: If we know :
Robins are birds.
All birds have wings.
Then if we ask: Do Robins have wings?
To answer this question , some reasoning
must go.
Reasoning Under Uncertainty

Most tasks requiring intelligent behavior have


some degree of uncertainty associated with
them.

The type of uncertainty that can occur in


knowledge-based systems may be caused by
problems with the data. For example:

Data might be missing or unavailable.


Data might be present but unreliable or ambiguous
due to measurement errors.
The representation of the data may be imprecise or
inconsistent.
Data may just be user’s best guess.
Data may be based on defaults and the defaults may
have exceptions.
Reasoning Under Uncertainty

Desired actions
Uncertainties

Incomplete Compensate for


knowledge incomplete
Inconsistent knowledge.
knowledge Resolve
Changing ambiguities and
knowledge contradictions.
Update the
knowledge over
time
Reasoning Under Uncertainty: contd.

The uncertainty may also be caused by the


represented knowledge.

Not be appropriate in all situations (e.g., may


have indeterminate applicability)

Given these numerous sources of errors, most


knowledge-based systems require the
incorporation of some form of uncertainty
management.
Reasoning Under Uncertainty: Implementation Issues

When implementing some uncertainty


scheme we must be concerned with three
issues:

How to represent uncertain data?


How to combine two or more pieces of
uncertain data?
How to draw inference using uncertain data?

Implementation Method: Using


Probabilities
Types of Reasoning

1. Non-Monotonic Reasoning
2. Fuzzy Reasoning
3. Temporal Reasoning
4. Symbolic Reasoning
5. Statistical Reasoning
Nonmonotonic Reasoning
Monotonic Reasoning
When facts and rules helps to infer new
information through logical reasoning.
These facts and rules are certain and consistent
and store in a knowledge Base.
New facts to be added in knowledge base and
bound to be consistent with previous knowledge –
known as MONOTONIC Reasoning.
When some conclusion is drawn as true, it remains
true under all circumstances e.g.:- Proving
mathematical theorems etc.
Non-monotonic Reasoning

When new facts contradict the earlier ones


and remove the same fact from the database.
This type of reasoning is called non-
monotonic reasoning.
A logic is non-monotonic if the truth of a
proposition may change when new
information (axioms) are added.
So, at any point of time an statement is
either:-
believed to be true,
believed to be not true,
Not believed to be true or not true
Features of Non-Monotonic reasoning

1. Allows a statement to be retracted(Draw or back-in

draw i.e. bidirectional operator).


2. Used to formalize plausible (believable) reasoning.
Example1: Birds typically fly.
Tweety is a bird.
Tweety (presumably )fly.
3. Conclusion of non-monotonic argument may not be

correct.
Example2: If Tweety is a penguin,
it is incorrect to conclude that Tweety flies.
(because, in example 1 , default values were applied
when case-specific information was not available).
Type of non-monotonic reasoning

Abduction:-
It works on the principle of inferring some situation
based on the current evidence and series of past events.
When new contradictory evidence is encountered, the
previous evidence is removed and new one is
considered.
Example:- if a patient has symptoms of vomiting, as per
general belief the it is due to food-poisoning but after
investigation it is found that the disease actually is
Diarrhoea.
So, the earlier information would be replaced by new
one.
Type of non-monotonic reasoning(Cont..)

Property inheritance:-
based on the concept of inheritance(subclass-
superclass).
In situation where the subclass does not inherit
properties of parent class, it is specifically
mentioned.
For exp.:-we know that bird can fly and Ostrich
is a bird.
Infer that Ostrich can fly but it is wrong.
Flying is inherited property of bird, So special
mention that some birds can not fly.
Fuzzy Reasoning

Fuzzy set theory is a means of specifying how well


an object satisfies a unclear description.
EXAMPLE- This building is very beautiful.
Fuzzy:- How much beautiful?
He is a fat boy.

Fuzzy:- How much fat?


Fuzzy systems allow the degree of belonging or the
degree of membership to vary between 0 and 1.
If the degree of membership is exactly equal to
either 0 or 1, we say that the variable is non-fuzzy.
Fuzzy if – then rules
General Format
If x is A then y is B
Examples:
If the road is slippery, then driving is
dangerous.
If speed is high, then apply the brakes a little.
Temporal Reasoning

Temporal (Relating to time or world) logics use


modal operators in relation to concepts of time, such
as past, present, future, sometimes, always etc.
Humans give reason about space and time through
both quantitative and qualitative assertions
(confident statement or belief) and relationship.
That object is closer to me.
That event occurred a long time ago.
That event happened 6 minutes and 30 seconds ago.
Humans use these assertions to make decisions in
their environment. E.g., if an object is very close to
me and if it is a heavy object, it might hurt me and I
have to avoid it by moving aside (decision).
Symbolic Reasoning

Symbolic reasoning relies on symbols rather than


mathematical equations.
Example:- in prolog , “IF” represents as “:-”
in English “THAT IS” represent as:- “i.e.”
Statistical Reasoning
When reasoning is totally based on statistical ideas.
Interpretations are totally based on data, graphical
representations etc.
Types of Statistical Reasoning
Reasoning about data:- recognizing or categorization data
as quantitative or qualitative, discrete or continuous.
Reasoning about representation of data:-
Understanding the way in which a plot is meant to represent
a sample, understanding how graphs may be modified to
better represent a data set.
Reasoning about uncertainty:- correctly using ideas of
randomness, chance to make judgments about uncertain
events.

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