Item Writing For Intelligence Test

UNIT II
ITEMS FOR INTELLIGENCE TESTS

The different kinds of item suitable for intelligence tests, essentially following Spearman’s
(1927) definition of intelligence in terms of factoranalytic results are discussed below. The
most convincing factorial analysis of abilities, having regard to the technical problems of
factor analysis, seems to be that of Hakstian and Cattell (1974). From this work, the basis of
which is fully discussed in Cattell (1971), two factors of intelligence emerge: GF fluid ability
and GC crystallized ability.
Fluid ability closely resembles Spearman’s ‘g’ in that it involves the capacity to perceive
relations and educe correlates but with materials which minimize individual differences in
education and acculturation. Crystallized ability involves these same capacities but as they
are realized within any given culture. Most efficient intelligence tests, devised before the
factorial splitting of g into crystallized and fluid ability, in fact have items which load on
both these factors. Since the crystallized ability represents the extent to which an individual’s
fluid ability has been utilized in a culturally viable way, it can be seen that the kind of items
tapping each ability will be similar in principle but different in detail
1. ANALOGIES
Definition
Analogy is a type of item format where the test taker is asked to identify the relationship between
two pairs of words and then apply that same to a new pair or words. This assesses the test taker’s
ability to recognize patterns, make connections and understand relationships between concepts .
The analogy is a type of item commonly found in most tests of intelligence. It is particularly useful
because, first, the difficulty level is easily manipulated, in respect of the actual relationship and not
just the obscurity of objects to be related, a feature making for items suitable for all age groups and
levels of ability.
Second, the materials with which the analogies are to be made can be almost limitless. This means
that analogies are a suitable item form for both gc and gf tests. There follows a number of examples
of analogies items. All items are constructed by the present author. They have not been tried out
(except where stated), and their only validity is face validity. These are the examples of item types,
which may not be good items. The comments are designed to explicate their construction. Their
quality would be judged by the item statistics and the subsequent validity of tests of which they
formed a part. Each item involves a relationship which must be reduced, hence their importance for
intelligence testing.
Example 1
Vulture is to bird as cobra is to …

(a) animal, (b) ant, (c) fish, (d) bird, (e) reptile This item is suggested as a possible equivalent in
Africa or India. Whether in fact these classifications would be there as well known as the
alternatives in the first item are in Britain would be determined in the test trials. This problem
highlights the need in cross-cultural testing to know the culture for which the test is intended
well.
Example 2
Television is to microscope as telephone is to …
a) amplifier, (b) microprocessor, (c) microdot, (d) microphone, (e) loudspeaker
This would appear to be a difficult item, measuring GC mainly but also GF. This item requires a
reasonable amount of knowledge of the function of modern high technology gadgets before it
can be correctly answered. However, in addition, the analogy itself is not so glaringly obvious.
Thus, the correct solution demands that the subject sees that the relationship is one of distance
to size magnification. Hence (a) is the correct response. Notice that the distractors have been
cunningly worded so that the subject who has only worked out an imprecise relationship will
probably plump for microphone. One of the advantages of analogies as an item form is that
various types of relationships can be woven into the items. In our examples so far, we have seen
class membership and opposition, but others are possible.
Example 3
Molehill is to hummock as gorge is to …
(a) ditch, (b) valley, (c) chasm, (d) river, (e) mountain
This item again is an easy GC item where the relationship is one of sequential increase in
size. Mere geographic information would be insufficient to solve it since all the distractors
are of this kind.
Example 4
Fast is to celerity as slow is to …
(a) sloth, (b) speed, (c) haste, (d) tardiness, (e) lassitude
Here the relationship is one of abstraction – from noun to adjective. Obviously, the solution
depends upon adequate vocabulary. This verbal item is important because verbal reasoning
items are usually the best single predictors of crystallized ability. For subjects who have had
equal opportunities to acquire a good vocabulary, such items, although not necessarily in
analogous form,
It constitutes powerful intelligence test items. The analogies items which we have so far
illustrated in our examples are tests of GC and to some extent gf because they demand
knowledge and information as well as reasoning ability. However, as it is indicated,
analogies are a useful type of item because they can be formulated in non-verbal terms,
ideal for testing fluid ability.
EXAMPLE 5
25 is to 10 as 53 is to …
(a) 2, (b) 8, (c) 31, (d) 15, (e) 24
This is a medium-difficult numerical item: the relationship being the nonobvious one that 10 is a
multiple of 2 and 5
In constructing analogies, the art lies in hitting upon an interesting and, in the case of difficult
items, non-obvious relationships between the components, thus allowing subjects to reduce the
relation – the essence of intelligence. Although, it is clear, analogies are capable of yielding a wide
variety of items, at various levels of difficulty, these alone would not be sufficient to compose a
good intelligence test. Every type of test item has its own specific variance, so that to minimize
the unwanted effects, good tests use as wide a variety of item types as possible
ODD-MAN-OUT ITEMS
A commonly used and useful form of items is the odd-man-out. In these a list of objects, words,
shapes, numbers or whatever the ingenuity of the test constructor can manage, is presented,
and the subject has to pick out the one that does not fit the list. To do this subject have to find
the relationships between the items to establish the grounds of similarity and distinction.
Obviously here the reduction of relationships and correlates is necessary. As was the case with
analogies, difficulty can be manipulated easily both in terms of the complexity of the relationship
among the items in the list and in terms of esoteric knowledge required before the relationship
could be discovered. Generally, as with analogies, except for highly educated subjects,
informational demands should be as low as possible
Example 1: Sparrow, starling, goose, bat, swallow

This is a simple item depending upon the subject’s ability to classify into birds or mammals. It is a
test of gc.
Example 2: Early, greasy, messy, swiftly, furry

The odd-man-out here is the adverb. Given our subjects are acquainted with grammar, this is a
simple item testing gc.
Example 3: 24, 63, 10, 48, 35

This is an item probably loading both gc and gf. The relationship here is that four of these
numbers are squares minus one. Provided that subjects are familiar with square roots and
squares, the solution becomes one of defining the relationship. Clearly it is suited only for
educated subjects. These three examples illustrate that odd-man-out, as analogies, is an item
form suited to the reasoning tasks needed in intelligence tests and one capable of being adapted
to a wide variety of material. The examples and their comments also illustrate that such items can
be constructed using rules:
(1) Think of the relationship that the item is to deal with, for example opposites.
(2) Exemplify it in the item: black is to white as right is to …
(3) Check that the components of the item do not inadvertently form other relationships, thus
allowing alternative solutions.
(4) Except with educated subjects, keep the material as simple as possible: difficulty should arise
from the nature of the relationships to be found, not from esoteric material itself.
SEQUENCES
Sequence item format refers to questions or tasks that require respondents to recognize patterns,
establish relationships or perform logical reasoning based on sequence of elements
Sequences are an extremely useful item form in which relationships of various levels of difficulty can
easily be encapsulated. Sequences are the item form of one entire test – Raven’s Matrices (Raven,
1965) –which uses entirely non-verbal abstract patterns. These tests are superb illustrations of how
this particular item form is equally suited to items of all difficulty levels. Indeed, the sole problem with
the matrices test, from the viewpoint of test construction, is that the use of only one type of item puts
undue weight on the specific factor associated with response to this type of item. Test constructors
wishing to use sequences should carefully examine Raven’s Matrices. Indeed, it can be said that the
examination of good tests is an excellent method of learning to write items, just as it is helpful in
music, for example, to hear the performances of the finest virtuos, not for imitation but for insight. As
with analogies and odd-manout, examples of sequences and comments can be found below.
Example 1: 12, 15, 17, 20, 22 …

This is a relatively easy item where the sequence increases by 3 and 2, in turn. Numbers are
particularly suitable for testing relationships since they are easy to manipulate and do not necessarily
require mathematical knowledge for their deduction.
Example 2: 16, 4, 1, 0.25 …

This is a very simple item, although the knowledge of decimals necessary might render it invalid as a
test of intelligence. This item has been included to illustrate this omnipresent danger with numerical
materials – the demand for mathematical knowledge which is obviously different from intelligence.
Example 3
Non-verbal materials such as these triangles are clearly useful for constructing sequences for the
testing of gf. This is an easy item. However, as in Raven’s Matrices and the culture-fair tests, these
can be made difficult
To complete this sequence, we would offer a selection of multiplechoice items varying in size and
relationship of circle to triangle. It must be noted that subjects need not be asked to complete the
sequence: a sequence can be given, for example, with the central part needing completion.

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UNIT II

ITEMS FOR INTELLIGENCE TESTS

Vulture is to bird as cobra is to …

Example 1: Sparrow, starling, goose, bat, swallow

Example 2: Early, greasy, messy, swiftly, furry

Example 3: 24, 63, 10, 48, 35

Example 1: 12, 15, 17, 20, 22 …

Example 2: 16, 4, 1, 0.25 …

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