INDEX

CHAPTER 1

1.1INTRODUCTION

1.2PROBLEM STATEMENT

1.3OBJECTIVE

CHAPTER 2

2.1LIETRATURE SURVEY

CHAPTER 3

3.1ABSTRACT

3.2BLOCK DIAGRAM

3.3WORKING

CHAPTER 4

4.1HARDEARE DESCREPTION

4.2SOFTWARE DESCREPTION

CHAPTER 5

5.1ADVANTAGES

5.2DISADVANTAGES

5.3APPLICATION

1
CHAPTER 6

6.1CONCLUSION

6.2FUTURE SCOPE

CHAPTER 7

7.1 REFERENCE

2
“ENHANCING GRID STABILITY THROUGH FLEXIBLE AC TRANSMISSION
SYSTEMS (FACTS) AND DYNAMIC COMPENSATION TECHNIQUES”

CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
PROBLEM STATEMENT

3
1.1INTRODUCTION

The FACTS (Flexible AC Transmission System) is a broad term representing the application of power
electronics-based solutions to AC power system. More and more power semiconductor-based devices,
called FACTS, with ratings from tens to hundreds of Giga watts, have been utilized in the power systems
to satisfy the function of achieving better power transferability and enhancing power system
controllability with the maturity of manufacturing and development and application of power electronics
technology. FACTS actually is the application of power electronic equipment, with one or multiple
functions, to regulate and control the electrical parameters that govern the operation of transmission
systems including voltage, current, impedance, phase angle and damping of oscillations.

FACTS controllers can cause rapid changes of the important system parameters mentioned above. Their
presence, therefore, can significantly affect the operation of traditional distance schemes when either
series or shunt connected FACTS devices introduce new dynamic controls into the power systems. They
would inevitably affect the characteristics of a protective relay in a transmission line to some extent.

Energy efficiency is a topic that has become more and more prominent as demand for electrical power
grows. When inductive loads are introduced to the power system by customers, the voltage at customers
point reduces. This is due to the increased load current caused by an increase in the amount of reactive
power the utility has to supply to the inductive load. This further increases the systems loss and reduces
the efficiency of the power system. To the customer, this will cause them to pay more for the electricity
bill and they may receive penalties by the utility company if the required reactive power is significant.

This type of problem is typically indicated by the low power factor at the load. A widely used approach to
mitigate this problem is through the use of corrective capacitors. Capacitor is an electrical component that
can supply reactive power, and hence fits well for the reactive power thirst inductive load. Using a set of
capacitance may be sufficient to correct power factor in predominantly inductively load; however, real
world loads vary with time and hence a fixed set of capacitance can potentially lead to overcompensation.

This in turn will produce an unnecessary boost in voltage which could further damage the loads. Hence, a
better method to improve power factor is needed. In particular, an approach that would match the reactive

4
 power requirement of the load as it changes will be desirable. One known technique to improve power
factor or to compensate for reactive power uses power electronics. Power electronics deals with the flow
control of electricity through switching or power semiconductors. .

1.3 OBJECTIVE

 In this project to improve power factor of transmission lines using static variable
compensator.
 This proposed system demonstrates power factor compensation using thyristor switched
capacitors
 The time lag between the zero voltage pulse and zero current pulse duly generated by suitable
operational amplifier circuits
 Thereafter program takes over to actuate appropriate number of opto-isolators duly interfaced
to back to back SCRs

5
 CHAPTER 2
LITRATURE SURVEY

2.1LITRATURE SURVEY

1) “Voltage Stability Profile Betterment and Reactive Power Quantity Adjustment with the Assistance of
Static VAR” by A Siva Lakshmi, N Aparna, Ch. Pavan Kumar in IJARSET Vol. 6, Special Issue , August
2019. In this paper they discussed about, the impacts of Static VAR Compensator (SVC) on voltage
soundness of a power system. Power systems comprising of huge number of producing units and
interconnected system of transmission lines. The voltage steadiness is a prime significance in this
perplexing force system organizes since the demand for electric power is expanding enormously. The
control of wattles power in the transmission lines will improve the voltage strength of the power system
arrange. This paper shows the structure and execution of the Static VAR Compensator (SVC) in the
transmission lines for receptive power stream control to better the voltage solidness. The model depends
on speaking to the controller as factor impedance those changes with the terminating edge of the TCR.
The proposed technique distinguishes consequently the suitable number of SVCs required for the control
of receptive power. The point by point recreation study has been done in MATLAB/Simulink condition.

2) “Comparative Analysis of STATCOM and SVC for Reactive Power Enhancement in A Long
Transmission Line” by Nunna Sushma in IJCSE Vol.- 6, Issue-6, Jun 2018. In this paper they said that, In
recent power system scenario, the main concern is about the maximum power transfer capability from
generating station to the distribution station. But between these, the transmission system i.e. transmission
of power from generating station to distribution grid is the most vital thing. So in order to have a reliable
and quality power transmission FACTS controllers (Flexible AC Transmission System) are introduced in
the transmission system. FACTS are an emerging technology which motivates towards power quality
improvement and increased control flexibility of power system. Generally FACTS controllers are of
series type, shunt type and combined series-series and combined series-shunt type. In this paper a shunt
type controllers i.e. STATCOM (Static Synchronous Compensator) and a SVC (Static VAR
Compensator) have been considered. Here the variation of voltage and reactive power by the introduction
of STATCOM & SCV at middle of long transmission line has been investigated. All these analysis is

6
carried out by the mat lab simulink models of STATCOM & SVC. This comparison output revels that
STATCOM performs better than SVC in Volt /VAR control.

3) “Mid-Point Siting of FACTS Devices in Transmission Lines” by B.T. Ooi M. Kazerani R. Marceau.
Wolanski F.D. Galiana D. McGillis G. Joos in IEEE Transactions on Power Delivery, Vol. 12, No. 4,
October 1997. In this paper they discussed about, Many controllers of Flexible AC Transmission Systems
(FACTS), such as the STATCOM, the Unified Power Flow Controller (UPFC), the PWM asynchronous
dc link, the Thyristor-Controlled Series Capacitor (TCSC) and the PWM Series Static VAR compensator
have stabilized ac voltage support. Thus, they can be sited at the mid-point of the transmission line, which
has been proven by the late E.W. Kimbark, as the optimum location for shunt capacitor compensation.
This paper points out that the ability to double the power transfer of the uncompensated line applies also
to the aforementioned FACTS devices. The mid-point siting also facilitates the independent control of
reactive power at both ends of the transmission line.

4) “Improved Harmony Search Algorithm for Optimal Placement and Sizing of Static Var Compensators
in Power Systems” by Reza Sirjani & Azah Mohamed in 2011 IEEE. In this paper they said that, Static
Var compensator (SVC) is normally used in Power system to improve voltage profile and reduce system
Power losses. In this paper, a relatively new optimization Technique named as the improved harmony
search algorithm (IHS) is applied to determine optimal location and size of SVC Devices in a
transmission network. A multi-criterion objective Function comprising of both operational objectives and
Investment costs is considered. The results on the 57-bus test System showed that the IHS algorithm give
lower power loss And better voltage improvement compared to the particle Swarm optimization
technique in solving the SVC placement And sizing problem.

5) “Voltage Stability Enhancement by Optimal Placement of UPFC” by M.Kowsalya, K.K.Ray, Udai

Shipurkar and Saranathan in Journal of Electrical Engineering & Technology Vol. 4, No. 3, pp. 310~314,
2009. In this paper they said that, the improvement of the voltage profiles of power system networks by
the inclusion of Unified Power Flow Controller (UPFC). The mathematical model of the UPFC is
incorporated in the load flow algorithm and the L-index is calculated for the different values of the
control parameter r and γ. The positioning of the UPFC device is changed to minimize the sum of the
squares of the L-indices at all load buses. The test cases considered for the improvement of voltage
profile with the WSCC 9-bus and IEEE 30 bus system. With the best position of UPFC along with the
control parameters the improvement in voltage profile of the power system networks are obtained. The

7
results obtained are quite encouraging compared with other techniques used to identify the best location
of UPFC.

8
 CHAPTER 3

SYSTEM DESIGN

3.1ABSTRACT

In this project to improve power factor of transmission lines using static variable
compensator. These were inefficient and because of large rotating parts they got damaged
quickly. Static VAR Compensation under FACTS uses TSC (Thyristor Switched
Capacitors) based on shunt compensation duly controlled from a programmed
microcontroller.

This proposed system demonstrates power factor compensation using thyristor switched
capacitors. The time lag between the zero voltage pulse and zero current pulse duly
generated by suitable operational amplifier circuits in comparator mode are fed to two
interrupt pins of the 8 bit microcontroller of 8051 family. Priority to the implementation
of static variable compensator, improved power factor compensation was done by large
rotating machines such as synchronous condenser or switched capacitor banks.

Shunt capacitive compensation – This method is used to improve the power factor.
Whenever an inductive load is connected to the transmission line, power factor lags
because of lagging load current. To compensate for this, a shunt capacitor is connected
which draws current leading the source voltage. The net result is improvement in power
factor.

Thereafter program takes over to actuate appropriate number of opto-isolators duly

interfaced to back to back SCRs. Further the project can be enhanced to thyristor
controlled triggering for precise PF correction instead of thyristor switching in steps. This
result in bringing shunt capacitors into the load circuit to get the power factor till it
reaches unity.

9
3.2BLOCK DIAGRAM

3.3 WORKING

This method is used either when charging the transmission line, or, when there is very low load at the
receiving end. Due to very low or no load a very low current flows through the transmission line. Shunt
capacitance in the transmission line cause Ferranti Effect. The receiving end voltage may become double
the sending end voltage (generally in case of very long transmission lines). To compensate, shunt
inductors are connected across the transmission line. The lead time between the zero voltage pulse and
zero current pulse duly generated by suitable operational amplifier circuits in comparator mode are fed to
two interrupt pins of the microcontroller where the program takes over to actuate appropriate number of
opto-isolators interfaced to back to back SCRs at its output for bring shunt reactors into the load circuit to
10
 get the voltage duly compensated. The microcontroller used in the project is of 8051 family which is of 8
bit. The power supply consists of a step down transformer 230/12V, which steps down the voltage to 12V
AC. This is improved to DC using a Bridge rectifier. The ripples are removed using a capacitive filter and
it is then regulated to +5V using a voltage regulator 7805 which is required for the operation of the
microcontroller and other components.

HARDWARE REQUIREMENTS

 MICROCONTROLLER
 POWER SUPPLY
 TRANSFORMER
 BRIDGE RECTIFIER
 REGULATOR
 LCD DISPLAY
 OPTO-ISOLATOR
 SCR
 INDUCTIVE LOAD
 CAPACITORS
 ZERO CROSSING DETECTOR

SOFTWARE REOUIREMENT

 Keil uVision 4
 Eagle

11
 CHAPTER 4

H/W AND S/W DESCRIPTION

12
4.1HARDWARE DESCRIPTION

TRANSFORMER

Transformers convert AC electricity from one voltage to another with a little loss of power. Step-up
transformers increase voltage, step-down transformers reduce voltage. Most power supplies use a step-
down transformer to reduce the dangerously high voltage to a safer low voltage.

FIG 4.1: A TYPICAL TRANSFORMER

The input coil is called the primary and the output coil is called the secondary. There is no
electrical connection between the two coils; instead they are linked by an alternating magnetic field
created in the soft-iron core of the transformer. The two lines in the middle of the circuit symbol represent
the core. Transformers waste very little power so the power out is (almost) equal to the power in. Note
that as voltage is stepped down and current is stepped up.
The ratio of the number of turns on each coil, called the turn’s ratio, determines the ratio of the
voltages. A step-down transformer has a large number of turns on its primary (input) coil which is
connected to the high voltage mains supply, and a small number of turns on its secondary (output) coil to
give a low output voltage.
TURNS RATIO = (Vp / Vs) = ( Np / Ns )
Where,
Vp = primary (input) voltage.
Vs = secondary (output) voltage
Np = number of turns on primary coil
Ns = number of turns on secondary coil
Ip = primary (input) current
13
Is = secondary (output) current.

Ideal power equation

The ideal transformer as a circuit element

If the secondary coil is attached to a load that allows current to flow, electrical power is
transmitted from the primary circuit to the secondary circuit. Ideally, the transformer is perfectly efficient;
all the incoming energy is transformed from the primary circuit to the magnetic field and into the
secondary circuit. If this condition is met, the incoming electric power must equal the outgoing power:

giving the ideal transformer equation

Transformers normally have high efficiency, so this formula is a reasonable approximation.

If the voltage is increased, then the current is decreased by the same factor. The impedance in one
circuit is transformed by the square of the turns ratio. For example, if an impedance Zs is attached across
the terminals of the secondary coil, it appears to the primary circuit to have an impedance of ( Np/Ns)2Zs.
This relationship is reciprocal, so that the impedance Zp of the primary circuit appears to the secondary to
be (Ns/Np)2Zp.

14
VOLTAGE REGULATOR 7805

Features
• Output Current up to 1A.
• Output Voltages of 5, 6, 8, 9, 10, 12, 15, 18, 24V.
• Thermal Overload Protection.
• Short Circuit Protection.
• Output Transistor Safe Operating Area Protection.

Description
The LM78XX/LM78XXA series of three-terminal positive regulators are available in the TO-
220/D-PAK package and with several fixed output voltages, making them useful in a Wide range of
applications. Each type employs internal current limiting, thermal shutdown and safe operating area
protection, making it essentially indestructible. If adequate heat sinking is provided, they can deliver over
1A output Current. Although designed primarily as fixed voltage regulators, these devices can be used
with external components to obtain adjustable voltages and currents.

15
Internal Block Diagram

BLOCK DIAGRAM OF VOLTAGE REGULATOR

Absolute Maximum Ratings

TABLE 4.2(b): RATINGS OF THE VOLTAGE REGULATOR

RECTIFIER

A rectifier is an electrical device that converts alternating current (AC), which periodically
reverses direction, to direct current (DC), current that flows in only one direction, a process known as
rectification. Rectifiers have many uses including as components of power supplies and as detectors of
radio signals. Rectifiers may be made of solid statediodes, vacuum tube diodes, mercury arc valves, and

16
other components. The output from the transformer is fed to the rectifier. It converts A.C. into pulsating
D.C. The rectifier may be a half wave or a full wave rectifier. In this project, a bridge rectifier is used
because of its merits like good stability and full wave rectification. In positive half cycleonly two diodes
(1 set of parallel diodes) will conduct, in negative half cycle remaining two diodes will conduct and they
will conduct only in forward bias only.

FILTER

Capacitive filter is used in this project. It removes the ripples from the output of rectifier and
smoothens the D.C. Output received from this filter is constant until the mains voltage and load is
maintained constant. However, if either of the two is varied, D.C. voltage received at this point changes.
Therefore a regulator is applied at the output stage.
The simple capacitor filter is the most basic type of power supply filter. The use of this filter is
very limited. It is sometimes used on extremely high-voltage, low-current power supplies for cathode-ray
and similar electron tubes that require very little load current from the supply. This filter is also used in

17
circuits where the power-supply ripple frequency is not critical and can be relatively high. Below figure
can show how the capacitor charges and discharges.

MICROCONTROLLER IC: (89C51)

18
DISCRIPTION:

The AT89C51 is a low-power, high-performance CMOS 8-bit microcomputer with 4 Kbytes of Flash
Programmable and Erasable Read Only Memory (PEROM). The device is manufactured using Atmel’s
high density nonvolatile memory technology and is compatible with the industry standard MCS-51
instruction set and pin out. The on-chip Flash allows the program memory to
be reprogrammed in-system or by a conventional nonvolatile memory program- mer. By combining a
versatile 8-bit CPU with Flash on a monolithic chip, the Atmel AT89C51 is a powerful microcomputer
which provides a highly flexible and cost effective solution to many embedded control applications.

The AT89C51 provides the following standard features: 4 Kbytes of Flash, 128 bytes of RAM, 32
I/O lines, two 16-bit timer/counters, five vector two-level interrupt architecture, a full duplex serial
port, on-chip oscillator and clock circuitry. In addition, the AT89C51 is designed with static logic
for operation down to zero frequency and supports two software selectable power saving modes. The
idle mode stops the CPU while allowing the RAM, timers/counters, serial port and interrupt system to
continue functioning. The power down mode saves the RAM contents but freezes the oscillator
disabling all other functions until the next hardware reset.

19
FEATURES:

 Compatible with MCS-51 Products

 4 Kbytes of In-System Reprogrammable Flash Memory. Endurance 1,000 Write/Erase Cycles

 Fully Static Operation: 0 Hz to 24 MHz

 Three-Level Program Memory Lock

 128 x 8-Bit Internal RAM

 32 Programmable I/O Lines

 Two 16-Bit Timer/Counters

 Six Interrupt Sources

 Programmable Serial Channel

 Low Power Idle and Power down Modes

20
PIN DAIGRAM:

Description of pin diagram:

 VCC: Supply voltage.

 GND: Ground.

 Port 0

Port 0 is an 8-bit open drain bidirectional I/O port. As an output port each pin can sink eight TTL
inputs. When 1s are written to port 0 pins, the pins can be used as high-impedance inputs. Port 0
may also be configured to be the multiplexed low order address/data bus during accesses to
21
 external program and data memory. In this mode P0 has internal pull-ups. Port 0 also receives the
code bytes during Flash programming, and outputs the code bytes during program verification.
External pull-ups are required during program verification.

 Port 1

Port 1 is an 8-bit bidirectional I/O port with internal pull-ups. The Port 1 output buffers can
sink/source four TTL inputs. When 1s are written to Port 1 pins they are pulled high by the
internal pull-ups and can be used as inputs. As inputs, Port 1 pins that are externally being pulled
low will source
Current (IIL) because of the internal pull-ups.Port 1 also receives the low-order address bytes
during Flash programming and program verification.

 Port 2:

Port 2 is an 8-bit bidirectional I/O port with internal pull-ups. The Port 2 output buffers can
sink/source four TTL inputs. When 1s are written to Port 2 pins they are pulled high by the
internal pull-ups and can be used as inputs. As inputs, Port 2 pins that are externally being pulled
low will source current (IIL) because of the internal pull-ups. Port 2 emits the high-order address
byte during fetches from external program memory and during accesses to external data memory
that uses 16-bit addresses (MOVX @ DPTR). In this application it uses strong internal pull-ups
when emitting 1s. During accesses to external data memory that uses 8-bit addresses (MOVX @
RI), Port 2 emits the contents of the P2 Special Function Register. Port 2 also receives the high-
order address bits and some control signals during Flash programming and verification.

 Port 3

Port 3 is an 8-bit bidirectional I/O port with internal pull-ups. The Port 3 output buffers can
sink/source four TTL inputs. When 1s are written to Port 3 pins they are pulled high by the
internal pull-ups and can be used as inputs. As inputs, Port 3 pins that are externally being pulled
low will source current (IIL) because of the pull-ups. Port 3 also serves the functions of various
special features of the AT89C51 as listed below:

22
 Port 3 also receives some control signals for Flash programming and Programming verification.

 RST

Reset input. A high on this pin for two machine cycles while the oscillator is running resets the
device.

 ALE/PROG

Address Latch Enable output pulse for latching the low byte of the address during accesses to
external memory.
This pin is also the program pulse input (PROG) during Flash programming.
In normal operation ALE is emitted at a constant rate of 1/6 the oscillator frequency, and may be
used for external timing or clocking purposes. Note, however, that one ALE pulse is skipped
during each access to external Data
Memory. If desired, ALE operation can be disabled by setting bit 0 of SFR location 8EH. With
the bit set, ALE is active only during a MOVX or MOVC instruction. Otherwise, the pin is
weakly pulled high. Setting the ALE-disable bit has no effect if the microcontroller is in external
execution mode.

 PSEN: Program Store Enable is the read strobe to external program memory. When the
AT89C51 is executing code from external program memory, PSEN is activated twice each
machine cycle, except that two PSEN activations are skipped during each access to external data
memory.

 EA/VPP: External Access Enable. EA must be strapped to GND in order to enable the device to
fetch code from external program memory locations starting at 0000H up to FFFFH. Note,
23
 however, that if lock bit 1 is programmed, EA will be internally latched on reset. EA should be
strapped to VCC for internal program executions. This pin also receives the 12-volt programming
enable voltage (VPP) during Flash programming, for parts that require 12-volt VPP.

 XTAL1: Input to the inverting oscillator amplifier and input to the internal clock operating
circuit.

 XTAL2: Output from the inverting oscillator amplifier.

 RESET Circuit
 RESET is an active High input When RESET is set to High, microcontroller goes back to the
power on state. The microcontroller is reset by holding the RST high for at least two machine
cycles and then returning it low.

 The reset line of the 8051 operates in an opposite fashion in comparison to many other
microcontrollers, like the PIC, AVR, etc.
 During normal operation, the reset pin is normally held low through the use of a weak pull down
resistor, 8.2KΩ in this case.
 A reset occurs when the capacitor is shorted through the switch which in effect momentarily pulls
the reset pin high, resetting the device.
 When the switch is released the capacitor begins to charge, once again pull the reset pin low for
normal operation.
 The capacitor is to cause a proper reset when power is first applied. When power is applied, the
capacitor begins to charge and holds the reset line high (until it is charged) for long enough to
ensure that the 8051 gets a proper start up condition.
 The microcontroller uses the crystal for precisely that: to synchronize it’s operation. Effectively,
the 8051 operates using what are called "machine cycles." A single machine cycle is the
minimum amount of time in which a single microcontroller instruction can be executed. although
many instructions take multiple cycles.
 microcontroller has an on-chip oscillator. It needs an external crystal thats decides the operating
frequency of the microcontroller .
 This can be achieved in two ways,,

24
  The crystal is connected to pins 18 and 19 with stabilizing capacitors. 12 MHz (11.059MHz)
crystal is often used and the capacitance ranges from 20pF to 40pF.
 The oscillator can also be a TTL clock source connected with a NOT gate as show

LIQUID CRYSTAL DISPLAY

This is the first interfacing example for the Parallel Port. We will start with something simple.
This example doesn't use the Bi-directional feature found on newer ports, thus it should work with most,
if not all Parallel Ports. It however doesn't show the use of the Status Port as an input for a 16 Character x
2 Line LCD Module to the Parallel Port. These LCD Modules are very common these days, and are quite
simple to work with, as all the logic required running them is on board.

LCD Background

Frequently, an 8051 program must interact with the outside world using input and output devices
that communicate directly with a human being. One of the most common devices attached to an 8051 is
an LCD display. Some of the most common LCDs connected to the 8051 are 16x2 and 20x2 displays.
This means 16 characters per line by 2 lines and 20 characters per line by 2 lines, respectively.

Fortunately, a very popular standard exists which allows us to communicate with the vast
majority of LCDs regardless of their manufacturer. The standard is referred to as HD44780U, which
refers to the controller chip which receives data from an external source (in this case, the 8051) and
communicates directly with the LCD.

FIG 4.8: LCD

LCD BACKGROUND

25
 The 44780 standard requires 3 control lines as well as either 4 or 8 I/O lines for the data bus. The
user may select whether the LCD is to operate with a 4-bit data bus or an 8-bit data bus. If a 4-bit data bus
is used the LCD will require a total of 7 data lines (3 control lines plus the 4 lines for the data bus). If an
8-bit data bus is used the LCD will require a total of 11 data lines (3 control lines plus the 8 lines for the
data bus

The three control lines are referred to as EN, RS, and RW.

The EN line is called "Enable." This control line is used to tell the LCD that you are sending it data. To
send data to the LCD, your program should make sure this line is low (0) and then set the other two
control lines and/or put data on the data bus. When the other lines are completely ready, bring EN high
(1) and wait for the minimum amount of time required by the LCD datasheet (this varies from LCD to
LCD), and end by bringing it low (0) again.

The RS line is the "Register Select" line. When RS is low (0), the data is to be treated as a command or
special instruction (such as clear screen, position cursor, etc.). When RS is high (1), the data being sent is
text data which should be displayed on the screen. For example, to display the letter "T" on the screen you
would set RS high.

The RW line is the "Read/Write" control line. When RW is low (0), the information on the data bus is
being written to the LCD. When RW is high (1), the program is effectively querying (or reading) the
LCD. Only one instruction ("Get LCD status") is a read command. All others are write commands--so
RW will almost always be low .Finally, the data bus consists of 4 or 8 lines (depending on the mode of
operation selected by the user). In the case of an 8-bit data bus, the lines are referred to as DB0, DB1,
DB2, DB3, DB4, DB5, DB6, and DB7

26
Silicon controlled rectifier

A silicon controlled rectifier or semiconductor-controlled rectifier is a four-layer solid-state current-

controlling device. The principle of four-layer p-n-p-n switching was developed by Moll, Tanenbaum,
Godley and Holon yak of Bell Laboratories in 1956. [1] The practical demonstration of silicon controlled
switching and detailed theoretical behavior of a device in agreement with the experimental results was
presented by Dr. Ian M. Mackintosh of Bell Laboratories in January 1958. [2][3] The name "silicon
controlled rectifier" is General Electric's trade name for a type of thyristor. The SCR was developed by a
team of power engineers led by Gordon Hall[4] and commercialized by Frank W. "Bill" Gutzwiller in
1957.
Some sources define silicon controlled rectifiers and thyristors as synonymous, [5] other sources define
silicon controlled rectifiers as a proper subset of the set of thyristors, those being devices with at least four
layers of alternating n- and p-type material.[6][7] According to Bill Gutzwiller, the terms "SCR" and
"controlled rectifier" were earlier, and "thyristor" was applied later, as usage of the device spread

internationally.[8]

SCRs are unidirectional devices (i.e. can conduct current only in one direction) as opposed to TRIACs,
which are bidirectional (i.e. current can flow through them in either direction). SCRs can be triggered
normally only by currents going into the gate as opposed to TRIACs, which can be triggered normally by
either a positive or a negative current applied to its gate electrode.

The silicon control rectifier (SCR) consists of four layers of semiconductors, which
form NPNP or PNPN structures, having three P-N junctions labeled J1, J2 and J3, and three terminals.
The anode terminal of an SCR is connected to the p-type material of a PNPN structure, and the cathode
terminal is connected to the n-type layer, while the gate of the SCR is connected to the p-type material
nearest to the cathode.[9]

An SCR consists of four layers of alternating p- and n-type semiconductor materials. Silicon is used as
the intrinsic semiconductor, to which the proper dopants are added. The junctions are either diffused or
alloyed (alloy is a mixed semiconductor or a mixed metal). The planar construction is used for low-power
SCRs (and all the junctions are diffused). The mesa-type construction is used for high-power SCRs. In
this case, junction J2 is obtained by the diffusion method, and then the outer two layers are alloyed to it,
since the PNPN pellet is required to handle large currents. It is properly braced
with tungsten or molybdenum plates to provide greater mechanical strength. One of these plates is hard-
soldered to a copper stud, which is threaded for attachment of a heat sink. The doping of PNPN depends
on the application of SCR, since its characteristics are similar to those of the thyristor. Today, the term

27
"thyristor" applies to the larger family of multilayer devices that exhibit bistable state-change behaviour,
which is, switching either on or off.

The operation of an SCR and other thyristors can be understood in terms of a pair of tightly
coupled bipolar junction transistors, arranged to cause the self-latching action:

Modes of operation

Characteristic curve of a Silicon Controlled Rectifier

There are three modes of operation for an SCR depending upon the biasing given to it:

1. Forward blocking mode (off state)

2. Forward conduction mode (on state)
3. Reverse blocking mode (off state)
Forward blocking mode
In this mode of operation, the anode (+) is given a positive voltage while the cathode (−) is given a
negative voltage, keeping the gate at zero (0) potential i.e. disconnected. In this case
junction J1 and J3 are forward-biased, while J2 is reverse-biased, due to which only a small leakage
current exists from the anode to the cathode until the applied voltage reaches its breakover value, at
which J2 undergoes avalanche breakdown, and at this breakover voltage it starts conducting, but below
breakover voltage it offers very high resistance to the current and is said to be in the off state.
Forward conduction mode
An SCR can be brought from blocking mode to conduction mode in two ways: Either by increasing the
voltage between anode and cathode beyond the breakover voltage, or by applying a positive pulse at the
gate. Once the SCR starts conducting, no more gate voltage is required to maintain it in the ON state.
There are two ways to turn it off:

1. Reduce the current through it below a minimum value called the holding current, or
28
 2. With the gate turned off, short-circuit the anode and cathode momentarily with a push-button
switch or transistor across the junction.
Reverse blocking mode
negative voltage is applied to the anode and a positive voltage to the cathode, the SCR is in reverse
blocking mode, making J1 and J3 reverse biased and J2 forward biased. The device behaves as two
reverse-biassed diodes connected in series. A small leakage current flows. This is the reverse blocking
mode. If the reverse voltage is increased, then at critical breakdown level, called the reverse breakdown
voltage (VBR), an avalanche occurs at J1 and J3 and the reverse current increases rapidly. SCRs are
available with reverse blocking capability, which adds to the forward voltage drop because of the need to
have a long, low-doped P1 region. (If one cannot determine which region is P1, a labeled diagram of
layers and junctions can help.) Usually, the reverse blocking voltage rating and forward blocking voltage
rating are the same. The typical application for a reverse blocking SCR is in current-source inverters.
An SCR incapable of blocking reverse voltage is known as an asymmetrical SCR, abbreviated ASCR. It
typically has a reverse breakdown rating in the tens of volts. ASCRs are used where either a reverse
conducting diode is applied in parallel (for example, in voltage-source inverters) or where reverse voltage
would never occur (for example, in switching power supplies or DC traction choppers).
Asymmetrical SCRs can be fabricated with a reverse conducting diode in the same package. These are
known as RCTs, for reverse conducting thyristors

MOC3021 (Opto-isolators)

Opto-isolators or Opto-couplers, are made up of a light emitting device, and a light sensitive device, all
wrapped up in one package, but with no electrical connection between the two, just a beam of light. The
light emitter is nearly always an LED. The light sensitive device may be a photodiode, phototransistor, or
more esoteric devices such as thrusters, TRIACs etc.

A lot of electronic equipment nowadays is using opt coupler in the circuit. An opt coupler or
sometimes refer to as opt isolator allows two circuits to exchange signals yet remain electrically isolated.
This is usually accomplished by using light to relay the signal. The standard opt coupler circuits design
uses a LED shining on a phototransistor-usually it is a npn transistor and not pnp. The signal is applied to
the LED, which then shines on the transistor in the IC.

The light is proportional to the signal, so the signal is thus transferred to the photo-transistor. Opt
couplers may also comes in few module such as the SCR, photodiodes, TRIAC of other semiconductor
switch as an output, and incandescent lamps, neon bulbs or other light source.

Most commonly used is an opto-coupler MOC3021 an LED diac type combination. This IC is
interfaced with a microcontroller and an LED is connected in series to the IC, which glows to indicate
a logic High pulse from the microcontroller so that we can know that current is flowing in internal LED
29
of the opto-IC. When logic high is given current flows through LED from pin1 to 2. So in this process
LED light falls on DIAC causing 6 & 4 to close. During each half cycle current flows through gate, series
resistor and through opto-diac for the main thyristor / triac to trigger for the load to operate.

The opto coupler usually found in switch mode power supply circuit in many electronic equipment. It is
connected in between the primary and secondary section of power supplies. The opto-coupler application
or function in the circuit is to:

1. Monitor high voltage

2. Output voltage sampling for regulation
3. System control micro for power ON/OFF
4. Ground isolation
This is the principle used in Opto−Diacs, the Opto-Diacs are available in form of ICs and can be
implemented using a simple circuitry.

30
Zero Crossing Detector

A zero crossing detector or ZCD is a one type of voltage comparator, used to detect a sine waveform
transition from positive and negative, that coincides when the i/p crosses the zero voltage condition. In
this article, we discuss about zero crossing detector circuit with two different circuits, working principle,
theory and applications. The applications of Zero Crossing Detector are phase meter and time marker
generator.

Zero Crossing Detector Circuit

Zero crossing detector is a voltage comparator that changes the o/p between +Vsat & –Vsat when the i/p
crosses zero reference voltage. In simple words, the comparator is a basic operational amplifier used to
compare two voltages simultaneously and changes the o/p according to the comparison. In the same way

we can say ZCD is a comparator.

Zero crossing detector circuit is used to produce an o/p stage switch whenever the i/p crosses the

reference i/p and it is connected to GND terminal. The o/p of the comparator can drive various outputs

such as an LED indicator, a relay and a control gate.

31
741 IC based Zero Crossing Detector

The zero crossing detector circuit is a main application of the comparator circuit. It can also be named as

the sine to square wave converter. For this, any one of the inverting/ noninverting comparators can be

used as a zero crossing detector.

The only variation to be brought in is the Vref (reference voltage) with which the i/p voltage is to be

compared, must be made reference voltage zero (Vref = 0V). A i/p sine wave is given as Vin. These are

shown in the following inverting comparator circuitdiagram and also i/p and o/p waveforms with a 0V

reference voltage.

As shown in the below waveform, for a reference voltage (Vref), when the input sine wave permits

through zero voltage and goes in the direction of positive. The o/p voltage is driven into negative

saturation. In the same way, when the Vin permits through zero and goes in the direction of the negative,

32
the Vout is driven to positive saturation. The diodes in the above circuit are called as clamp diodes. These

diodes are used to guard the operational amplifier from damage due to increase in Vin.

In some particular applications, the Vin may be a low frequency waveform that causes an interruption in

time for the Vin to cross the zero level.Furthermore, this causes delay in the Vout to switch between the

two saturation levels (upper and lower). At the same time, the i/p noises in the IC may cause the Vout to

switch between the saturation levels. Thus zero crossing are identified for noise voltages in addition to the

Vin. These problems can be detached by using a re-forming feedback circuit with a positive feedback that

causes the Vout to switch faster. So, removing the possibility of any false zero crossing due to noise

voltages at the input of the op-amp.

33
The working of zero crossing detector can be easily assumed if you know the working of a basic Op-Amp

comparator. In this detector, we are setting one of the i/ps as zero that is Vref =OV. The o/p is determined

into –Vsat when the i/p signal passes through 0 to +ve direction.Equally, when i/p signal passes through

zero to –ve direction, the o/p switches to +Vsat.

34
Applications of Zero Crossing Detector

Zero crossing detector circuits can be used to check the condition of an operational amplifier. And also

used as a frequency counter and for switching purposes in power electronics circuits.
ZCD as Phasemeter

A ZCD can be used to measure the phase angle between two voltages. A sequence of pulses in the +ve

and -ve cycles are acquired to measure the voltage between the time interval of the pulse of sine wave

voltage and second sine wave. This interval of time is related to the phase difference between the two i/p

sine wave voltages. The use of phasemeter ranges from 0° to 360°.

INDUCTIVE LOAD

35
A load that is predominantly inductive, so that the alternating load current lags behind the alternating
voltage of the load.Also known as lagging load. Any devices that have coils of wire in there manufacture
can be classed as inductive loads. E.g. motors, solenoids and contactor coils are a few. Example of
resistive loads can be baseboard heaters, filament light bulbs, toasters and stove top elements

SHUNT CAPACITORS

Shunt capacitor banks are used to improve the quality of the electrical supply and the efficientoperation of
the power system. Studies show that a flat voltage profile on the system cansignificantly reduce line
losses. Shunt capacitor banks are relatively inexpensive and can beeasily installed anywhere on the
network.

36
LED

LEDs are semiconductor devices. Like transistors, and other diodes, LEDs are made out of
silicon. What makes an LED give off light are the small amounts of chemical impurities that are added to
the silicon, such as gallium, arsenide, indium, and nitride.

When current passes through the LED, it emits photons as a byproduct. Normal light bulbs
produce light by heating a metal filament until it is white hot. LEDs produce photons directly and not via
heat, they are far more efficient than incandescent bulbs.

Fig 4.12(a): Typical LED Fig 4.12(b): circuit symbol

Not long ago LEDs were only bright enough to be used as indicators on dashboards or electronic
equipment. But recent advances have made LEDs bright enough to rival traditional lighting technologies.
Modern LEDs can replace incandescent bulbs in almost any application.

Types of LED’S

LEDs are produced in an array of shapes and sizes. The 5 mm cylindrical package is the most common,
estimated at 80% of world production. The color of the plastic lens is often the same as the actual color of light
emitted, but not always. For instance, purple plastic is often used for infrared LEDs, and most blue devices have
clear housings. There are also LEDs in extremely tiny packages, such as those found on blinkers and on cell
phone keypads. The main types of LEDs are miniature, high power devices and custom designs such as
alphanumeric or multi-color.

37
 Different types of LED’S

Colors and materials of LED’S

Conventional LED’S are made from a variety of inorganic semiconductor materials, the
following table shows the available colours with wavelength range, voltage drop and material.

White LED’S

Light Emitting Diodes (LED) have recently become available that are white and bright, so bright
that they seriously compete with incandescent lamps in lighting applications. They are still pretty
expensive as compared to a GOW lamp but draw much less current and project a fairly well focused
beam.

The diode in the photo came with a neat little reflector that tends to sharpen the beam a little but
doesn't seem to add much to the overall intensity.

When run within their ratings, they are more reliable than lamps as well. Red LEDs are now
being used in automotive and truck tail lights and in red traffic signal lights. You will be able to detect
them because they look like an array of point sources and they go on and off instantly as compared to
conventional incandescent lamps.

38
 LEDs are monochromatic (one color) devices. The color is determined by the band gap of the
semiconductor used to make them. Red, green, yellow and blue LEDs are fairly common. White light
contains all colors and cannot be directly created by a single LED. The most common form of "white"
LED really isn't white. It is a Gallium Nitride blue LED coated with a phosphor that, when excited by the
blue LED light, emits a broad range spectrum that in addition to the blue emission, makes a fairly white
light.

There is a claim that these white LED's have a limited life. After 1000 hours or so of operation,
they tend to yellow and dim to some extent. Running the LEDs at more than their rated current will
certainly accelerate this process.

There are two primary ways of producing high intensity white-light using LED’S. One is to use
individual LED’S that emit three primary colours—red, green, and blue—and then mix all the colours to
form white light. The other is to use a phosphor material to convert monochromatic light from a blue or
UV LED to broad-spectrum white light, much in the same way a fluorescent light bulb works. Due to
metamerism, it is possible to have quite different spectra that appear white
1N4007
Diodes are used to convert AC into DC these are used as half wave rectifier or full wave rectifier. Three
points must he kept in mind while using any type of diode.
1. Maximum forward current capacity
2. Maximum reverse voltage capacity
39
 3. Maximum forward voltage capacity

The number and voltage capacity of some of the important diodes available in the market are as follows:
 Diodes of number IN4001, IN4002, IN4003, IN4004, IN4005, IN4006 and IN4007 have
maximum reverse bias voltage capacity of 50V and maximum forward current capacity of 1
Amp.
 Diode of same capacities can be used in place of one another. Besides this diode of more capacity
can be used in place of diode of low capacity but diode of low capacity cannot be used in place of
diode of high capacity. For example, in place of IN4002; IN4001 or IN4007 can be used but
IN4001 or IN4002 cannot be used in place of IN4007.The diode BY125made by company BEL is
equivalent of diode from IN4001 to IN4003. BY 126 is equivalent to diodes IN4004 to 4006 and
BY 127 is equivalent to diode IN4007.

PN JUNCTION OPERATION
40
 Now that you are familiar with P- and N-type materials, how these materials are joined together
toform a diode, and the function of the diode, let us continue our discussion with the operation of the
PNjunction. But before we can understand how the PN junction works, we must first consider current
flow inthe materials that make up the junction and what happens initially within the junction when these
twomaterials are joined together.

Current Flow in the N-Type Material

Conduction in the N-type semiconductor, or crystal, is similar to conduction in a copper wire. Thatis,
with voltage applied across the material, electrons will move through the crystal just as current would flow
in a copper wire. This is shown in figure 1-15. The positive potential of the battery will attract thefree
electrons in the crystal. These electrons will leave the crystal and flow into the positive terminal of the
battery. As an electron leaves the crystal, an electron from the negative terminal of the battery willenter
the crystal, thus completing the current path. Therefore, the majority current carriers in the N-typematerial
(electrons) are repelled by the negative side of the battery and move through the crystal towardthe
positive side of the battery.

Current Flow in the P-Type Material

Current flow through the P-type material is illustrated. Conduction in the P material is by positive
holes, instead of negative electrons. A hole moves from the positive terminal of the P material to the
negative terminal. Electrons from the external circuit enter the negative terminal of the material andfill
holes in the vicinity of this terminal. At the positive terminal, electrons are removed from the
covalentbonds, thus creating new holes. This process continues as the steady stream of holes (hole
current) movestoward the negative terminal.

1N4148

The 1N4148 is a standard small signal silicondiode used in signal processing. Its name follows
the JEDEC nomenclature. The 1N4148 is generally available in a DO-35 glass package and is very useful
41
at high frequencies with a reverse recovery time of no more than 4ns. This permits rectification and
detection of radio frequency signals very effectively, as long as their amplitude is above the forward
conduction threshold of silicon (around 0.7V) or the diode is biased.

Fig:1N4148 diode

Specifications
 VRRM = 100V (Maximum Repetitive Reverse Voltage)
 IO = 200mA (Average Rectified Forward Current)
 IF = 300mA (DC Forward Current)
 IFSM = 1.0 A (Pulse Width = 1 sec), 4.0 A (Pulse Width = 1 uSec) (Non-Repetitive Peak Forward
Surge Current)
 PD = 500 mW (power Dissipation)
 TRR< 4ns (reverse recovery time)

42
Applications

 High- speed switching

Features
 Glass seale developer.(GSD)
 Highspeed.
 High Reliability
Construction
 Silicone pitaxia planar

RESISTORS

A resistor is a two-terminal electronic component designed to oppose an electric current by producing a

voltage drop between its terminals in proportion to the current, that is, in accordance with Ohm's law:
V = IR
Resistors are used as part of electrical networks and electronic circuits. They are extremely commonplace
in most electronic equipment. Practical resistors can be made of various compounds and films, as well as
resistance wire (wire made of a high-resistivity alloy, such as nickel/chrome).
The primary characteristics of resistors are their resistance and the power they can dissipate.
Other characteristics include temperature coefficient, noise, and inductance. Less well-known is critical
resistance, the value below which power dissipation limits the maximum permitted current flow, and
above which the limit is applied voltage. Critical resistance depends upon the materials constituting the
resistor as well as its physical dimensions; it's determined by design.
Resistors can be integrated into hybrid and printed circuits, as well as integrated circuits. Size,
and position of leads (or terminals) are relevant to equipment designers; resistors must be physically large
enough not to overheat when dissipating their power.

43
 A resistor is a two-terminalpassiveelectronic component which implements electrical resistance
as a circuit element. When a voltage V is applied across the terminals of a resistor, a current I will flow
through the resistor in direct proportion to that voltage. The reciprocal of the constant of proportionality is
known as the resistance R, since, with a given voltage V, a larger value of R further "resists" the flow of
current I as given by Ohm's law:

Resistors are common elements of electrical networks and electronic circuits and are ubiquitous
in most electronic equipment. Practical resistors can be made of various compounds and films, as well as
resistance wire (wire made of a high-resistivity alloy, such as nickel-chrome). Resistors are also
implemented within integrated circuits, particularly analog devices, and can also be integrated into hybrid
and printed circuits.
The electrical functionality of a resistor is specified by its resistance: common commercial
resistors are manufactured over a range of more than 9 orders of magnitude. When specifying that
resistance in an electronic design, the required precision of the resistance may require attention to the
manufacturing tolerance of the chosen resistor, according to its specific application. The temperature
coefficient of the resistance may also be of concern in some precision applications. Practical resistors are
also specified as having a maximum power rating which must exceed the anticipated power dissipation of
that resistor in a particular circuit: this is mainly of concern in power electronics applications. Resistors
with higher power ratings are physically larger and may require heat sinking. In a high voltage circuit,
attention must sometimes be paid to the rated maximum working voltage of the resistor.

44
 The series inductance of a practical resistor causes its behavior to depart from ohms law; this
specification can be important in some high-frequency applications for smaller values of resistance. In a
low-noise amplifier or pre-amp the noise characteristics of a resistor may be an issue. The unwanted
inductance, excess noise, and temperature coefficient are mainly dependent on the technology used in
manufacturing the resistor. They are not normally specified individually for a particular family of
resistors manufactured using a particular technology. A family of discrete resistors is also characterized
according to its form factor, that is, the size of the device and position of its leads (or terminals) which is
relevant in the practical manufacturing of circuits using them.

Units
The ohm (symbol: Ω) is the SI unit of electrical resistance, named after Georg Simon Ohm. An
ohm is equivalent to a volt per ampere. Since resistors are specified and manufactured over a very large
range of values, the derived units of milliohm (1 mΩ = 10 −3 Ω), kilohm (1 kΩ = 10 3 Ω), and megohm (1
MΩ = 106 Ω) are also in common usage.
The reciprocal of resistance R is called conductance G = 1/R and is measured in Siemens (SI
unit), sometimes referred to as a mho. Thus a Siemens is the reciprocal of an ohm: S = Ω − 1. Although the
concept of conductance is often used in circuit analysis, practical resistors are always specified in terms of
their resistance (ohms) rather than conductance.

Variable resistors
Adjustable resistors
A resistor may have one or more fixed tapping points so that the resistance can be changed by
moving the connecting wires to different terminals. Some wirewound power resistors have a tapping point
that can slide along the resistance element, allowing a larger or smaller part of the resistance to be used.
Where continuous adjustment of the resistance value during operation of equipment is required,
the sliding resistance tap can be connected to a knob accessible to an operator. Such a device is called a
rheostat and has two terminals.

45
CAPACITORS

A capacitor or condenser is a passive electronic component consisting of a pair of conductors

separated by a dielectric. When a voltage potential difference exists between the conductors, an electric
field is present in the dielectric. This field stores energy and produces a mechanical force between the
plates. The effect is greatest between wide, flat, parallel, narrowly separated conductors.
An ideal capacitor is characterized by a single constant value, capacitance, which is measured
in farads. This is the ratio of the electric charge on each conductor to the potential difference between
them. In practice, the dielectric between the plates passes a small amount of leakage current. The
conductors and leads introduce an equivalent series resistance and the dielectric has an electric field
strength limit resulting in a breakdown voltage.
The properties of capacitors in a circuit may determine the resonant frequency and quality
factor of a resonant circuit, power dissipation and operating frequency in a digital logic circuit, energy
capacity in a high-power system, and many other important aspects.

46
 A capacitor (formerly known as condenser) is a device for storing electric charge. The forms of
practical capacitors vary widely, but all contain at least two conductors separated by a non-conductor.
Capacitors used as parts of electrical systems, for example, consist of metal foils separated by a layer of
insulating film.
Capacitors are widely used in electronic circuits for blocking direct current while allowing
alternating current to pass, in filter networks, for smoothing the output of power supplies, in the resonant
circuits that tune radios to particular frequencies and for many other purposes.
A capacitor is a passiveelectronic component consisting of a pair of conductors separated by a
dielectric (insulator). When there is a potential difference (voltage) across the conductors, a static electric
field develops in the dielectric that stores energy and produces a mechanical force between the
conductors. An ideal capacitor is characterized by a single constant value, capacitance, measured in
farads. This is the ratio of the electric charge on each conductor to the potential difference between them.
The capacitance is greatest when there is a narrow separation between large areas of conductor,
hence capacitor conductors are often called "plates", referring to an early means of construction. In
practice the dielectric between the plates passes a small amount of leakage current and also has an electric
field strength limit, resulting in a breakdown voltage, while the conductors and leads introduce an
undesired inductance and resistance.

Theory of operation
Capacitance

Charge separation in a parallel-plate capacitor causes an internal electric field. A dielectric (orange)
reduces the field and increases the capacitance.

47
A simple demonstration of a parallel-plate capacitor
A capacitor consists of two conductors separated by a non-conductive region. The non-conductive region
is called the dielectric or sometimes the dielectric medium. In simpler terms, the dielectric is just an
electrical insulator. Examples of dielectric mediums are glass, air, paper, vacuum, and even a
semiconductordepletion region chemically identical to the conductors. A capacitor is assumed to be self-
contained and isolated, with no net electric charge and no influence from any external electric field. The
conductors thus hold equal and opposite charges on their facing surfaces, and the dielectric develops an
electric field. In SI units, a capacitance of one farad means that one coulomb of charge on each conductor
causes a voltage of one volt across the device.
The capacitor is a reasonably general model for electric fields within electric circuits. An ideal capacitor
is wholly characterized by a constant capacitance C, defined as the ratio of charge ±Q on each conductor
to the voltage V between them:

Sometimes charge build-up affects the capacitor mechanically, causing its capacitance to vary. In this
case, capacitance is defined in terms of incremental changes:

Energy storage
Work must be done by an external influence to "move" charge between the conductors in a capacitor.
When the external influence is removed the charge separation persists in the electric field and energy is
stored to be released when the charge is allowed to return to its equilibrium position. The work done in
establishing the electric field, and hence the amount of energy stored, is given by:

48
Current-voltage relation
The current i(t) through any component in an electric circuit is defined as the rate of flow of a charge q(t)
passing through it, but actual charges, electrons, cannot pass through the dielectric layer of a capacitor,
rather an electron accumulates on the negative plate for each one that leaves the positive plate, resulting
in an electron depletion and consequent positive charge on one electrode that is equal and opposite to the
accumulated negative charge on the other. Thus the charge on the electrodes is equal to the integral of the
current as well as proportional to the voltage as discussed above. As with any antiderivative, a constant of
integration is added to represent the initial voltage v (t0). This is the integral form of the capacitor
equation,

.
Taking the derivative of this, and multiplying by C, yields the derivative form,

.
The dual of the capacitor is the inductor, which stores energy in the magnetic field rather than the electric
field. Its current-voltage relation is obtained by exchanging current and voltage in the capacitor equations
and replacing C with the inductance L.

49
 CHAPTER 5

ADAVNTAGES

APPLICATION

5.1ADVANTAGES

 The flow of power is ordered. It may be as per the contract or as per the requirements of the
utilities
 It increases the loading capability of the lines to the thermal capability
 It improves the stability of the system and thus make the system secure
Provides secure Tie Line connection to the neighboring utilities and regions, thereby decreasing
overall generation reserve requirements on both sides

5.3APPLICATIONS

50
  Power control.
 Reducing generation cost.
 HVDC link application
 Reduces Power Losses and Improving Voltage Profile.
 Improvement in Power Factor.
 Reduces Reactive Power Flow.
 Ensure Optimum Power Flow.
 Improvement in Voltage Regulation

6.1CONCLUSION

The main aim of this project is to study the AC Transmission system. Our main objective was to create an
enhanced circuit that will improve the power factor. The Flexible AC Transmission system achieved by
improving the power factor reduces the output voltage fluctuations providing us with a more efficient and
stable transmission system. This proposed system increases the power factor by nearing its value to 1 with
the help of the capacitor bank in the circuit. Microcontroller based thyristor driven static variable
compensation gives the better results than the conventional types of compensation techniques like
synchronous condensers. Due to the usage of thyristors than the conventional relay circuit makes the
whole system free from contact pitting. This will also help to maintain a sustainable future in which we
have limited sources of power and limited AC Transmission lines .
Static var compensators results in higher reactive power compensation in the transmission line reactance.
Higher reactive power compensation in turn improves power quality, correcting power factor and
maintaining constant distribution voltage. Thus the A C transmission network required dynamic reactive
power control to maintain satisfactory profile under varying load conditions and transients

51
 CHAPTER 7

REFERANCES

[1] International journal of innovative in science , engineering and technology (Electrical power theft
detection and wireless meter reading).

[2] International journal of innovative research in electrical , electronics, instrumentation and control
engineering (Tampering detection of domestic load by GSM).

[3] http://www.energyaxis.com/ea-inf- white-papers.asp [4] Mehta VK, Mehta R. Principles of power

system, 4th ed, Chand publication, 2008.

[5] Liveira MAO, Barioni CC. Technical loss calculation by distribution system segment with corrections
from measurements, Proc. 20th.

[6] Hingorani NG, Gyugi L. Understanding FACTS-Concepts and Technology of Flexible AC

Transmission System, Standard Publishers & Distributors, IEEE papers, New York.

52