Let’s try to leave here today…

• Define the following terms: velocity, acceleration, force, net

force

• State Newton’s 3 laws of motion

• Use Newton’s law of gravity to compare the gravitational forces
experienced by different objects

• Determine how the gravitational force changes if one or both

masses change and/or if the distance between the masses
changes

• Determine the direction of the net force and acceleration

experienced by an object

• able to use gravitational potential energy to think about motion

• able to calculate the force of gravity between two massive
objects

• knowing how gravity exactly explains Kepler’s 3rd Law

• (maybe) with a sense of how the law of gravitation leads to
tides on Earth

1
Newton’s Three Laws of Motion:
A. I could describe them in words and use them in

?
problems
B. I have learned about them in physics classes but
feel rusty about how to use them
C. I have seen/heard F = ma but not used it
quantitatively.
D. I have not taken physics or have not seen
Newton's laws of motion.

2
1 st Law (no force) Newton’s Laws of Motion
An object moves at constant velocity
unless acted upon by a (net) force.

2 nd Law (force applied)

Force = mass × acceleration.

3rd Law (consequences of force)

For any force, there is always an equal
and opposite reaction force.

Can I demonstrate this by

rolling a ball across the floor?
3
WALL-E + fire extinguisher

4
 One helpful approach will
be to remember the units
associated with physical
quantities, and use them to
think about what each
means.

5
velocity has units of m/s
Encompassing both speed and direction, the velocity of an object tells
how far and in which direction it will move (m) in a given amount of time (s).

100 m

?
How fast must WALL-E be moving to travel 100m in 5s?
A. 100 m/s B. 20 m/s C. 5 m/s D. 0.5 m/s
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acceleration has units of m/s 2

An object’s velocity can change if some force acts on it, thereby inducing an acceleration.
The acceleration says how much the velocity (m/s) will change over a given time (s).

0 m/s 20 m/s
?
How fast must WALL-E accelerate to get from 0 to 20 m/s in 2s?
A. 10 m/s 2 B. 20 m/s 2 C. 5 m/s 2 D. 20 m/s
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1 st Law (no force) Newton’s Laws of Motion
An object moves at constant velocity
unless acted upon by a (net) force.

2 nd Law (force applied)

Force = mass × acceleration.

3rd Law (consequences of force)

For any force, there is always an
equal and opposite reaction force.

We can demonstrate this by pushing

down really hard on our desks, right?
10
force has units of kg × m/s 2
The SI unit of force is the Newton (1 N = kg × m/s2).

It takes more force to cause a more massive thing (kg) to feel a larger acceleration (m/s2).
For an object of a given mass (kg), a larger force will make it accelerate more (m/s2).

0 m/s 20 m/s
?
What force would accelerate WALL-E (100kg) by 10m/s2?
A. 1N B. 10N C. 100N D. 1000N
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Earth’s gravity is force corresponding to a downward
acceleration of g=9.8 m/s (at Earth’s surface)
2

I can demonstrate this by dropping two

different things at the same time, right?
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 Apollo 15
dropping a
feather and
a hammer

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1 st Law (no force) Newton’s Laws of Motion
An object moves at constant velocity
unless acted upon by a (net) force.

2 nd Law (force applied)

Force = mass × acceleration.

3rd Law (consequences of force)

For any force, there is always an
equal and opposite reaction force.

15
momentum has units of kg × m/s
Any object in motion has a linear momentum given by its mass (kg) times its velocity (m/s).
A more massive object (kg) moving the same speed (m/s) has more momentum.
An object of the same mass (kg) moving faster (m/s) has have more momentum.

20 m/s
?
If moving 20 m/s, how much momentum does WALL-E (100kg) have?
A. 20 kg m/s B. 2000 kg m/s C. 2000 m/s D. 0.2 m/s/kg
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 The Law of Conservation of Momentum

When objects interact, the amount of momentum gained by an

object must equal the amount lost by other objects.
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• What does “conservation” mean (here)?
There is no net gain or loss of a quantity in a system.

• What is a system?
A system refers to a group of interacting objects.

• What is conserved?
Mass, momentum, angular momentum, energy. For example, the total
mass of Earth will change only if mass is added (we get hit by a rock) or
removed (we launch a rocket) from our planet. In this example, the rock or the
rocket are part of our “system.”

• Who cares?
Conservation laws help us to understand almost every major process in the Universe.
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20
If an asteroid hits Earth, does Earth’s velocity change?

?
A. Yes, by a tiny bit.
B. No, not at all.
C. Ooh, I’m really not sure.

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If an asteroid hits Earth, does Earth’s velocity change?

?
A. Yes, by a tiny bit.
B. No, not at all.
C. Ooh, I’m really not sure.

22
angular momentum has units
of kg × m /s
2

A spinning object as a whole is stationary, with no net velocity or momentum.

But it’s still moving. How do we describe that?

Angular momentum (the spinning ”umph”) is given by its mass (kg) times its
velocity (m/s) times the distance (m) to the center around which it is spinning.
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 The Law of Conservation of Angular Momentum
When objects interact, the amount of angular momentum
gained by an object must equal that lost by other objects.

Earth’s spin angular momentum is conserved, Earth’s orbital angular momentum

so our rotation period stays steady (unless is conserved throughout the year,
angular moment is given to or taken from us). and over many years.
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This wrench has both linear momentum and angular momentum.

Both are conserved

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What is energy?

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energy has units of kg m /s
2 2
The SI unit of energy is the Joule (1 J = kg × m2/s2).

Work energy is quantified as force (kg m/s2) times the distance

over which it is applied (m).

One way to think of energy is as the ability of an object to exert a force (kg
m/s2) on another object over a certain distance (m).

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 work is proportional
28 to force
work is proportional
to distance

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 The Law of Conservation of Energy:
When objects interact, the amount of energy gained
by an object must equal that lost by other objects.

There are many types of energy,

and that force × distance
connection is often not obvious.

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 Kinetic Energy
The kinetic energy (K) of an object is determined by its mass (m) and its
speed (v):

K is the object’s
1 2
𝐾 = 𝑚𝑣 v is the object’s speed
kinetic energy (i.e., its 2
energy of motion)

m is the object’s mass

Energy has units of Joules (J) if the
Note: mass = (density)(volume)
mass is measured in kilograms (kg)
and the speed in meters per All objects in motion have kinetic energy. This
quantity has units (1J = 1kg m2/s2 ) that match a
second (m/s). mass (kg) times a velocity squared (m2/s2). 31
 Gravitational Potential Energy
The gravitational potential energy is the potential energy a massive object
has in relation to another massive object due to gravity:

G is the Universal gravitational

constant
U is the object’s GMm
U=−
gravitational potential R M and m are the masses of
energy (i.e., its energy
the two objects
of motion)

R is the distance between the

two objects
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Gravitational Potential Energy near Earth’s surface
We often use this form of the gravitational potential energy for objects near
a massive object or near Earth’s surface
g is the gravitational acceleration
experienced by the object
U is the object’s U = mgh
gravitational potential
H is the object’s height relative
energy (i.e., its energy
to the other object
of motion)
m is the object’s mass

Energy has units of Joules (J) if the mass is measured in kilograms

(kg), the acceleration in (m/s ), and the height in meters (m).
2
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 Objects can store potential energy.

An object of mass m (kg),

on Earth with its gravitational
acceleration of g (m/s2),
moving upward by a height h (m)

would gain

gravitational potential energy of mgh.

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Objects can store potential energy.

Nuclear power converts mass

directly into (a lot of) energy.

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Thermal energy is the kinetic energy of many particles.

Ethermal / T
The average kinetic energy
of the particles in a system
is directly proportional to
the temperature T.

36
Thermal energy is the kinetic energy of many particles.

Ethermal / T
?
The average kinetic energy
of the particles in a system
is directly proportional to
the temperature T.

What is the relationship between temperature and

the average speed of particles in a system?
0 1 2 3
A. T ∝ v B. T ∝ v C. T ∝ v D. T ∝ v
37
Light is radiative energy, which can be gained or lost.

A light bulb with emitting

with a power of 100 Watts,
will release 100 Joules of
energy per second.

1 W = 1 J/s
1 J = 1 kg m2/s2 .

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Each time the ball
hits the ground, it… ?
A. loses about 50% of its energy

B. loses about 10% of its energy

C. gains about 50% more

energy than it had before

D. gains about 10% more

energy than it had before

E. doesn’t gain or lose energy

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Each time the ball
?
Although energy is conserved in the entire system,
the ball is clearly losing energy. This is most visible

hits the ground, it… when all the vertical kinetic energy has been
converted to potential energy at the top of the
trajectories – it has about half as much potential
energy after each bounce. The energy is still
A. loses about 50% of its energy conserved in the system, but much of the energy
got converted to sound and thermal energy during
those bounces.
B. loses about 10% of its energy

C. gains about 50% more

energy than it had before

D. gains about 10% more

energy than it had before

E. doesn’t gain or lose energy

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WALL-E + fire extinguisher - conservation of momentum

41
 The Law of Conservation of Angular Momentum
When objects interact, the amount of angular momentum
gained by an object must equal that lost by other objects.

Earth’s spin angular momentum is conserved, Earth’s orbital angular momentum

so our rotation period stays steady (unless is conserved throughout the year,
angular moment is given to or taken from us). and over many years.
42
NASA’s DART mission to deflect an asteroid is a conservation of energy and momentum

43
Fun article that goes through the math of calculating an approximate velocity change
by using conservation of momentum:

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What are the laws of conservation we need to remember?

The Law of Conservation of Linear Momentum

The Law of Conservation of Angular Momentum
Note these are separate, angular momentum doesn’t convert to linear momentum and vice versa

The Law of Conservation of Energy

Energy can be transferred between all the types we discussed (kinetic, potential, thermal, gravitational etc)

The Law of Conservation of Mass

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Side note from last class

But Msun > > Mearth

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Newton’s Law of Gravitation:

Fg = force of gravity
G = a fundamental constant of nature = 6.67×10-11 m3 kg-1 s-2
M = mass of object 1 or object 2
d = distance between object centers (of mass)
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Tides

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time-lapse49of tides at Hopewell Rocks, Bay of Fundy, New Brunswick, Canada
Tides are caused by the change of gravitational force over distance.

50
 How strongly does the Moon pull the
near side and far side of the Earth away
from each other?

51
 Earth
Moon

If we subtract the average force on

The moon’s gravity pulls stronger on the near side of the Earth
the Earth (centre vector), the tidal
than on the centre or the far side. The overall force changes
force is effectively pulling both the
Earth’s orbit a little, but the net force felt at the surface is what
near and far side of Earth from the
matters for the tides
centre

52
 The tidal force is a differential force—meaning that it comes from differences in gravity
over Earth’s surface. At the centre of Earth is approximately the average of the moon's
gravitational pull on the whole planet.

Arrows here represent the tidal force. It's what's

Arrows here represent the force of the moon's
left over after removing the moon's average
gravitational pull on Earth. To get the tidal force we
gravitational pull on the whole planet from the
subtract this average gravitational pull on Earth from the
moon's specific gravitational pull at each location
gravitational pull at each location on Earth.
on Earth.

53
Earth is rotating under these tides

54
High tides happen once every…
A.24 hours.

B.24 hours and 50 minutes.

C.12 hours.

D.12 hours and 25 minutes.

?
E. 29.5 days

55
High tides happen once every…
At any particular location on
A.24 hours. Earth, high tides occur

?
whenever the Moon is on the
near side or on the far side of
B.24 hours and 50 minutes. the planet. As Earth rotates
throughout the day, this will
happen about twice a day. But,
C.12 hours. as time progresses, the Moon
also orbits around the Earth,
moving a little farther along –
D.12 hours and 25 minutes. therefore the Earth needs to
rotate a little extra (about 25
minutes) extra, to catch up to

E. 29.5 days those locations of high tides.

56
The Sun exerts a tide on Earth too!
The Moon dominates, but the Sun can add a little
more or slightly cancel out the Moon’s tide.

“Spring Tides” are extra strong when tides from

the Moon + Sun add constructively.

“Neap Tides”
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are relatively weak.
Calculate Forces from Moon & Sun with a
partner
Compare the Moon’s gravitational force on a 1.00 kg mass

?
located on the near side and another on the far side of Earth.
Repeat for the Sun (but with 6 significant figures) and then
compare the results to confirm that the Moon’s tidal forces are
about twice that of the Sun.

m1m2
F12 = G 2
r

58
Small groups!

?
59
 Calculate Forces from Moon & Sun
m1m2 22
−11 2 2 (1.00kg)(7.35 × 10 kg)
F12 = G 2 = 6.67 × 10 Nm /kg
r (3.84 × 108 ± 6.37 × 106m)2
−5 −5 −5
Fnear = 3.44 × 10 N Ffar = 3.22 × 10 N Fnear − Ffar = 0.22 × 10 N

The Moon’s gravitational force is nearly 7% higher at the near side of Earth than at the far side, but
both forces are much less than that of Earth itself on the 1.0-kg mass. Nevertheless, this small
difference creates the tides.

We now repeat the problem, but substitute the mass of the Sun and the mean distance
between the Earth and Sun.

Fnear = 5.89975 × 10 N −5 Ffar = 5.89874 × 10 N −3

?
−5
Fnear − Ffar = 0.101 × 10 N
Note that the forces exerted by the Sun are nearly 200 times greater than the forces exerted by the Moon. But
the difference in those forces for the Sun is half that for the Moon. The Moon has a greater tidal effect because the fractional
change in distance from the near side to the far side is so much 60 greater for the Moon than it is for the Sun.
 Tidal Locking
The other long term effect, related to this dissipation
and conservation of angular momentum, is called
“locking” or tidal synchronization. It has already
happened to most moons in our solar system, including
Earth’s Moon. The Moon keeps one face toward Earth—
its rotation rate has locked into the orbital rate about
Earth. The same process is happening to Earth, and
eventually it will keep one face toward the Moon. If that
does happen, we would no longer see tides, as the tidal
bulge would remain in the same place on Earth, and
half the planet would never see the Moon. However,
this locking will take many billions of years, perhaps not
before our Sun dies.
61
 Tidal Heating
One other tidal effect is the dissipation
of rotational energy due to friction
during flexure of the bodies themselves.
Earth’s rotation rate is slowing down as
the tidal forces transfer rotational energy
into heat. See the moon Io as an
example of heat dissipation by tidal
flexion

62
 Tidal destruction of stars!

The tidal forces in very close binary systems

can be strong enough to rip matter from
one star to the other, once the tidal forces
exceed the cohesive self-gravitational forces
that hold the stars together. This effect can
be seen in normal stars that orbit nearby
compact stars, such as neutron stars or
black holes.

63
Do we feel a stronger gravitational force from…
GM1M2
F=
d 2

or
?
The computer in front of us Proxima Centauri, the closest
(d = 100 m, M = 100 kg) star outside the Solar System
64
(d = 10 m, M = 1029 kg)
16
Kepler-51b is a weird planet. Our best estimates are that its mass is 2X that
of Earth and its radius is 7X that of Earth. The acceleration due to gravity on
Kepler-51b would be:

A. Exactly the same as on Earth.

B. 7X faster than on Earth.

C. 49/2 faster than on Earth.

D.1/2 as fast as on Earth.

?
E. 2/49 as fast as on Earth.
67
Kepler-51b is a weird planet. Our best estimates are that its mass is 2X that
of Earth and its radius is 7X that of Earth. The acceleration due to gravity on
Kepler-51b would be:

A. Exactly the same as on Earth.

B. 7X faster than on Earth.

C. 49/2 faster than on Earth.

D.1/2 as fast as on Earth.

?
E. 2/49 as fast as on Earth.
68
 How long does it take
WALL-E to orbit the Sun?

69
Newton’s Version of
Kepler’s 3rd Law:

71
If the Sun were 9X more massive, Earth
would orbit the Sun in ___________.
A. 3 years
B. 4 months
C. 3 months
?
D. 3 days
72
If the Sun were 9X more massive, Earth
would orbit the Sun in ___________.
A. 3 years
B. 4 months
C. 3 months
?
D. 3 days
73
Newton’s Version of Kepler’s 3
Law tells us how fast
rd

something must move to orbit an object of any mass.

74
 Chris Hadfield - first Canadian to walk in space
First Canadian I.S.S. commander
And first astronaut to perform David Bowie’s “Space Oddity” in Space!

75
Why does Chris Hadfield feel weightless?

A. He is in space, where there is no gravity.

?
B. He is far from Earth, so Earth’s gravity is
many times weaker than on the surface.

C. Earth’s gravity is similar to on the ground,

but he doesn’t feel it because he and the
space station are in constant freefall.

D. He is sitting in a tin can.

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OK Go - Upside Down & Inside Out
Shot continuously on parabolic flight

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