Ch -8- How do Organisms Reproduce?

CLASS-X

Reproduction in Human Being:

• Human beings show sexual reproduction.

• Male parent produces male gametes called sperms. Female parent produces female
gametes called ova. Sperms have tail and are therefore, motile.

• They are produced in large numbers in the testes. Ovum is bigger, non-motile and only
one ovary produces one ovum in one month.

• There is no food stored in the sperms whereas ova contain stored food.

• Both the gametes are microscopic unicellular and have half the number of chromosomes
as compared to the body cells.

• Human beings become reproductively active from the onset of puberty.

• Puberty is the period during adolescence when the rate of general body growth begins to
slow down and reproductive tissues begin to mature.

• Onset of puberty in human males is between 11 to 13 yrs of age, while in human females
is between 10 to 12 yrs. of age.

• Puberty is associated with many physical, mental, emotional and psychological changes
in boys and girls which occur slowly over a period of time. These are called secondary
sexual characters. For instance hair start growing in parts of the body such as arm pits
and genital area between the thighs, Skin becomes oily and pimples may appear on the
face. Individuals become more conscious of their bodies, become more independent,
more aggressive, beard and mustache start appearing, voice begins to crack,
reproductive organs develop and start producing releasing gametes, menstruation starts.

Male Reproductive System:

Male reproductive system consists of the following components

a) 1 pair of testes
b) A system of ducts
a. Epididymis
b. Vas deferens or the sperm duct
 c. Urethra
c) A system of glands
a. Seminal vesicles
b. Prostrate gland
c. Cowper’s gland
d) A copulatory organ

One pair of testes are present in a bag-like structure called scrotum which lies outside the
abdominal cavity, hence they are extra abdominal in position. This is so because the testes have
to be maintained at 1-3 degree lesser temperature than the body in order to produce functional
sperms.

Functions of testes

• To produce male gametes i.e. the sperms.

• To produce a male reproductive hormone called testosterone which is responsible for
producing sperms as well as secondary sexual characteristics in males.
• Attached to each testis is a highly coiled tube called epididymis. The sperms are stored here
and they mature in the epididymis.
• Each epididymis leads into the sperm duct or the vas-deferens. Each vas-deferens rises up
and enters into the abdominal cavity.
• It unites with the duct coming from the urinary bladder to form a common duct called
urethra which passes through the penis and opens to the outside.
• Along the way the ducts of the three glands also open and pour their secretions into the vas
deferens.

Function of the vas-deferens: It is meant for the passage of the sperms in the male body.

Functions of the glands: They produce different secretions which provide nutrition as well as
medium for locomotion to the sperms.
The secretions of the three glands along with the sperms is known as semen.

Function of the urethra: It is the common passage for both semen and urine from the body to.
the outside.

Copulatory organ: It is the organ which is used to introduce semen into the female body. It is
richly supplied with blood vessels.

Female Reproductive System:

It consists of the following components

a) 1 pair of ovaries[gonad]
b) 1 pair of fallopian tubes or oviducts
c) A uterus/womb
d) A vagina/birth canal.
Each ovary is almond shaped and present inside the abdominal cavity. At the time of birth each
girl child already contains thousands of immature ova. These ova start maturing only from the
time of puberty. Only one ovum is produced by one ovary in one month and each ovary releases
an ovum in alternate months.

The release of an ovum from the ovary into the abdominal cavity is known as ovulation.

Functions of ovary

• To produce and release ova

• To produce female reproductive hormones: estrogen and progesterone.

There are two fallopian tubes. The end lying close to the ovary has finger like structures called
fimbriae. The two fallopian tubes unite to form an elastic bag like structure called uterus.

Function of the fallopian tubes: It is the site of fertilization between the male and the female
gametes and formation of the zygote early embryo.
The inner lining of the uterus is richly supplied with blood vessels and is known as endometrium.
The narrow end of the uterus is called cervix.

Function of the uterus: layers of uterus perimetrium, myometrium [ smooth muscles],

endometrium[ muscle+blood capallaries] The embryo [ blastocyst] formed in the fallopian
tube comes down and gets attached to the endometrium (implantation-) and develops for the next
nine months till the baby is delivered.

Vagina: The uterus opens into the vagina through the cervix. The vagina is a muscular tube
through which the baby is delivered at the end of nine months. It also serves as the canal for
receiving the semen at the time of copulation.

❖ The semen is discharged into the vaginal tract during copulation. The sperms travel
upwards and reach the fallopian tube where one sperm fuses with the ovum to form the
zygote. The zygote divides and redivides as it descends into the uterus and the embryo
gets implanted in the endometrium. The endometrium thickens so as to receive the
embryo.

❖ The embryo gets nutrition from the mother’s blood with the help of a special tissue called
placenta, which is a disk-like structure embeded in the uterine wall. It contains finger-like
villi on the embryo side, while on the mother’s side blood spaces surround the villi.

❖ Villi provides a large surface area for glucose and oxygen to pass from the mother to the
developing embryo and the nitrogenous waste and carbon dioxide to pass from the
embryo to the mother through the placenta.

❖ When the embryo starts resembling a human is formed, it is termed as a foetus. The
foetus continues to develop inside the uterus for almost nine months after which the baby
is delivered as a result of rhythmic contractions of the uterine muscles.
 IF FERTILISATION DOES NOT OCCUR?

Menstruation: It is the loss of blood, mucous along with the unfertilized ovum and the ruptured
cells and tissues of the endometrium through the vagina of the female. It is a 28-day cycle which
occurs in every reproductively active female (from puberty). The flow of blood continues for 2 to
8 days. If the ovum does not get fertilized, then the endometrium starts sloughing off and there is
loss of blood and mucous etc. through the vagina. In case the ovum gets fertilized, then the
endometrium becomes thick and spongy for nourishing the embryo and hence menstruation does
not occur. A lady with a developing embryo in her womb is termed as pregnant. The beginning
of menstruation at puberty is known as menarche. The stopage of menstruation when the woman
is 45-55 yrs of age is called menopause.

Reproductive Health:
Reproductive health refers to a complete physical, mental and social well-being. It doesn’t only
mean the absence of disease or infertility but instead refers to a broader term, wherein a person
is happy and leading a satisfying personal life. It is used to enhance the quality of life and
increase awareness in the population. It includes real-life approach involving both women and
men that affect them from their teens to old age. Reproductive health does not only mean any
abnormality related to the reproductive system. Reproductive health includes sexual health, the
purpose of which is the enhancement of personal relations and awareness. It does not merely
refers to counselling and care for sexually transmitted diseases and reproduction.

Components of Reproductive Health

There are three essential components of sexual and reproductive health care like-

1. Family planning – It has a significant impact on the well-being of families and especially
women. With better family planning and use of contraceptives, one can avoid unwanted
pregnancies, space births and also protect themselves from STDs.
2. Sexual health – It refers to a respectful and positive approach towards sexual
relationships. It is a very important prerequisite for good reproductive health.
3. Maternal health – It refers to the maintenance of a woman’s health during pregnancy and
after childbirth.

Importance of Reproductive Health

It is very important for an adult and adolescent to be aware of sexual health, reproduction,
contraceptives, STDs. This will help in maintaining good reproductive health, physically as well
as mentally. People can protect themselves from sexually transmitted infections
and diseases only if they are well informed about the same.
Women should be aware of their fitment for pregnancy. They must have access to proper
medical services when they are pregnant, have a safe delivery and deliver a healthy baby.
 ❖ Sexually transmitted diseases
A number of diseases occur as a result of sexual intercourse if one of the partners is
infected. These are known as sexually transmitted diseases (STD’s).

• They can be caused by bacteria for example; syphilis, gonorrhoea; or

• caused by a virus for example:- HIV-AIDS, warts etc.

• The transmission of these diseases can be avoided by using birth control measures
such as physical barrier method.

❖ Birth control/CONTRACEPTION measures/ FAMILY PLANNING

METHODS: They can be mechanical, chemical and surgical.

I] Mechanical/ physical methods: These are used to prevent the passage of semen to the
fallopian tube :
(i) Use of condoms: these are made of thin rubber tubes in which semen gets collected and is not
discharged into the vagina.
(ii) Diaphragm: It is a thin rubber fixed over a flexible metal ring which is fitted over the cervix.
(iii) Intra Uterine Contraceptive Device (IUCD) or loop: It is placed in the uterus and where it
causes certain secretion which prevents the implantation of the embryo in the uterine wall.
Both methods (ii) and (iii) cause side effects

II] Chemical methods

• Use of spermicides: These are strong sperm-killing chemicals available in the form of
creams, jellies etc. which are injected into the vagina just before copulation.
• Oral contraceptive pills: These are hormonal pills which prevent ovulation but do not stop
menstruation.

III] Surgical methods

• Vasectomy: It involves cutting and ligating the vas deferens in males.

• Tubectomy: It involves cutting and ligating Reproductive organs the fallopian tubes in
females.

STATUTARY BAN ON FEMALE FOETICIDE

• Medical termination of pregnancy (MTP) or abortions is carried out to eliminate the

developing embryo. This practice can, however, be misused to carry out female foeticide
which involves the killing of the female foetus after determining the sex of child [
amniocentesis]. It should be avoided at all cost as it disturbs the male-female ratio in a
population.
 AIDS

• Acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS) is a chronic, potentially life-threatening

condition caused by the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV). By damaging your
immune system, HIV interferes with your body's ability to fight infection and disease.

• HIV is a sexually transmitted infection (STI).

How HIV spreads

To become infected with HIV, infected blood, semen or vaginal secretions must enter your body.
This can happen in several ways:

• By having unprotected and sex with multiple partners

• By sharing infected needles and syringes while taking drugs.
• From blood transfusions. In some cases, the virus may be transmitted through blood
transfusions. So hospitals and blood banks needed to screen the blood supply
for HIV antibodies, so this risk is very small.
• During pregnancy or delivery or through breast-feeding. Infected mothers can pass
the virus on to their babies. Mothers who are HIV-positive and get treatment for the
infection during pregnancy can significantly lower the risk to their babies.

• Without medication, it may take years before HIV weakens your immune system to the
point that you have AIDS.

• There's no cure for HIV/AIDS, but medications can dramatically slow the progression of
the disease. These drugs have reduced AIDS deaths in many developed nations.