3.

2
Technology Construction Technolo

ture Ground ae Angles

ll
Roof Tee

rent types

er
3.1 Fabricationfo StructuralSteel at Slopes amd Sites 3.6.7
termite treat- Erectioni of
3.2 Handling and Transportation of lnits to be Erected
3.7 General
Elements Channel Columns
3.2.1 Fabrication and the Fabricator's Premises/
Prefabrica ted Precastconstruction Beam
3.8 Jntroduction to Floors
Handling 3.8.1 Components ofFloor
3.2.1 Foaundations 3.8.2 Selection ofFlooring Material
3.2.2 Deltvery
3.8.3 Types of
3.2.3 Hmdling Merits andFloors mid Coistnuctim details nd
Danerits
3.2.4 Storage 3.8.4 Ground floors
3.3 Erection ofFabricated Steel Struchures 3.8.5
3.3.1 Fabrication and Erectiom of
Types of Ground Floors
Steekowork 3.8.5 Upper Floors
S.H.S
3.3.2 Sequauce ofErection 3.9 Roofs
R.H.S C.HS
|3.4 Transportation amd Erection and Hamdlin 3.9.1 Requirements of Good Roof Figure: 3.1
3.5 Various Precast Cancrete Structure_/Units 3.9.2 Classfication
3.5.1 Types ofPrecnst SysteryPrecast units of Roofs Primary fabrication operations
3.9.3 Various Technical Terms
3.5.2 Oher Precast Elements 3.9.4 Pitched Roof There are a number of key activities
3.6 Erection ofPrecast Reirforced Comcrete Struchures
to prepare individual components ready fo
3.9.5 Type of Pitched Roos erection on site.
3.6.1 Erection Preparation
3.6.2 . Rigging
3.9.5 Steel Trusses and Method
of Construction The principal activities associated with fabrication of
3.6.3 Crmes
3.9.6 Various Steel Trusses steelwork nclude cuting
3.10 Roof Cover ing Material For Pitched Rofs forming holes, assembling and attaching components, cleaning and protecting
3.6.4 Erectiom Crew
3.11 Ribbed (Waffle) Slab
3.6.5 Erectior Sequcnae
3.12 Precast R.C. Plank Flooring/Roofng Scheme
(a) There are a number of cutting processes used in fabrication depending o
3.6.6 Erection of Tilt-up Panels particular requirements. These include the circular saw, flame cutting, guillotine, an
Review Ques tions
cropping.
3.1 Fabrication fo Structural Steel at Slopes and Sites Material is normally delivered to the fabricator in standard sizes which must firs
cut into the required lengths. There are a number bf cutting processes depending o.
Steelwork is fabricated in a factory into components. It is then erected on sil be
a
the nature of the component and the cut. .
complete assembly, Teady to take floors, walls, cladding and roof. The maten
generally obtained from rolling mills and stockists in the form of I sections, Cn Cutting to length is usually done with a circular saw, which has the ability to pivo
angle, for heavier sections, with lighter angle sections being
Cut at the required shearec
hollow sections, angles or plate. These have to be cut to length, drilled and oon
for treatment will e appi
a
cropping machine.
heessaryready assembly, and in most cases
against corrosion. All such operations come under the
someprotective Shaped cuts are normally made by flame cutting. Computer numericall
heading of
fabricato machines are used for notching and similar operations
on
secuon
rled cutting
including profiling tubes for trusses.
Fabrication and Erection Work, Ground, Upper Floors, Roof, Roof Covering 3.3

Figure 3.2
(c)
C)Flame cutting, guillotining or shearing can used for
Plates and other flat products are more awkward handle cutting
and shaping plate.
to and are sheared by guillotine
for straight cuts. For cutting irreegular shapes flame cutting is a more versatile
and multiple head flame cutters can be used where a method,
number of identical cuts are
Flame cutting (also known as
required.
oxygen fuel gas cutting) is used where guillotining is
not suitable because of the
plate thickness or length or because of the shape required.
Plasma and laser cuttingg are increasingly being used instead of
more accurate, smoother and less hard cut
oxy-gas burning, providing
surfaces.
Guillotines are mecharical or hydraulic machines for
flat shearing components out of
plate and bars up to 25mmthick
Cropping is similar to guillotining
although involving small sections and flat bars.
(d) Holes for bolting can be formed, by punching or drilling. After
cutting to
length, holes are formed, by punching or drilling, to receive bolted attachments.
Punching, which is suitable for relatively thin sections, is a shearing process where
holes are punched' through the plate.
Drilling uses conventional twist drills. In a fabrication workshop electrically
operated
or air operated hand drilling machines, bench drills, mobile or upright driling machines
are used depending upon the work in hand.

Figure: 3.3
3.4 Construction Technology
Mult-spimdile drilling machines. controled by computer programs are very
efficien
for simultaneously drling multiple holes Fabrication and Erection Work, Ground, UpperFloors,Roof, Roof Covering 3.5
on-site
(e) It is generalyv more effhaent to assemble components during fabrication
than 3.2.1 Fabrication and the Fabricator's Premises/ Handling
Fabrication consists of cutting pieces of steel and connecting them together.
in general indivdual elements of a frame are prepared at the fabrication works
and then assembled onsite There may sometines be an advantage in doing some assembly The material is generally obtained from rolling mills or stockists in the form of
steel specified should be
at is particularly true for assembies such as trusses which involve a
the works This large? sections, channels, kollow sections, angles or plate. The
number of small components. rationalized to use relatively few section sizes and a common grade. îhe sections have to
and welded necessary ready for assembly, and in most cases
be cut to length, drilled as
For some structures, it is essential to reduce site activity to a minimum, and in such
the fabrication some protective treatment will be applied against corrosion. Operations can include
cases m:gt ridude non-structural components.
( Sub-assemblhes should nct be so large as to make handling and transportation cleaning, sawing, shearing punching, grinding, bending drilling, welding and the
difficult finishing of the steel. These involve extensive use of numerically controlled processes
which improve productivity and quality. All such operations come under the heading
Extensive assemblies, such as large trusses, can be difficult to
transport. In such of fabrication.
cascs they are often divided into two or three sub-assemblies which are
connected on Fabrication yards have facilities for storage, processing and dispatch.
site byrbolting

3.2 Handling and Transportation of Units to be Erected

(a) Complete fabrications are labeled and delivered to site as
steelwork is transferred to the fnsihed required.
stockyard to await building and wiring of loose
components for loading on to vehicies together with site assen bly bolts, ready for dispatch
to site
Each
piece is labelled to assist the erectors iderntify its intened location.
(b) Transport operating costs are not based upon the
vehicie loaded to a fraction of its rated weight of its load, and a
capacity will cost exactly the same as one which
is fully laden.
Cbviously, framed elements occupy considerable space but the consequences
can often be
mitigated if pieces can be spliced. Occasionally, independent stroage areas
may be required for very large contracts.
(c) Restrictions apply to transportation of very large Figure: 3.4
will also be aware of the statutory limitations on size and componets. The fabricator
Fabrication is, in effect, a factory process, with facilities for receiving steel ron
of sections to site and all of the health and
weight for the transportation
rolling mills, storing it in the steel yard, processing it as required (e.g. cutting, dnlig
safety requirements which cover unloading at
site and the hoisting of materials into welding painting), and loading up the prepared material for transporting to the bulans
position.
For very large items, a police escort site.
may be necessary.
It may involve for moving material within the factory, but the use
Simlarly, beams and columsn liberally sprinkled with projecting fittings are not cranes

only susceptiable to transit damage but are extermely awkward to handle and nest mechanical conveyors is more efficient.
securely. A with the erection of steekwork, scuh matters are There will be saws and guillotines, drills and punches, and facilities for flame curn
design concept and should receiver adequate consideration at thisdirectly
related to the
and welding, both by hand and by machine.
stage. nd
The type of work a fabricator is able to carry out depends on size, equipment d
facilities, which can vary widely.
 3. Construction Technology Fabrication and ErectionWornt,Ground, Uppe Fioors,Roof, RoofCovering 3
3.2.1 Foundations
Work onsite starts with foundations and setting out.
most usually laid by
Before erection commences the position of the column bases,
Minor discrepancies in the position of
others, should be verified by the steel contractor.
accommodated by the holding down bolt detail, and
the column bases can normally be
inserted between the steel and the concrete,
levels are usually adjusted using steel shims,
steelwork is positioned.
the gap being grouted once the

Figure: 3.5
size of the facility and weight of material that
Fabricator's vary both in the
shops
available equipment will also vary. Increasingly,
they can handle. The sophistication the are
of
where investment is available, operations being automated and computer-controlled.
to a large
from a very small operation, through
Fabricators facilities may range
responsible for material procurement, material
factory involving many departments
welding, quality control, stockyard, preparation,
allocation, drawing office, planning, Fabrication may also involve a number of
Figure: 3.6
and dispatch. and holding down bolts
fabrication, treatment, storage via a steel base plate
and other equipment to fixed to foundations
each resourced with dirferent cranes, welding Columns are
drilled to receive the
fabrication shops welded to a steel base plate,
The foot of a column usually
is the concrete footing. In view of the tolerance
suit different product ranges. areas, areas may be set aside The bolts are cast into
floor for the main production holding dówn bolts. into the footing in advance,
In addition to the shop elements. The remainder of the fabricator's premises will bolts are unlikely
to fit if they are cast
the
of certain
considerations,
considerable freedom
of m o v e m e n t is made.
for the trial assembly a template shop, plarining,
administrative
unless provision for
and drawing offices,
usually include design
and estimating departments.
from the producer
where significant quantities of 3.2.2 Delivery the general erection
ordered direct sections can be obtained from elements should be planned according to
Materials c a n be range.of from
Where possible, it is desirable
Delivery of precast
l i m i t e d
of a
smaller quantities
unnecessary site storage and handling.
steel a r e required; tu minimise
m a n n e r which they
can be lifted directly for
sequence elements into a
from the rolling mill if the q u a r precast For example,
to transport the
a
in orientation and sequence.
stockholders.
a r e only sourced
direct are sourced through
steeld y or without much change
Steel products s u f f i c i e n t . Otherwise they erection or storage A-Franme type trailer in upright position.
is As these are generalv be transported using
size and grade profiles. wall panels can delivered with proper supports, frames,
given
wide range
of "off-the-shelr
wastage, but a
steelwork contractor may should be loaded and
who offer a a d d i t i o n a l cuthng Precast elements Adequate packing or protection
be some
with a ckholder
stockho whereby: tie-downs to prevent intransit damage.
lengths there
may arrangement
cushioning and elements should also be provided to minimise risk
of
partnering
wastage by deliverin materials of edges of precast
have a long-term
takes :of cutting
the risk to the edges
stockholder
damage during transit.
The
the fabrication works on "just-in-time"
that are cut-to-length.

to
are
delivered

need 1or working capital. 3.2.3 Handling

steelwork contractors
materials contra
steelwork
The
removal of the precast elements from
handling process mainly involves the
the
pre-prepared in other ways (eg plates
reduce
to The
basis
be pre-treated or
pre-treated o
the torage yard, loading and unloading operation and
The
materials may
the mould, transporation'to
profiled and drilled).
 3.8
Construction Technology Fabrication and Erection Work, Ground, Upper Floors, Roof, Roof Covering
erection of thase elknats at the
job site. Different sets of lifting points and cast-in devices Appropriate stacking method should be sused to store the precast concrete
wil have to be used for various
handling stages to prevent any undue stresses and damages. Horizontal precasst concrete elemenelement
Typically, precast conaete elements are demoulded and lifted from their casting nts sud
as precast slabs, planks, beams and hollowcore panels, can be stacked
and sunn
poistion to storage yad and delivery to site once they reach the expected concrete strength separately using strips of woods or battens across the full width of the designated hesr
required As these elemenis havenot gained their full designed strength, they are generally points. Precast walls and facade panels are usually stored in vertical position suppor
more
sustceptihle to damages àuring handling. It is therefore important to ensure that their own weight using racks with stabilising wall. Storage conditions can be an impnrt
they handled in a way that is consistent with their shapes and sizes, to avoid excessives
are
factor acheiving and maintaining panel bowing and warping tolerances. portant
stresses or damages. For elements with
More latnl
large openings, temporary braching, ties or support should be given to slender panels, which are more likely to bow or wam e
strongbacks should
be provided for safe
handling as shown in figure. minimise handling, the elements should also be stored based on the erection sequenre
The handting uence
requirements depends on the foilowing factors. 3.3 Erection of Fabricated Steel Structures
Position of the casting mould (ie. vertical casting vs horizonta
casting) In
Minimum concrete strength of the precast elements for principle, steel erection involves positioning, aligning and securing t
ey and erectien
demoulding, deliv- components on prepared foundations to form a complete frame.
Adequacy of the design reinforcement to resist handling stresses Steel erection consists of four main tasks:
Size and weight of the
precast element Establishing that the foundations are suitable and safe for erection to com
mence.
Number, size and location of lifting points and type of
inserts/devices. Lifting and placing components into position, generally using cranes tt
Method of lifting, type of lifting
equipment and crane capacity. sometimes by jacking. To secure components in place bolted connenias
Support points for storage and transportation. will be made, but will not yet be fully tightened.
Bracings may simlary
not be fully secured.
Aligning the structure, principally by checking that column bases ar i
and leveland columns are plumb. Packing in beam-to-column conneics
may need to be changed to allow column plumb to be adjusted.
Bolting-up which means completing all the bolted connections to sar
and impart rigidity to the frame
The procedures can be illustrated for a skeletal steel frame
1. Careful planning is necessary to realise the
steel construction. There are three
advantage of speed ofered
main planning factors that affect the buldanuy
the scheme. These are:
Figure: 3.7 Practical erection sequence. The location of bracing or other means"
maintaining structural equilibrium are crucial here.
3.2.4 Storage Simplicity of assembly. Simply-assembled connections are the mau fcts
The storage area provided
in the yard and job site should be adequate to permit here.
easy access and handling of the preast elements. The area should Logical trade sequences.
firm and well drained to avoid and differential be'relatively level, andtt
ground settlements which may damage 2. Site work tends to be labour intensive and hence
relatively expensn
the stored elements. primary aim of the programme should be to minimise costs by shortening
site.
 3.10
Construction Technology Fabrication andErectionWork, Ground,Upper Floors, Roof, Roof Covering 3.11
ete elemen
3.8 Theprincipal design
factors contributing to buildability are G) Primary fabrication operations: The principal activities associated with
fabrication of steelwork include cutting, forming holes, assembling and
1here are two aspects to standardisation:
ments suh Repetition and standardisation: attaching components, cleaning and protecting.
buiding type (eg the portal shed) and common/
repetition of the sameconnections.
supported
ted bearing standard details for
(k) Sequence of erection:The principle is to establish a stable unit as quickly
as possible, and to attach subsequent elements directly or indirectly to this.
tolerances are specified too tight, then
Achievable tolerances: If tight
supporting
nimportant special controls will be needed and possibly specially-engineered details. Setting-out guidance : The design and erection should account for the
ore later choice is between simple and rigid-jointed
various interfaces with the sizucture, and the associated tolerances
Frame type: Here, the primary
r warp. To much quicker and easier to erect. 3.3.2 Sequence of Erection
frames, the former being
sequence Floor systems: For multi-storey frames, the
choice of floor system will
The principle is to establish a stable unit as quickly as possible, and to attach
affect the erection sequence as it determines the stability of the part erected
subsequent elements directly or indirectly to this.
structure, and how quickly other trades can follow-on.
A typical procedure for erection of a frame would be to set up a comer rectangle of
secure 'box' to
Fabrication and Erection of Steelwork four columns, linked by beams and diagonally braced. This provides a
3.3.1 in
work away from: further columns are erected, linked back to the ones already position
Introduction Fabrication is the process of preparing components ready by beams.
(a) :
fabricated com-
on site. Erection is the process of assembling also correct in level
on to com for assembly Each column has to be correctly positioned in plan or line', but
site, and with careful planning can be completed relatively be It is best to work from centre lines: if the
ponents on
and in orientation. It must also plumb.
the lines be marked on it. Otherwise a series of temporary
quickly. ground slab is installed, can
eranes but lfa line of columns coincides with the centre
Basic erection planning In principle, steel erection involves positioning, pegs can be driven at appropriate positions.
onnections (b) foundations to form a it at a known distance can be used. The first column to be
aligning and securing the components on prepared line, then any line parallel to
similarly complete frame. erected will need guying if the holding-down
bolt group is not sufficiently strong.

the finished stockyard to await their prepared foundations.

(c) Dispatch The steelwork is transferred to The first step is to install columns on
are lined
for loading on to vehicles to- foundation is set slightly low to permit steel shims
bundling and wiring of loose components The top surface of the concrete
nnections for dispatch to site. steel column's base plate. (The steel base packs are placed and
gether with site assembly bolts, ready to be packed beneath the
consists of the assembly of steel levelled before erection of the columns).
to secue
Erection: Erection of structural steelwork cost.
and it can be a significant project
components into a frame on site,
Fabrication consists of cutting
Fabrication and the fabricator's premises:
(e them together. Fabrication yards
have facili-
pieces of steel and connecting
ffered by ties for storage, processing and dispatch.
the position of the column bases,
ability of
Foundations: Before erection
commences
steel contractor.
most usually laid by others,
should be verified by the
ns l at each
and checking o c c u r s
control Inspection
Inspection and quality
after final assembly.
fabrication process and igure 3.8 (a)
n factors stage in the Columns in multi-storey
buildjngs cannot be
(h)Joints: Column splice joints: be spliced. After the colur1n is positioned the nuts on the holding-down bolts are tightened.
and will need to
erected as a single length at all stages during The base plate and lower part of the column wil eventually be encased in concrete
is important to ensure stability below ground floor level:
Lateral stability I t
and the )
time on construction.
3.14 Construction Technology Fabrication and Eecüon Work, Ground, Upper Floors, Roof, Roof Covering 3.15
Construction Time

Dearastconcrete construcion is nearly always faster when building the main parts
of astructure Components au anufactured in a precast plant at the same time as the
are being constiuted at the site.
foundations
Precast units are normaly large pieces, so greater parts of building are completed
a

heach activity compared to cast-in-place construction (formwork, scaffolding,

forement, concrete etc). Precast erection is fast and efficient, generally carried out
reinlo

using mobile cranes

Total precast bridge structures (abutments, wingwalls, girders + decks and traffic
hamiers) can dramatically speed up construction and reduce inconvenience and detours Higure: 3.9
for motorists.
The main features of this construction process are as follows:
Manpower The division and specialization of the humar1 workforce
An erection team will consist of a crane and small crew.
Experienced erectors can The
the
use
of tools,ofmachinery, and other equipment, and
usually automated, in
rect a whole frame and the floors and roof together with the walls of a production standard, interchangeable parts products
efcre any-other trades are engaged at the site. building often
The following are typical erection times:
Compared
affected by
to
site-cast concrete, precast concrete erection is taster and
adverse weather conditions.
less

Erection of hollow floor slabs Plant casting allows increased efficiency, high quality control and
core 300 m2 per working day greater
Grouting of loor joints - 500 m2 per day control on finishes..
This type of construction requires a
Erection of columns 8 pieces pei day restructuring of entire conventional construction
process to enable interaction between design phase and production planning in order to
Erection of beams 15 pieces per day
-

improve and speed up construction.

Erection of double tee slabs 25 pieces per day
-

3.5.1 Types of Precast System/ Precast units

Erection of walls 15 pieces
per day Depending on the load-bearing structure, precast systems can be divided into the
Stair and elevator shafts 2 floors
per day
For commercial following categories:
buildings (offices, shopping centers, schools etc.) about 100 m2 of
a
buiding can be erected each day, including the erection of all compónents and all Large-panel systems
neressary connections. The co:responding figure for the erection of apartment buildings Frame systems
5about 80 m2 per day. The difference is generally due to smaller pieces and stricter Slab-column systems with walls
tolerances. Mixed systems

3.5 3.5.1.1 Large Panel Systems:

Various Precast Concrete Structures/Units The designation "large-panel system refers to multistory structures
he concept of precast (also known as "prefabricated") construction includes those large wall and floor concrete panels connected in the vértical and horizontalcomposed of
so that the wall panels enclose directions
gs, where the majority of structural components are standardized and produced appropriate spaces for the rooms within a building. These
ants in a location away from the building, and then transported to the site for panels form a box-like structure. Both vertical and horizontal
DYThese components are manufactured by industrial methoda base on mass Wall panels are usually one story high. Horizontal floor and panels resist gravity load.
roof panels span either as
C O n in order to
build a large number of buildings in a short time at low one-way or two-way slabs. When properly joined
cost act as together,
diaphragms that transfer the lateral loads to the walls. these horizontal elements
3.16
Construction Technology Fabrication and Erection Work,Ground,Upper Floors, Roof, Roof Covering
3.5.1.3 Slab Column Systems with Shear Walls
3.17
These systems rely on shear walls to sustain lateral load effects, whereas the.
slab-
column structure resists mainly gravity loads. There are two main systems in this catep
Lift-slab system with walls
egory.
Prestressed slab-colunn system
In the Lift -slab system, the load-bearing struchure consists of precast reinfoced
concrete columns and slabs,. Precast columns are usiually wo stories high. All precast
structural elements are assembled by means of special joints. Reinforced concrete slabs
are poured on the ground in forms, one on top of he other. Precast concrete floor slabs
are lifted from the ground up to the final height by lifting cranes. The slab panels ae
lifted to the top of the column and then moved downwards to the final position.
Temporary supports are used to keep the slabs in tihe position until the connection with
Figure 3.10:A large panel concrete building umder constuction the columns has been achieved.
Depending on wall layout, there are three basic configurations of large panel
buildings:
Cross wall systems
Longitudinal wall system
Two-way systems
3.5.1.2 Frame Systemns
Precast franmes can be constructed
using either linear elements or spatial beam-
column sub-assemblages. Precast beam-column sub-assemblages have the advantage
that the connecting faces between the
sub-assenmblages can be placed away from the
critical frame regions; however, linear elements are
generally preferred because of the
difficulties associated with forming, handling, and
linear elements generally means
erecting spatial elements. The use of
placing the connecting faces at the beam-column
junctions. The beams can be seated on corbels at the columns, for ease of construction
and to aid the shear transfer from the beam to the
column. The beam-column joints Figure 3.11:A iftslab building
accomplished in this way are hinged. However, rigid beam-column connections are used
in some cases, when the continuity of longitudinal reinforcement The prestressed slab-column system uses horizontal prestressing in two orthogonal
through the beam-
column joint needs to be ensured. The components of a precast reinforced concrete frame directions to achieve continuity. The precast concrete column elements are 1 to 3 stons
are shown in Figure high. The reinforced concrete floor slabs fit the clear span between columns. After erecung
the slabs and columns of a story, the columns and floor slabs are prestressed by
1. Outside wall panel, 2. RC column, means
prestressing tendons that pass through ducts in the columns at the fioor level and aon
3. RC girder, 4. RC bracing slab, the gaps left between adjacent slabs. After prestressing, the gaps between the sansa
5. RC diaphragmy 6. RC celiling slab, fhiled with in situ concrete and the tendons then become bonded with the spans.e
etween
7. RC foundation loads are resisted
mainly by the shear walls (precast or cast-in-place) positioned
the columns at appropriate locations.
.18 Construction Technology Fabrication and Erection Work, Ground, Upper Floors,Roof,RoofCovering 3.19

3.5.2 Other Precast Elements (1) Check crane access to the site and erection platform to prevent cranes or
trucks damaging the concrete floor during access. A compacted hard-fill
(o) Columns ramp at a suitable gradient should be provided to a level slightly above the
Beams concrete floor.
(b)
(2) Obtain verification that the erection platform can support the erection
(c) Beam Column Connections
loads.
(d) Precast Floors
Selecting a Precast Floor System (3) Ensure the locating dowels and levelling shims are correctly located. Dow
els rather than blocks should be used to restrain the base of face-lifted
( Hollowcore Floor panels when they are being positiorned.
Solid Wideslab Floors (4) Clear the site for truck and crane access ensuring room for crane outriggers
(h) Double-Tee Floor Slabs counterweight tail siving, b0om swing and under hook and overhead
obstructions.
Precast Floors with Composite Toppings
(5) Ensure that sufficient space is available for precast propping or panel
Checking Calculations
bracing.
(k) Precast Stairs The builder must ensure that adequate temporary base restraint is pro-
(6)
Precast Balconies vided for any precast element to prevent a sliding failure (kick- out) at the
(0)
Architectural Cladding Panels base or support of the element.
(m)
Architectural Wall Panels Rain Screens Check that the means of temporary support, including falsework is ad-
(n) (7)
Architectural Composite Panels equate for the intended purpose and located correctly prior to the precast.
(o) elements being placed.
(P) Erection of Precast Reinforced Concrete Structures
(8) Verify that the concrete hàs obtained the specified strength for lifting. This
Erection Platform manufactured off-site.
may already have been done if the element was
() Lift Slab (9) Check that the lifting inserts are in their correct location and that recesses
Precast retaining wall are cleaned out in preparation for lifting.
S)
Structures Note: Ifincorrectly located, faulty or missing lifting inserts areidentified immediate
3.6 Erection of Precast Reinforced Concrete contact should be made with the designer who will rectify the problem and/or provide
an appropriate solution.
builder must determine that the
erection platform (floor slab, footing,
The Check that the strongbacks, if required, are available and correctly installed.
Suspended slab or surrounding ground, etc.) support the construction and erection
can

loads and provide verification to the crane owner/operator prior to the commencement (10) Determine if it is necessary to equalise loads on lifting points.
of the work. (11) Ensure that the appropriate rigging equipment is available. This includes
the crane, or transporter, the slab lifting beams and correct attachments for cast-in anchors or inserts.
suspended slab is used to support
If a
or any other construction

should be designed for the crane point loads, wheel loads, (12) Wherever possible the lifing oftilt-slab panels should be undertaken from
propping system may be required.
ioads, by a registered engineer. A temporary within the building envelope. In this way, the crane operator is able to
keep the rigging and lifting eyes in view at all times.
3.6.1 Erection Preparation
elements, (13) Erection should be possible without the need for any worker to be
and/or erection of precast.eoncrete tioned underneath a precast element or on the underside of a posi-
Prior to commencing the handling by the
manufacturer or builder as appropriate. tilt-up panel
the following items should be considered during erection.
 ng 3.22 Construction Technology Fabrication
3.21
3.7 Prefabricated Precastconstruction
ed sequence. Prefabricated construction is a relatively new way to get buildings up Many fast.
in factories in order to cut down on construction time
parts of the building are pre-made
this method was used almost exclu-
and lower the overall cost of a project. Previously
but in recent prefabricated construction components have
f the work sively for small homes, years,
to be
become available for other structures as well, including tunnels, bridges, and culverts.
So the question becomes, are prefabricated construction components right for your
make After
hesion between the project? The following run down of advantages and disadvan tages may help you
not come free when advantage
the call
Component
o f 110% of the panel
Advantages: gTOwing
nould be undértaken by are lergely assembled in separate facto
Faster construction-Because partsconstruction prefabricats
ries and then transporte to the site, overall building time is to work w
when lifting/tilting the much faster. This can allow construction companies to work on
more
projects are
vertical. projects and potentially, earn more money. remain com

ofa modular
control the swing Financing for customers-Most homes and buildings built in the Many
construction
vays position themselves fashion must be paid for. up front which can ensure that with the ma
teams reveive payment in full right away. which they
are often less wasteful than sive contrar
therigging equir Environmentally friendly-Prefabricatd buildings materials able to ens
other construction This may help to avoid unnescessary
projects.
costs as well. 3.8
move their prefabri-
Keturn customers-If the building owner decides to
that assembled The p-
cated building, they may hire the construction company location.
structure in new
panis ofab
the structure to disassemble and rebuild the
The fl
lifting equp Disadvantages involves a prefabricated
construction project that
Lesstlexibility-Working a structured dtimeline which
makes it
can create an extremely
structure with unexpected obstacles
harder for construction teams to deal (i)
ort manufacutrerof theparts may
Manufacturer reliablility-In some cases, the (iv)
pr are satisfactory.
weighed
avaihkle
t ot construction elements that
not be reliable or fail to providefor the construction company. (v
or
ulated
ma n i s can create conmplications The fl
ation restrictions on certain
site may put
h e specifications of the building's because the the other flo
to incorporate
can be difficult
ot the structure which in different location. floors.
apects were put together
Srucrure's main components
prefabricated buildings Streng
stated above, of port from gr
Less time spent on each project-As down on the total profit
éath a su
to build which can cut that are not
exclusion an-
requre a lot less time
for some companies through floo-
each project. This may
lead to losses
further asignnments.
extra time
with
t h es a f ehandi
prepared to fill the

****
**
 Roof Covering 3.23
hnology Fabrication and Erection Work, Ground, Upper Floors, Roof,
construction teams are familiar with the materials
Increased dangers-Most
prefabricated
but buildings can create unique
thatthey regularly work with, organiza-
are put together by a completely separate
ast. Many dangers be cause they workers
leave with
dealing serjous injuries
tion time tion. Costruction accidents can must work with a con-
In some cases, victims
ost exclu- and health complications. of the acci-
to handle the legal complications
attorney
ents havee struction accident
culverts. dent.
may benefit
or dis-
t for your that prefabricated building projects
After considering the way decide if this type of building
you make profitability, it can be easier to construction is
advantage a company's this type of
to note however, that
desirable. It is important in an area where
component is thanother. If you live
time to team in how
more
of the country
growing in some parts it may not be worth your
s t r u c t u r e s are less popular,
construction
arate facto prefabricated On the other hand, if prefabricated to
ling time is this type of product. of service may be necessry
to work with this type
in your region, offering in the area.
k on more
projects are booming similar
construction companies
constracst
with research possible
remain competitive is beneficial to
find it situation in
c o n s t r u c t i o n companies
components. By
creating a
the modular Many building out an exclu-
manufacturers of prefabricated cu_tomers-or
even working
construction with the services to their construction may be
recommend your this field of
which they about getting into
that are serious base.
wasteful than sive contrant-those have.a reliable
customer

that they
sary materials able to e n s u r e
Introductionto Floors the occu-

3.8 a level
surface capable
of supporting
their prefabri- to provide
of a floor is and internal
partitions.
hat assembled The purpose furniture
equipements,
building,
pants of
a requirements:
e w location. following
should satisfy the
The floor
and stability
Adequate
strength
a prefabricated () resistance

Adequate
fire
vhich makes it (i)
(ii), Sound insulation

bstacles. (iv) Damp resistance

may
»f the parts (v) Thermal insulation.
ground floors while
as
are satisfactory. surface are known
the ground are known as
upper
which rests on the ground level
any. The floors
storey,
situated above
ctions on certain
floors of each
orate because the the other
floors because full sup-
floors. minor problems of ground
rent location. Stability are the
of ground floor is damnp
Strength and available at all points but major problem
is into building
port from ground
bricated buildings moisture present in the ground pass
of insulatiorn as
the total profit exclusion and
thermal
taken to check it. Major
problem of upper floors is of
that are
not
floor unless steps are
anies through
3.24 Construction Technology Fabricationna
Strength and stability as they are supported only at their ends, on walls, beams etc 3.8.4 G
structural design of filoors should be such to take all loads coming over them, ie. load by
the use of building, self weight and the weight of partitions etc. Thefl
Upper floors do not have problems of damp resistence, though sound insulation is floors.
generally an important factor in the design. The problem of fire resistance does not arise These
for thelowest floor of a building, but is important for upper floors. rable surface
stones, conc
3.8.1 Components of Floor Sincea
ment floor, is
All floors mainly consists of foilowing two components:
() Floor Base: It is also known as sub-grade, base course or subfloor. The (a)
function of this component is to give required strength, load bering capac- (6)
ity, stability and support to the floor covering and to provide damp resis- 16). This laye
tance and thermal insulation
Someti
(i) Floor Covering: It is also known as paving or flooring. This is
provided
over the floor base and its function is to provide a hard, clean, smooth,
dry bricks ha

impervious, durable and attractive surface to the floor. The pu

tocapillary
3.8.2 Selection of Flooring Material The p
Meterials used for flooring the floor. The
are mid, bricks,
flag stones, concrete, terrazzo, Mossaic, base for floo=
Tiles, Marble, granolithica finish, wood or timber, asphalt, Rubber, Linoleum
cork, glass, plastic or PVC. flooring The va
The following are the concrete, terr
factors that affect the choice of flooring materials.
It should have a good appearance 3.8.5 Ty
(i) It should be durable
(ii) It should be noiseless as far as possible ()
(iv) It should not beverycostly (ii)
(v) It should be
easy to clean. ()
(vi) should have low
It (vii)
maintenance cost.
(vii It should be free from dampness ix)
(vii) It should not be too much (xi)
It should be
slippery.
(ix) hard and smooth. (xii) E
() It should be thermally insulated.
(xv)
(xi) Material should be fire resistance. (A)
3.8.3 Types of Floors and Construction details The gra
and Merits and
Demerits or mud floor
There are two
types of floors ground and upper floors. These
impervious s
 3.8.4 Ground floors: 325
The floors constructed at plinth level of different buildings ate cat
floors alled ground
These floors are constructed
to provide a clean, smooth
non-absorbent and
rable surface to live at ground level of buildings. These floors may be d
stones, concrete, wood etc.
consistino o
of brick

Since a ground
floor rests directly on the soil whern not
ment floor, its base usually consists of the accompanied by a b
following two layers:
(a) 100 mn thick layer of coarse sand over consolidated earth
murum fl or
b) 100mm thick layer of lime concrete (1:4:8) or lean cement concrete
16). This layer of concrete is known as base concrete. (1:8
Sometimes, rubble filling also known as hard core
consisting of gravel, pebbls
dry bricks having 50 to 100 mm thickness is provided over the sand.
The purpose fo
providing a layer of course sand is to
to capillary action and to prevent rise of moisture dæe
prevent dampness
in the building through the floor.
The purpose of rubble
the floor. The
filling or hard core is to increase the strength of the base
object of providing lime or cement concrete layer is to have a solid o
base for floor
covering.
The various materials used for floor covering of
ground floors are: icks, t
concrete, terrazzo, mossaic, timber, etc.
3.8.5 Types of
Ground Floors
() Mud Flooring
(i) Muram Flooring
(i) Brick Flooring
(iv) Flag stone Flooring
() Tiled flooring
(vi) Cement concrete flooring
(vii) Granolithic flooring (vii) Terrazzo flooring
(ix) Mosaic flooring
(x) Marble flooring
(xi) Timber flooring
(xi) Asphalt flooring
(xii) Rubber floring
(xiv) Linoleum flooring
(xv) Acid proof
flooring (xvi) PVC flooring
(A) Mud or
Murum Floors: mu

The ground floor having its topping is

called

or mud floor ormud

consisting of muru mer

These floors
impervious surface.
are cheap and easily
repairable, but these L
donot
 3.26
Construction Technology Fabrica
etnod construction, For constructing a murum or mud floor, the surtace ot
earth hling is
of

properly consolidated, Then a layer of rubble or broken bats, about 200

mm thick, IS laid,
hand
of good earth, about 150 packed, wetted and rammed. After ramming, a layer of murum
mm thick, is laid. After
earth, about 25 mm this, a layer of powdry variety ot
and rammed until the
thick, is uniformly spread. The whole muram
surface is then well watered
cream of murum or earth rises to the
surtace is again rammed for top. After 12 hours, the
about three
paste ot cowdung and rammed for aboutdays.
The surfaceis then smeared with a
two days. Finally, a thin coat of mixturethick
of
parts of cowdung and 1 part of Portland cement is
wiped clean by hand. evenly applied and the surface is
ticles
Forproperly maintaining this type of floor, gobri
Merits leaping is done once a week.

These floors are

generally used for unimportant buildings in rural areas.
i) It has smooth suraface
(ii) Easy in constructión
(iv) Maintains comfortable
temperature in all seasons
()Sufficiently long life if properly maintained.
Demerits: For proper
be maintenance-cowdung
objectionable from sanitary
wash has to be given and this may
conditiors.
(B) Brick Floors:
nefioor having its topping consisting of bricks is
ng may be done with brick laid flat or on edge known as brick floor. The fioor-
night angles to the walls. arranged in herring bone feshion or set at
Method of construction
Theearth filling under floor is well
ayer of cement or lime concrete is laid over compacted first and therafter 10 to 15 cm. thick colour
the
as subgrade. The floor is laid directly over the entire area of floor. This layer is known
e iloor to take care of floor washing etc. is subgrade.inThe slope required to be given to
bricks should be
properly soaked and
provided subgrade itself. Prior to use, the
wetted in water.
he bricks are laid on edge on 12 mm. thick mortar bed in such a manner
that all
uts are full of mortar. Where the floor has to be plastered or
S should be raked to a depth of about 15 mm. during the painted, all the face
of work (when
progressthe in the s
sgreen), This is necessary to ensure adequate bond between flooring and the
theortar of pointing or plastering. In case, however, pointing or plastering is not needed, thin la-
the
joints need not be raked and instead rendered flush and finished sCreeds
bricks. during layingot has har
mortar
Fabrication and ErectionWork,Ground,UpperFloors,Roof,RoofCovering 3.27
The flooring should be cured for a minimum period of seven days
Merits
() It is durable and sufficiently hard.
i) It is cheaper than cement conerete, wooden or mosaic flooring.
(ii) It is non-slippery.
(iv) It is easily rupairable.
(v) Provided in warehouses, stores and godowns or in places where heavy ar-
ticles are stored.
Demerits: It is absorbent

(c) Tile Flooring:

-Tiles or Stone Slabs

-Temporary Batten
100 mm Thick
Lime Concrete
or Lean Cement
Concrete (1:8:16)
100 mm Thick
Coarse Sand
-Consolidated Earth
Mortar
Figure 3.12: Tile or Flag Stone floor
The floor having its topping consisting of
tiles is called tile floor.
thickness and
tile floor may be of any
desired quality, shape,
The tiles used in a

colour.
of floor tiles are commonly used:
The following sizes
15 mm,
(a) 150mm x 150 mm x
mm,
() 200 mmx 200 mm x 20
(c) 225mm x 225 mm x 22 mm. base course is prepared
of construction. For constructing a tile floor, the
Method Over the base course thus prepared, a
manner as in case of brick flooring.
in the same screed battens. Then the
or cement
mortar is spread with the help of
thin layer of lime correct height. When the surface mortar
levelled and fixed to the
screeds are properly
hardened suficiently, the speciuied tiles are laid on a 6 mm thick bed of wet cement
has The mortar which comes out of the joints
3.12. surplus
mortar (1:5) as shown in figure
 Fabrication and Er

3.28 Construction Technology

is cleaned off. After 3 days, the joints are well rubbed with a corborundum stone so as to
chip off al the projecting edges, (rubbing should not be done in case of glazed tiles).
Then the surface is polished by rubbing with a softer variety of corborundum or pumice
stone. The surface is then finally washed with soap.

Suitability:
) Used for paving courtyards of buildings
(i) Glazed tiles floors are used in modem buildings where high class finish is
desired.
(c) Flag Stone Flooring
Stones which are available in 20 mm to 40 mm uniformly thick slabs and square or
rectangular shapes are called flag stones. The floor which is constructed of such stones
is known as stone flooring. The stones should be hard, durable, tough and of good The floor h
quality. or conglomerate
Method of Construction: For constuction the earthen base should be tough and of The concrets
good quality, First, the earthen base is levelled, compacted and watered, on this surface,
a layer of 10 to 15 cm thick concrete is laid and properly rammed. over this concrete bed cre'e(1:2:4) top-
the stone slabs are fixed with thin layer of mortar. The stone surface may be rough or
(1:4:8) or lean c
thick clean sand
polished. A slope of 1:40 should be provided in such type of floors these days.
Merits
Method of
Very economical wherestone is easily available concrete floors is
Easy in construction, repair and maintenance ) Prep
Not very impervious floor as water can per colate through damaged joints earth
Demerits (ii) Layi
(i) Does not give pleasing surface dry c

(i) Usage is not confortable (ii) Layi

(d) Cement Concrete Flooring abou
is of

40 mm Thick Horizontal 40 mm Thick Horizontal D. P. C.

(iv) Layi
D. P.C. in th
A0 mm Thick C. Con
15 mm Thick Wearing Conc
Layer of C. Conc. (1:2:3)
Topping is ev

(v) Cons
pann
100 mmThick Bas is di
0 0 ikick Sand Filling/L of ea
Consolidated Earth
fiml
 oof Cover
Eabrication and Erection Work, Ground, Upper Floors, Roof, Roof Coverng
Construction Technology () Topping laid in Two Layers 3.29
corborundum stone so as to (a) Bonded Finish Concrete Floors
40 mm Thick Horizontal D. P. C.
one in case of glazed tiles). 2 0 mm Thick C. Conc. Topping
of corborundum or pumice

77VYGO TNM Thmck Base Concrete

gs.where high class finish is 50 To 100 mm Thick Hard Core
or Dry Bricks or Stone Ballast
-100 mm Thick Sand Filling
(b) Monolithic Finish Concrete Floor
mly thick slabs and square or.
is constructed of such stones Figure 3.13 Cement concrete Floor
durable, tough and of good The floor having its topping consist of cement concrete is called a cement concrete
or conglomerate floor.
base should be tough and of The concrete floors consist of 20 to 50 mm (generally 40 mm) thick cement con
a and watered, on this surface, crete (1:2:4) topping laid over 10 cm base concrete which is in theform oflimeconcrete
base concrete in turn rests over 100mm
ammed. over this concrete bed
(1:4:8) or lean cement concrete (1 :8: 16). The
stone surface may be rough or thick clean sand which is laid over consolidated earth. These floors are commonly used
e of floors. these days.
of cement
Method of construction of cement concrete floors. The construction
concrete floors is done in the following steps:
le surface of murum or
(4) Preparation of surface of sub-grade : The top of
e
earth filling is levelled, well watered and rammed.
colate through damaged joints the sub-grade, a layer cleani
of
(ii) Laying of sand layer: After preparing
dry coarse sand about 100 mm thick is evenly
spread over the suD-Ea
bb lling
a hard core of dry bricks or
tii) Laying if hard'core : Sometimes,
of sand when
the sub-sot
about 50 to 100 mm thick is laid on the layer
is of poor quality and has less bearing capacity. sand
or coarse
of rubble filling of lime
im
(iv) Laying of base concrete: Over the layerbase c o n c r e t e consistingm thick
a Thick Horizontal D. P. C in the absence of hard core, a layer of
Concrete (1:4:8) or lean cement concrete(1 8: 16) about
5mm Thick Wearing
yer of C. Conc. (1:2:3) is evenly laid and compacted. rectangular

laid in t h ef l o o r

work: The topping is

generally
((v) Construction of form 1.5 in size. For
this purpos T h eh e i g h t

pannels excedding
not meters square
o r iron
screeds. SCreeds
a r e

is divided into symmetrical panels by Ooden All

e
topping, n
Oeach sCreed is kept equal to the thickness
fimly fixed and carefully levelled.
 Construction Technology Fabrication and Erection Work,
3.30 Ground, Upper Floors, Rool, Roof
After constructing the form work, the topping consist In this Coverng 3,31
( Laying af topping: type of concrete floor, topping
ingof cement concrete (:2:4)20 to 0 mm thick, is laid and finished is laid on the third
of laylng the base
provides a non-monolíthic construction. day
concrete. Thus, the floor
as desired sists of 100 mm The base corcrete
thick lime concrete (1:4:8) or lean con
For monolithic construction: the toPpoing consisting of 20
mm thick cement con- laid over 100 mm thick clean
sand spread over cement concrete (1: 8:16) whichls
Crete (1:2:9islaid within 5
munutes to 4 hours after placing the base concrete. cornsolidated earth.
This type of construction is
Far nor-monolithic construction or bonded finish, toppoing is laid either in single
concrete floor is laid by the mostly adopted in the field. The topping of such a
or in two layers on
the thärd day after placing the base concrete. The base concrete is following two methods
brushed with a stíf broom, cleaned thorouhly and well wetted with water over a night. ) Topping laid in single layer: In this case, the topping
The surphuswater is thern brushed oft.
concrete (1:2:4) about 40 mm thick is laid in single consisting,of cement
Then a grout of cement and sand is applied cver the surface to bind the base 3.13(a)-6i). layer at a time as shown in
figure
concrete with topping, After applying the grout, the toppoing concrete is laid into the (i) Topping laid in two layers : In this case, the
altemate panels. As soon as the layer of concrete iîn each panel is even, it is compacted 15 mm
thick cement concrete (1: 2:3) which is laid wearing (top)with layer consists of
by ramming or beating and finished to a uniform level according to the level of screeds. monolithically
consisting of 25 mm thick cement concrete (1:3:6) as shown in under layer
The surface is then trowelled to level the same. The topping thus laid is protected from figure 3.13 (a)-().
direct sun, wind and rain for atleasi 24 hours. On the next day, the screeds are removed
(2) Monolithic finish concrete floor. The cement concrete floor
ping consisting of 20 mm thick cement having its top-
carefully, vertical sides of the panels are examined and the defects are corrected. On the base concrete is known as concrete (1:2:4), laid monolithically with the
third day, the concrete is laid in the remaining altermate panels in level and line with monolithic finish concrete floor.
panels already laid. When laying these panels, care should be taken that the edges of the In this type of concrete floor, the
topping is laid within 45 minutes to 4 hours after
adjoining panels may not get damaged. The topping, thus laid, iscured by any suitable placing the base concrete. The base concrete 100 mm thick is laid
method for about two weeks. mm directly over 50 to 100
thick hard core of rubble filling or dry brícks or stone ballast which is usually laid over
100 mm thick sand fillinglying over a consolidated
In situations where the floor is to withstand heavy wear, ie., in factories, stores, earth' as shon in figure3.13 (b).
This type of construction is not
garaes etc. granolithic floor finish may be provided This type of finish consists of a generally adopted in the field
mixture of rushed granite which is well graded and mixed with cement so as to form a Merits
dense mass. The usual proportions of the mix are 1 part cement to 2h parts of wll
graded crushed granite. The thickness of granolithic topping varies from 25 to 50 mm.
Concrete floors with 25 to 38 mm thick.
topping are used for residential,
office and other similar buildings where
Upto 38 mm thick topping, it should be laid as monolithic finish arnd beyond this, it may heavy wear is not
expected
be laid as non-monolithic or bonded finish. (i) Floors with 50 mm thick topping are suitable for
colleges, factories corri
dors and for all such places subjected to heavy
Cement concrete floors are sometimes coloured coloured and marked off to re- wear
semble tiles. Such a foor, finished with wax, provides pleasing appearance. (i) Concrete floors are hard and durable.
(iv) They provide a smooth and non-absorbent surface,
Types of cement concrete floors
floors () They are more fire-resisting
According to the method of finishing of the topping, cement concrete
are

dassiñied into the following two types: (vi) They provide a more
sanitary surface as they can be cleaned and washed
() Non-monolithic or bonded finish concrete foors:. easily.
(2) Monolithic finish concrete floors, (Vvi They are economical as they involve less maíntenance cost.
concrete floors. The cement concrete floor (vi) They can be finished with a pleasing appearance.
(1) Non-monolithic or bonded finish base concrete is known
with the as non-mono-
tOPping having not laid monolithically
hithic or bonded finish concrete floor.
 S.38 Construction Technology Fabrication and Erection Work, Ground, Upper
Floors, Root,Rocf Covering
The PVCsheets tiles consist
or
a of
thoroughly blended
composition of themoplastic () Single joist wooden floors 3.39
3.39
binders, fllers and pigment. PVC sheets are available in 1 m, 1.5 m and 2m width. PVC
tiles ane 300, 600 and 00 mm square in size. The thickness of these sheets or tiles
varies
trom 1.5 mn to 5 mm.
-JoistsStrutin
PVC looring material is of modem origin and is normally used for covering floors
mainly from decorative point of view. It provides a resillent and B
impervious surface. mm mnmm
PVC floors are constructed in the same manner as linoleum or rubber floors.
Suitability: PVC floors are suitable for residential and offfice Air Spece.
for railway coaches. buildings and also
300
3.8.5 Upper Floors Wal-Pze 50
Details AtC Herng BneS
SediimaAS
An upper floor is a structural Detai's of sizge jais b e ios
element, and the structural design of a
influence the choice of the type of floor.
Upper
building will
floors are supported either on the walls Figure 3.16
or coumns, and therfore they have the problems of This is the simplest type of timber floor used for
residential buldings, where spans
upper floors should be such that upper floors can
strength and stability. Design of areshort or moderate (say upto 4 m) and loads
support the loads set up by the use of consists of wooden joists (also called comparatively ighter. The loor
are
buildings, in addition to the self weight and the weight of partitions. bridging joists) spaced 30 to 0 cm apart and
Upper floors are classfied into supporated on end walls, over which timber planking or boarding is fei The wdth of
following types: joists are kept 5 to 8 cm wide. The depth of the joists is determined from tte thumb rue
Timber floors Depth (cm) = (4 x spanin metres) + 5 cm

(i) Steel joist and flag stone Method of construction

(i) Jack arch loor The joists are supported on wall plates 10 x
7 cm to 12x 7 cm in size, at the nd
walls. A space of about 5 cm is kept at the ends for air dirrulation
(v) RCC floors When the span
exceeds 2.5 m, it becomes esseniial to strengthen the timber
joisis by providing hering
(v) Precast floors bone strutting at the mid-span, by means of inclined pieces of timber of size 5 x 3 cm
to
5x5 cm, as shown in figure
(vi) Reiníorced brick floors 3.16. End wedges are provided betwean the wall and joist
The end of the joists are nailed, cogged or notched to the wall
plates. li the joists of
(vii) Filler Joist floors adjacent room run in the same direction, they may be overlapped and naied to each
other. Planking consists of wooden boards of 4 cm thick and 10 to 15 cm
(a) Timber floors: are fixed to the bridging joists.
width, which
Timber floors having their topping along with their structural supports Merits
of timber are known as timber or wooden floors. consisting
Single joist wooden floors are easy to construct
Timber floors are not being (i) They distribute
ture resistant nor
commonly used these days because they are neither thé load more
uniformly on the walls as the joists are
adequately water proof. Moreover, such floors cost more these days. placed at close intervals.
Timber floors are further classfied into three types ás discussed below (i) They are cheap.
Demerits
Single joist wooden floors are uneconomical for spars more than 4
ca
3.40
Corstruction Technology Fabrication and Erecton Work, Groud, Upper Floors, Roof, Root Coverin
The
joists are liable to sag whih may develop cracks in the
oeiling. Mertis
They involve lot of cutting while making an
(iv) They may transmit their load on
opening in the floor.
( Double joist wcoden loors are more rigid and hence the plasthrs
window
placed uniformly on the entire length of the wall or door lintels as the joists are to be are not liable to crack. Celie
()They requine wall plates for supporting the joists They transmit the load at specific points and hence bind ow
placing of binders
window or door lintels can be avoided,
(vi) They are not sound proof. (ii) They are more sound proof.
(b) Doable joists timber foor
Demerits
180 mto240 m Double joist wooden loors provide inereased
the head-room.
depth of floor which
m
(i) They involve extra labour to join the various members
together.
(i) Their increased depth also results in increasing the cost of the
bulder
(iv) The loads through binders are transferred to end walls in the form of
Bridging jaistsBinders concentrated loads.
h
of 300 mmc/d
(c) Framed or Triple joist timber floors
Pian of double
joist timber flcor Bridging Joists
Floor Boards Notched Joint tzzzywLLLLLILLLLLLL
Girders
Bridging Joist Bridging Igíst
Cogged Jounit Binders
-Binders-
Methods of
Fillet
fixing binders with joists -3 m -
Figure 3.17
This type of flooring is Plan
Tne bridgingjoists are
stronger, and is used for spans between 3.5 to 7.5 metres.
supported on intermediate wooden
supports, called binders. Thus, Floor Boards Furrng Piece Bridging Joists
he ioads of
bridging joists are first transferred to the binders and through them to the
end walls in the form of Girder
higiy concentrated loads.
Method of Construction
ceiling Joists
Berause of intermediate supports, the
are bridging joists are of smaller sections and
spaced at 30 cm centres. The spacing of binders is kept 2 to 3.5 and they rest on Tusk and Tenon Joint Ceiling
stone or wooden
bearing templates which are not less than 0.75 to m,2.5
order to reduce the overall depth cf the
floor,
m in
length. In Section
with depth of sinking bridging joists are cogged to the binders, Details of framed timber floors
equal to 1/3rd depth of bridging girders änd bearing not less than
2.5 cm. Alternatively, the ends of the Figure 3.18
bridging girders are cut, and they are jointed
the help of Lillers provided along the two sides of the binder. with rmul
his type of loor is suitable for spans greater than 7.50 m, in which iner
supports, girders are provided for binders.
 3,42
Construction Technology
There are four components of flooring Fabrication and Erection Work,
6) floor boards Ground, Upper Floors, Roof, Roof Covering
(i) Bridging joists 3.43
Gii) Binders
(iv) Girders
The bridging joists
support floor boards. The binders are
joints as shown in figure to increasestaggered
to girders by tusk and tenon and connected
and to decrease the overall the
rigidity of the floor
depth of floor.
Suitability : Triple joists floors are suitable for
(c) Steel Joists and spans exceeding 7.5 m.
Flagstone Floor
Flagstones Filling of Selected Earth
Tedus Wooden Block Rolled Steel
Joist
300 to 400 mm
uilding, -R.S. Joist-
Steel Beam
high Double flagstone floor
12 mm Dia. Bar 3mm - M.S. Plate
Figure: 3.19
In this type of
floors, the flagsontes are used in the two
8.8.1f the span is about 4 layers as shown in figure Elevation
4 m, a framework
m, only rolled
steel joists are provided. But if the (b)
consisting of rolled steel beams and joists is formed. Thespan exceeds Isometric
are
placed at a distance od about 3m centre to centre steel beams View
angles to the beams. The flagstones of about 40 and the
mm thickness and
joists are
placed at right c/c
fixed on the lower
flanges and upper flanges as shown in of suitable widths are Eye cm
The joints of top figure 3.19.
ce. The
layer of flagstones are finished in a better
filing of selected earth or concrete is done in the way to give nice appearan
. Holes
a t
75

15M
flagstones. space between two layers of
(d) Jack Arch Floor

Flooring
Figure:3.21 Concrete Jack arch flooring
In this type of floors, the brick archesor cement concrete arches are constructed

Brick Arch RS.j. and these arches rest on the lower flanges of mild steel joists. The joists in turm rest either
on wall or on beam. The joists are placed at a distance of about 800 mm to 1200 mm
LTie Rod 'ZCement Concrete centre to.centre. The rise of arch should be 100 mm to 200 mm and the minimum depth
-Wall o f concrete at the crown should be 150 mm. The only disadvantage of this
type of floor
Brick jack arch floor is that it does not give a plain ceiling surface.

Figure 3.20 Construction of brick jack floor: Folowing is the procedure of

jack arch floor constructing brick
ntermedizf
Press

of
India(P1).

Fabricationand ErectionWork, Ground,Upper Foors,Roo,RoofCoveing 3.45

344 Construction Technology (ii) If lime concrete is used for filing heunches of the arch, the RS.f
) The centering for brick arch is prepared. It is usually in the form of a protected. from the rusting action of lime concrete by providing Sreed
segmental piere of wood of thickness of about 40 mm. Its length is equal cement mortar around them. of
to the span of arch and its shape corresponds to the soffit of the arch. The (iv) The work should be cured properly for a least 10 days.
ends of the centering are slightly cut ott at ends.
(v) Pilling above the arch and construction of tloor should start only afte
(i) Thebricks are laid on edge from both the joists. The end bricks are cut to Curing is complete.
t hrmly with the joists. The bricks should be well burnt and saturated
with water. The bricks should be placed in such a way that necessary (vi) The end spans of jack arch floors have to resist the horizontal
thrust and
bond is developed between different rings or layers ot bricks, hence, the tie rods should be provided in the extreme pair of steel jos
() The key brick is introduced at the centre of arch. It is to be fitted with rich The tie rods are placed at a centre to centre distance about 2 m and bi
mortar and made as tight as possible. and nuts are used to maintain them in position.
GV) The cern tering is removed or pushed ahead for further construction of arch. Demerits
(v) The brickwork is well watered at least for 15
days and then, the topP () Ceiling is not plain.
flooring is provided on a bedding of lime concrete or cement concrete. The (i) Joist if embedded into lime concrete are liable to rust due to action of ire
underside of arch is also suitably finished.
arch floor.
Figure 3.20 shows a brick jack (ii) Side walls are subjected to lateral thrust for which they are to be
Construction of cement concrete jack arch floor: stronger.
Following is the procedure of constructing cement concrete jack arch floor: (e) Reinforced Cement Conrrete Flooring:
On accout of a number of advatnages of the material, R.C.C.
) The centering for cement concrete arches is
prepared. It usually of looring haske
a steel
plate of about 3 mm thickness and bent to the shape ofconsiststhe jack
very popular these days. Though strong in compression, concrete is extremelywek
arch. The steel plate has tension. Its resistance to tension is so low that plain concrete can be only used where
pair of holes at 750 mm centre to centre all along
the length of the plate. The member is in pure compression. Steel is equally strong in tension and in compres
plate is supported by means of steel bars with
eyes and wooden blocks as shovwn in figure 3.21 Thus the combination of concrete and steel has proved to be ideal for floor consitructin
(b).
(i) The cement concrete is then laid on
the centering to the RCC. floors can be classfied in the following main types
(ii)
required thickness.
The centering is removed only when the cement concrete has obtained RCC slab flooring
sufficient strength. (i) R.C.C. beam and slab flooring
(iv) The surface is kept for about 10
wet
and then, the
surface and finishing of arch surface days
(ii) Flat slab flooring.
finishing of top
Figure 3.21
are.
(a) shows a concrete jack arch near the
carried out. (iv) R.C.C. ribbed flooring
the supports exceeds 3.60 m, the
rolled steel beams of
support. If the span between R.CCslab flooring: For small spans, say upto 3.6 m, whicharenots
shown in figure 3.21 (6). The rolled steel required section are provided as jected to heay loadings, a simple slab may suffice. W'hen the ratio of length of the m
joists rest on rolled steel beam.
The beams are
placed at a centre to centre distance of about 2 m to 3 m and concrete to its breadtih is greater than 2, the floor slab is designeci to span along thewidthai
are provided at their ends. or stone bed
blocks room as a one way slab. In this case, themain reinforcement of the slab span alomg s
Precautions to be taken in Jack Arch floor width, while distribution bars are laid parallel to thelength of room.
(i) Only first class bricks, which are well the building
Depenaug
plan, the slab may be simply supported on the walls, or it may De
in the wo: k. wetted before hand, should be used ous over internmediate
walls. The design of a continuous floor slab 1S
(i) Itshould be ensured that the steel
.

of a sinply supported one. It the length to breadth ratio of the room 15 lesS u diere
wall before starting the arch joists are well secured to the oor slab Is
construction. supporling designed as a two-way reinforced slab. In this case, main remtonu
nenmens=
provided both along the length as well as along the breadth of the
room
 Conatuatlon Taolvnolouy
Paltontlon and Ereuon vWrk, 4rund, Uper trts, A, A
rdng

HlppovlngUDly omly w}ut ony pnwbbm y uane. the flat slarn may sies
wItl dop oV wihout Thwdrop, tumm dp o wwl w deats tht yart tA slsy atrond e
I N S NMtmY emling mmment, the maiN olndomemNanta are plAvol lal alalb tloOr willh dop
Thhe voltrovumont eu
that olab ean w mianypd ither in
in
four-way ayalenm, Por odnary oaling, todiions, tmy-na s/stem en
the twyma si/shen ef reitfonr
R.CC em and slad doorin Hnt l9 geNurally adopted
Mevita of flat nlab eonstuetion
() As he alal) la eonstrur ted vwthoul any ean, a flat
wheli glvus atlrartlvw opeararu from the ceiin, is thtared
arehiheetursl pin r e
(1) It ie consldered lubs vulnerable in eau of fire as tvnpated o e
slab-beam conotruetlo, nditaty
Beanm Aenufmemant (1) The conerele is more logeally ued in this type tf conistrwtikni zrvd tere
Niwre&22R.CC Beam and Slad lloor proves t9 be exononeal for larYp sparis wth teary lie kiads
r iggar span and heavy (iv) Tha fomwork Is slniple and wononval
walls ane nt
loading consitlons or in situatdona where inlevmediate
povidad to mdue the span of the floor slab, R.CC, beanm and alab co (v) The platn eeilbng, gyaits beter diffusm of
straction is adopad. The beams act as intermedliate walla and tha
íloor alalb la cdeslgned in
as a oontinuous slad monolithic with the Demerlls
beams. The beama tdhus uaed ara known aa T
bams erause a part of the tloor slab assists in
reslating ihe compreaalon developed b () R.CC, lat slab floors reyuire early qJare parels,
the beam. The projacting part of tdhe beam below the slab is called the rib of the beam. Jn (1) They require atleast three continuous panels fot exonenrical
a îramad structue, the loor is
usually
desiy
supportadl
aams The door slatb is laid continuous over
on a ayslemm of maln and
secondary () They are not economical under ligt oads.
and supportad by main beams.
secondary beums whleh ara framad lnlo Butabillty 1 KCC lat slab floors are suitable under the tilkrning situatiers
Pigurd 3.22 shows R.C.C Denm and alab floor
Nat slad ooring () Where lengh and breadth of the building, are apprnirately squal so tat
he floor van be divided into square
-Slab
parels
(0) Where thinner sectton of the ruof slab Is required undet hesry kads
-Drop
anel (1) Where it ls necessary to provide more liyht n case tf factorles
Column -Column (iv) Where more head-room Is desired in a buildin,
capital (e) RCC Kibbed loorlng
Fkn inish

lat alab wiuh

drop
Figure 3.23 : Jat slab with drop Holkw 'les IMaster
igure 3.241 Iollow Tited Ribbed Floo
3.48

RC.C. slab floors

Construction Technolooy
removed so as
having the portion
to form ribs at
of concrete helow neutral axis of
the slab
Fabrication and Erection Wok, Ground, Upper Floors, Rocf, Roof Coverina
short distance
In this of floors, the ribs act
apart are known as ribbed floors. Merits of Precast Cocrete Floors ring
type monolithically with the concrete
behave like beams. The
space between the ribs is filied with hollow tiles topping
and (i) Precast concrete floors facilitate
quick construction
figure 3.24, which may be constructed of as shcwn in ()
to have a snooth clay, gypsum or concrete. In case, it is desired They provide fire-proof construction.
plastered flat ceiling, a continuous metal lathe is fixed to the underside
of the ribs and then (ii) They provide sound-proof construction.
plastered. (iv) ey require less strong foundo tions, which are economical
In this type of floors, the
hollow blocks of clay or concrete are (v)
total weight of the floor. used to reduce the They do not require form-work in their construction.
In one form, the blocks are (vi) They save the time of curing.
bars placed 100 mm apart and in this space, the mild steel (vii) They are economical in construction.
are
placed as shown in figure 3.25. A minimum
cover df S0 mm is
Suitable flooring at top and ceiling finish are kept at the top. Demerits of Frecast Concrete Floors
rough or
grooved surface so that they can
provided. The blocks are provided with
develop enough bond with the concrete. ()Precast concrete floos require fairly uniform spacing
of beams ti
the structure, whih becomes
Flooring Stirup practically difficult.
Hollow Blocks (ii) They require great care in handling the precast units
in position. during placng
(n) They require skilled labour and supervision for
Steel Bars -Celing Finish manufacturng the
Suitability: Prcast concrete floorS are suitable floors are
Hollow block and rib floor
tial and ecomonícal buildings. suitable for large s
Figure: 325
Merits of Ribbed
Flooring: This type of floor
is economical,
(1) Reinforced Brick Floor:
proof and light in weight. If properly designed, this type fire-proof, sound-
of floor can even be -300 mm x
150 mm 50 mm Tiles
carry heavy loads. The plumbing and electrical used to
installations can be conveniently carried
x

through the hollow blocks without affecting the

N00 mmn Thick Rammed Earth
20 mm Thick Plaster with
tion of solid concrete, the dead appearance. As hollow replace a por- 2 Coats of Hots Bitumen
These floors are widely used for
weight is reduced and
thereby the economy is achieved. E
buildings like hospitals, hotels, schools, offices, etc.
Precautions in constructing Ribbed 200 Farapet
tiles should be free from cracks and Fiooring : The structural hollow clay floor Height
they should be of uniform colour and texture.
desirable to keep projections on one of the external It is Wall
face of such tiles so as to facilitate
the
applications of plaster. The weight per metre length of structrual hollow
does not exceed 140 N. The lemgth, width and clay floor tiles
or 900 mm, 190 mm or 240
height of structural tiles are from 450 mm
mm and 70mm or 90 mm

(h) Precast Concrete Floors:

respectively. LI00 mm Thick R. B. Slab
12mm DIA. Bars 250 mm clc
With the development of
pre-cast concrete construction
prepare the pre-cast units for the floor. These pre-cast unitstechnique,
it is possible to
available Figure 3.26: Reinforced Brick-Slab Floor
handled, transported and fixed. They may be insupported
sized as can be conveniently are suitable These floor consist of a reinforced brick slab
either on walls or on rolled steel joists. The sides of each supported on walls and also o
unit contain grooves whích are mediate.steel or R.CC. beams far larger spans. The top surface of the slat
used to connect the adjacent units.
with 20 mm thick cement plaster. Over the plastered surface, two coats or
are applied. On the n
top of bitumen layer, 100 mm thick rammed earth Is po