Journalism Studies and Journalism Education in France

French-German Communication Research
Journalism Studies and Journalism

Education in France and in Germany
Lisa Bolz Lisa Bolz, “Journalism Studies and
journalism education in France and
Sorbonne University, [email protected] in Germany,” History of Media
Studies 3 (2023), https://doi.org/
10.32376/d895a0ea.b732c99f.
Abstract
Journalism research and journalism education are highly interlinked,

but in each country or in each cultural context there is a certain way
of teaching and researching journalism. France and Germany, de-
spite their proximity, have two different histories and developments
regarding these topics that have an impact on today’s journalism
studies in both countries. While journalism is one of the main re-
search topics in German communication studies (Kommunikationswis-
senschaft), this is not the case in France within French communication
studies (Sciences de l’information et de la communication, SIC). A look at
today’s research topics and perspectives underlines the differences
between these two countries: Whereas German journalism studies are
more theory oriented with some dominant theoretical perspectives
and approaches, French journalism studies are less structured around
major theories.
History of Media Studies, vol. 3, 2023

journalism studies in france and in germany 2
Introduction
Studying journalism in France is not the same as studying the same

topic in Germany. It is not only a matter of language; the differences
go well beyond that, extending to different research traditions, dif-
ferent turning points, the influence of certain research personalities
on the academic landscape, and certain ways of conceptualizing the
research topic and research methods that vary between the two coun-
tries on either side of the Rhine. Although it seems that France and
Germany have similar media and journalism systems,1 a closer look 1
Daniel C. Hallin and Paolo Mancini,
reveals numerous differences. We find, of course, reasons for these Comparing Media Systems: Three Mod-
els of Media and Politics (Cambridge:
differences in history, politics, and culture. More precisely, an analy- Cambridge University Press, 2004).
sis of different dynamics in the development of journalism research
and the interplay with academic journalism education allows the
differences that exist today between two research communities to be
better understood. These two research communities rarely cooper-
ate in the field of communication research in general and journalism
research in particular.2 2
Stefanie Averbeck-Lietz, Fabien Bon-
Of course, there are many examples of French-German coop- net, Sarah Cordonnier, and Carsten
Wilhelm, “Communication Studies
eration in the field of journalism—among them ARTE, binational in France: Looking for a ‘Terre du
university degree programs, programs for young journalists, French- milieu’?” Publizistik 64 (2019).
German associations, etc. However, in the scientific community, few
researchers are working at this intersection.3 The lack of a French- 3
Cf. the Franco-German University’s
German dialogue in the field of journalism studies might seem aston- workshop series for young scholars,
“Exploration transnationale des milieux
ishing from an outside perspective. A look at the history of German de communication franco-allemands:
and French journalism studies and journalism education provides a science, design, culture numérique,
journalism,” Program description, the
better understanding of the different pathways that the disciplines Franco-German University (website),
have taken in each country and their impact (or not) on academic last modified July 12, 2021.
journalism education.
Any research into the epistemology of a research field, the devel-
opment of its institutionalization, the evolution of methodological
approaches, and the different scientific discourses requires that the
researcher take a step back and distance themself from their own
academic field and their own academic routines.4 Especially given 4
Nicolas Hubé, “À la recherche d’une
the risks of personal bias, it is impossible for the current study to do universalité du journalisme: la Jour-
nalistik allemande,” Revue française des
justice to more than a century of journalism research in Germany and sciences de l’information et de la communi-
in France. This contribution can only be an attempt to shed light on cation 19 (2020).
the parallels and differences between two research landscapes that
are not as homogenous as they might seem.
The different developments and institutionalizations make it diffi-
cult to name the academic disciplines. The German Kommunikation-
swissenschaft can be translated as communication science, especially
as both (the German and the Anglo-Saxon strand of communication
science) are epistemologically and methodologically relatively close.

And the German field of journalism research, called Journalismus-

forschung or Journalistik is relatively close to international journalism
studies. A closer look at the editorial boards of international jour-
nals or the representatives of international associations in the field
of journalism studies shows that German scholars are internation-
ally active and present, which underlines the similarities between the
academic disciplines. It is more difficult to translate the names of the
disciplines on the French side: The translation of the French sciences
de l’information et de la communication is “sciences of information and
communication,” and there is no equivalent to journalism studies
in French, as will be explained later. When naming the German and
French academic disciplines in English, one has to keep in mind the
complexity behind the denominations. Even though journalism re-
search preceded the institutionalized communication studies in both
countries, it makes sense to consider the linkage between the research
field of journalism studies and the contemporary institutionalization
of the field within communication studies in France and in Germany.
This article is a possible response to the main question as to why
there is no German-French dialogue in the field of journalism stud-
ies and how the development of journalism studies and university
journalism training in France and Germany might have an impact
on journalism studies. As a first step, it is important to comprehend
the different developments of journalism research in France and in
Germany and to understand the institutionalization of journalism
research as well as the role of journalism research within communica-
tion science. Then, in a second step, an analysis of the development
of journalism research and academic journalism education reveals a
particular relationship between the two: Their dynamics are different
in each country. Finally, in the third chapter, a closer look at aspects
of past and current French and German journalism research accentu-
ates the differences between them, while also revealing the possible
complementarity as well.
The History of Journalism Studies in France and Germany
Today, journalism studies is an international field of studies, being

one of the biggest divisions within international scientific associa-
tions such as the ICA or ECREA, and there are research communities
in many countries. But the origins and the development of journal-
ism studies differ between countries, in this case France and Ger-
many. A look at the history of the academic disciplines and the place
of journalism studies within the national communication associations
enables us to better understand why there are such different perspec-
tives on journalism, which even today are hardly perceived in the
other country.
The Beginnings in Germany and France in the First Half of the

Twentieth Century: Journalism as a New Field of Study
The theories of Max Weber are considered by some journalism schol-
ars to be a part of German journalism research as Weber’s research
concerned journalism and media among other things.5 In 1910, We- 5
Siegfried Weischenberg, Max Weber
ber conceptualized and presented a research plan to study the press und die Entzauberung der Medienwelt:
Theorien und Querelen—eine andere
from a sociological point of view.6 Even though the study was never Fachgeschichte (Wiesbaden: Springer,
completed, it can be interpreted as the first demand for journalism 2012), 14; Gilles Bastin, “La presse au
miroir du capitalisme moderne: Un
to be studied using empirical research methods. His wish was first projet d'enquête de Max Weber sur les
fulfilled approximately sixty years later.7 At first, academic research journaux et le journalisme,” Réseaux
into journalism and newspapers, the so-called Zeitungswissenschaft 109, no. 5 (2001).
6
Weischenberg, 78.
(“science of newspapers”), had a historical and normative approach 7
Martin Löffelholz, “Theorien des
and journalism was considered to be the result of the talent and the Journalismus: Eine historische, metathe-
capabilities of a few individuals.8 oretische und synoptische Einführung,”
in Theorien des Journalismus: Ein diskur-
Thoughts on journalism go well beyond the foundation of the sives Handbuch, ed. Martin Löffelholz
academic institutions. Even though different authors throughout (Wiesbaden: Springer, 2004), 21.
the centuries wrote about communication, newspapers, or jour- 8
Löffelholz, 39.
nalism, the first systematic approach to journalism in Germany
(which did not yet exist as a nation-state at this time) might be the
text “Über Zeitungen” (About Newspapers) written by Joachim
von Schwarzkopf in 1795.9 Several authors, such as Karl Knies and 9
Heinz Pürer, “Zur Fachgeschichte
Robert Prutz, during the nineteenth century analyzed the new profes- der Kommunikationswissenschaft in
Deutschland,” Biographisches Lexikon der
sion that emerged at this time and provided academic texts on topics Kommunikationswissenschaft (October
like press legislation, the formation of public opinion, the history 2017).
of German journalism, and symbolic communication.10 In France, 10

Hanno Hardt, Social Theories of the
journalism was also the topic of several publications throughout the Press: Constituents of Communication
Research, 1840s to 1920s (Lanham, MD:
centuries about the role of journalists or press history, demonstrating Rowman & Littlefield, 2002); Jürgen
that there was already interest in studying journalism, both academi- Wilke, “Von der Zeitungskunde zur
Integrationswissenschaft: Wurzeln und
cally and scientifically, in both countries before the foundation of the Dimensionen im Rückblick auf hundert
first academic departments. Jahre Fachgeschichte der Publizistik-,
The first German journalism departments were founded at the be- Medien- und Kommunikationswis-
senschaft in Deutschland,” M&K 64, no.
ginning of the twentieth century. In 1916, Karl Bücher founded the 1 (2016).
first German department in the large field of communication stud-
ies. The Institut für Zeitungskunde in Leipzig offered an academic
program for future journalists as well as a place to study journalism
and newspapers.11 The second department was founded three years 11
Erik Koenen, ed., Die Entdeckung der
later in Münster (1919), the so-called Lektorat für Zeitungskunde Kommunikationswissenschaft: 100 Jahre
kommunikationswissenschaftliche Fachtra-
under the direction of the journalist Friedrich Castelle and with Karl dition in Leipzig; Von der Zeitungkunde
D’Ester as an academic teacher.12 Both are today two of the biggest zur Kommunikations- und Medienwis-
senschaft (Köln: Herbert von Halem
departments for communication studies in Germany. In both cases, Verlag, 2016).
the scientific interest in journalism resulted in the creation of depart- 12
Bettina Maoro, Die Zeitungswis-
ments that would soon work not only on journalism research but on senschaft in Westfalen 1914–45: Das
Institut für Zeitungswissenschaften in
communication as well. Münster und die Zeitungswissenschaft in
Dortmund (Munich: K.G. Saur, 1987).

The lack of empirical studies on journalism and journalists in the

early phase of the German newspaper science called Zeitungswis-
senschaft was a topic that caused Ferdinand Tönnies in 1930 to pub-
licly criticize the lack of a sociological approach in the Zeitungswis-
senschaft and to describe it as a part of sociology. Emil Dovifat, how-
ever, was of the opinion that Zeitungswissenschaft should be an inde-
pendent academic discipline and couldn’t imagine it being studied
as a mere aspect of different disciplines such as sociology, literature,
economics, and psychology.13 The dispute showed the first steps to- 13
Emil Dovifat, Zeitungswissenschaft,
wards the institutionalization of journalism studies as an academic Band I: Allgemeine Zeitungslehre (Berlin:
Walter de Gruyter & Co., 1931).
discipline and the emergence of a scientific community. From that be-
ginning until 1960, the German Zeitungswissenschaft passed through
four stages: Between 1890 and 1925, scholars began to identify the
newspaper as their common research object. During the second stage
(1925–1933), researchers intensified research on newspapers and
started to create a scientific network around this object of study. The
third phase (1933–1945) was overshadowed by World War II and Nazi
ideology, and so the fourth stage was about the reconstruction of
journalism research after 1945.14 14
Stefanie Averbeck and Arnulf
In the first half of the twentieth century, communication studies or Kutsch, “Thesen zur Geschichte der
Zeitungs- und Publizistikwissenschaft
journalism studies did not exist as an institutionalized research field 1900–1960,” Medien & Zeit 17, no. 2–3
in France, but different projects and initiatives nonetheless emerged (2002); Stefanie Averbeck and Arnulf
Kutsch, Zeitung, Werbung, Öffentlichkeit:
as a result of academic interest in journalism. In 1937, the then Uni- Biographisch-systematische Studien zur
versité de Paris founded the Institute of Press Science (Institut de Frühgeschichte der Kommunikations-
Science de la Presse, ISP), which disappeared during World War II forschung (Köln: Herbert von Halem
Verlag, 2005), 12.
and was again founded in 1945, becoming in 1951 the French Press
Institute (Institut Français de Presse, IFP), one of the leading French
research centers for journalism and media studies today. Its founding
father and first director, Fernand Terrou, sought international ex-
changes and participated in a conference in Strasbourg where he was
part of an “Interim Committee” that convened the founding confer-
ence of the International Association for Media and Communication
Research (IAMCR) at UNESCO in December 1957.15 Terrou then be- 15
Cees Hamelink and Kaarle Norden-
came the first president of the IAMCR. In 1946, Terrou also founded streng, “Overview of IAMCR History:
Looking at History through the Inter-
the French academic journal for journalism research, Études de presse, national Association for Media and
which he later co-edited with other IFP members. Communication Research (IAMCR),”
IAMCR (website).
It is notable that the early French journalism research was interna-
tionally oriented, with Terrou being involved in international associa-
tions and with UNESCO’s Department of Mass Communication, for
example.

New Developments in the 1960s: A Turning Point in Germany,

a New Institutionalized Field of Study in France
Although German journalism studies has always been a field of re-
search that integrates different fields of expertise and academics, in
1960 Werner Schöllgen introduced the notion of “integrating science”
(Integrationswissenschaft)16 —meaning an academic discipline that 16
Wilke, 76.
would include research approaches and perspectives from different
fields of research such as sociology, history, or political science. The
1960s also marked a turning point in German journalism studies,
which transitioned from a normative human science (Geisteswis-
senschaft) to an academic field that incorporated sociological and
psychological perspectives as well as the—at that time in particular,
quantitative—methods of empirical social research.17 The inspiration 17
Löffelholz, 46.
came from observation of US communication research, which led
German journalism studies to reposition itself as a social science.18 18
Maria Löblich, Die empirisch-
Different researchers described this transition as a liberating and new sozialwissenschaftliche Wende in der
Publizistik- und Zeitungswissenschaft
and necessary recommencement after World War II, while others (Köln: Herbert von Halem Verlag,
are still criticizing the neglect of certain perspectives and research 2010).
methods.19 19
Löblich, 13–14.
In France, the first center for communication studies (Centre
d’Études des Communications de Masse, CECMAS) was founded in
1960 with the aim of conducting research into “massive phenomena
of our contemporary society such as press, radio, television, cinema,
advertising” with all their different dimensions: “economic, socio-
logical, ideological, even anthropological.”20 Methodologically, the 20
Roland Barthes, “Le centre d'études
research center concentrated on content analysis, but Roland Barthes des communications de masse: Le
C.E.C.MAS,” Annales: Economies,
indicated that this would not be sufficient as the so-called mass me- sociétés, civilisations 16, no. 5 (1961):
dia had a language that needed to be analyzed along with the con- 991.
tent.21 Despite collaborative work on popular culture, researchers 21
Barthes, 992.
did not want to found an academic discipline that would concentrate
on communication phenomena.22 But the CECMAS paved the way 22
Stefanie Averbeck, “Über die Spez-
for the later establishment of the new academic discipline. Roland ifika ‘nationaler Theoriediskurse’:
Kommunikationswissenschaft in
Barthes, for example, would be one of the founding members of the Frankreich,” in Theorien der Medien- und
French sciences de l’information et de la communication as an academic Kommunikationswissenschaft: Grundle-
gende Diskussionen, Forschungsfelder
field that was officially created in 1975, and CECMAS’s academic und Theorieentwicklungen, ed. Carsten
journal, Communications, is to this day one of the major French jour- Winter, Andreas Hepp, and Friedrich
nals in communication science. Krotz (Wiesbaden: Verlag für Sozialwis-
senschaften, 2008).
The Science of Communication and Journalism Studies since

the 1970s
As media forms expanded, so too did the field of communication
studies, and journalism was no longer the only center point in Ger-
many. With the renaming of the national association from “Deutsche

Gesellschaft für Publizistik- und Zeitungswissenschaft” (created in

1963)—with an emphasis on journalism—to “Deutsche Gesellschaft
für Publizistik- und Kommunikationswissenschaft” (1972), commu-
nication science in Germany formally became a field of study that
covered a huge variety of topics.
The historical development in Germany from journalism to the
wider field of communication was not mirrored in France. The
French sciences de l’information et de la communication (SIC) were
founded by Roland Barthes, Robert Escarpit, and Jean Meyriat and
have a strong literature tradition.23 During the first conference, Es- 23
Jean-François Tétu, “Sur les origines
carpit explained the new way of thinking and analyzing information littéraires des sciences de l’information
et de la communication,” in Les origines
and communication: information as data and communication as a des sciences de l’information et de la com-
permanent process.24 The pluralistic-disciplinary approach to communication: Regards croisés, ed. Robert
Boure (Lille: Presses universitaires du
munication changed into a discipline that distinguished itself from Septentrion, 2002).
others while still maintaining a pluralistic-theoretical interdisci- 24
Robert Escarpit, “Pour une nou-
plinary approach. It was not the research topic—communication— velle épistémologie de la communi-
cation” (introductory presentation,
that was (and is) specific to the new field of study, but how re- Premier congrès français des sciences
searchers think and work in their discipline. Yves Jeanneret and de l’information et de la communi-
Bruno Ollivier summarize this by focusing on two main aspects: the cation [first convention of the French
information and communication sci-
idea that information and communication are one ensemble and an ences conference], Compiègne, April 21,
emphasis on interdisciplinary research.25 Specific to French com- 1978).
munication research is the pragmatic-cultural-semiotic approach to
25
Yves Jeanneret and Bruno Ollivier,
“Introduction: Les Sic en perspective,”
analyzing simultaneous interaction on different levels, such as public, Hermès 38 (2004): 88.
interpersonal, or mediated communication.26 26
Averbeck, 212.
Löffelholz describes Manfred Rühl’s “Die Zeitungsredaktion als
organisiertes soziales System” (The Newsroom as an Organized
Social System) (1969) as the turning point in German journalism
theory. Instead of an individualistic approach—that is to say, jour-
nalists in the center of research—Rühl describes journalism as a sys-
tem.27 According to Rühl, newsrooms are based on the structures 27
Löffelholz, 53.
of roles within the newsroom and decision-making processes dur-
ing the work.28 This meant no longer seeing journalism as a purely 28
Manfred Rühl, Die Zeitungsredaktion
talent-based profession and seeing newspapers within their societal als organisiertes soziales System (Berlin:
Bertelsmann Universitätsverlag, 1969).
structures. Journalism research in Germany thus converted from an
ideology regarding the profession to “modern empirical-analytical
journalism research.”29 29
Löffelholz, 46.
Journalism studies in France, in contrast, is a quite recent field of
studies, established for the most part in the 1990s.30 At that time, 30
Nicolas Pélissier and François De-
different researchers in France studied the development, institutional- mers, “Recherches sur le journalisme:
Un savoir dispersé en voie de struc-
ization, and societal challenges of journalism and the journalistic pro- turation,” Revue française des sciences
fession during the first half of the twentieth century. Denis Ruellan de l’information et de la communication 5
(2014).
underlines that the first studies in the 1990s concentrated on different
aspects of journalism while highlighting that journalists functioned
as a “group”31 with its own structures and a voluntarily composed 31
Denis Ruellan, Les “Pro” du journal-
isme: De l'état au statut, la construction
d'un espace professionnel (Rennes: Presses
History of Media Studies, vol. 3, 2023 universitaires de Rennes, 1997).
collective dynamic. While journalism was the starting point of the

history of communication science in Germany, it was the opposite
in France: A specific interest in journalism emerged approximately
three decades after the creation of the CECMAS. Journalism stud-
ies as such still do not exist in France, which results in the lack of
visibility of journalism research in France.32 32
Pélissier and Demers, para. 5.
Nicolas Pélissier and François Demers identify three time periods
in the development of French journalism research. During the first
phase (1937–1976), researchers developed a common understanding
of press and journalism, even though they marginalized journalism
research at the same time. The French Institute for Press (Institut
Français de Presse, IFP) played a crucial role during the first period,
as it was one of the few places dedicated to journalism and press
with the first doctoral dissertations on journalism in France in the
1970s. The second stage (1976–1996) was characterized by the affir-
mation of academic knowledge on journalism. Researchers began to
work on different topics within journalism research and they started
to interact and align with researchers abroad. Topics of research
included other media as well, especially television. Even though dif-
ferent academic disciplines (political science, sociology, economics,
linguistics, etc.) began working on journalism and contributed to a
dispersed field of research, the second phase of journalism research
at the beginning of the 1990s is marked by its initial structuring. The
authors see the beginning of the third phase in journalism studies
as being kickstarted by Pierre Bourdieu, who presented and pub-
lished his famous Sur la télévision in 1996. (See Benjamin Krämer’s
contribution in this Special Section.) Different research methods and
perspectives were applied to journalism research (content analysis,
discourse analysis, qualitative research methods, narratology, anthro-
pological and experimental approaches, constructivism). In contrast
to Germany, French journalism research generally uses qualitative
methods to understand the “mechanisms of journalistic productions
as a collective action.”33 Since 1996, different coalitions and coop- 33
Hubé, para. 21.
eration have enabled new dynamics within the field of journalism
studies, which will be explained in the next chapter.
Journalism Research and the Structure of Academia in Germany

and France
German communication studies in general and journalism studies
in particular are much more internationally oriented than in France.
Many in Germany (and German-speaking colleagues) are on the ed-
itorial boards of the international journals and are representatives of
different associations and divisions on an international level. Without

diving deeper into the different ways in which international careers

and publication activities are recognized by the scientific community
in France and in Germany, it is obvious that international activities
are very visible within the German community of communication
science, whereas international activities in France have traditionally
been limited to Francophone communities.34 34
However, the SFSIC has institu-
The German association of communication studies (DGPuK) holds tionalized links outside these historic
communities in the past ten years, con-
an annual conference, and each of its divisions, such as the division necting with other national associations,
of journalism studies, holds an annual conference as well. As many such as DGPuK and SGKM, as well as
with international associations such as
German scholars attend international conferences (ICA, ECREA) as ICA and ECREA.
well as local ones, and journalism studies divisions exist both inter-
nationally and locally, it is quite easy to identify the scholars that are
working in the same field. The annual meetings enable researchers to
create bonds beyond the presentations. The German journalism divi-
sion (Fachgruppe Journalistik/Journalismusforschung) was founded
in 1991 and is one of the biggest divisions within the DGPuK. A
statement describing the group’s aims lists a wide range of interests
that researchers are working on, such as: “journalistic practices and
contents, the structures that shape journalism, the general framework
of journalism and its role in society as well as the relationship be-
tween journalism and its public.”35 In other words, this division is 35
DGPuK, “Selbstverständnis der
for researchers who are working on theory and on empirical ques- DGPuK-Fachgruppe Journalis-
tik/Journalismusforschung” (mission
tions regarding journalism, on the academic and practical education statement, Hamburg, September 24,
of journalists, as well as on the application of scientific knowledge 2020).
in journalistic practice. All in all, Journalistik—German journalism
studies—combines “different theoretical perspectives with a vari-
ety of empirical and normative approaches.”36 The authors of the 36
DGPuK, “Selbstverständnis.”
statement underlined the importance of international research and
debates; however, in reality, researchers tend to prioritize exchange
between countries in which the research approach is similar and
where the main research language is English. This is certainly one of
the main reasons why there is little French-German exchange within
journalism studies.
Even though the SFSIC (Société Française des Sciences de l’Infor-
mation et de la Communication) is the singular national communi-
cation association in France and plays an important role in planning
and organizing academic careers in the field of communication sci-
ence, researchers do not necessarily connect via events organized
by the SFSIC. There are some formal interest groups, called GER
(Groupes d’Etudes et de Recherche), but they have to be renewed
every two years after examination. There are not as many formal
and institutionalized divisions as in Germany, and there is no French
interest group dedicated to journalism research (yet), nor are there
annual conferences, dissertation prizes, junior groups, and the like

comparable to those that exist within the ICA and the ECREA. Aca-
demic research in France is organized in research units (laboratoires
de recherche) that organize smaller conferences, research seminars, or
working groups. In the field of journalism studies—which does not
exist as such in France—there are two working groups or consor-
tiums that should be mentioned to give an idea of research dynamics
on journalism in France: REJ and the GIS Journalisme.
The REJ (Réseau d’études sur le journalisme) is an international
research network of journalism scholars spanning France, Quebec,
Brazil, and Mexico that was created in 1999 with the aim of devel-
oping a theoretical framework in order to unite different method-
ological approaches. Hence, all kinds of (new) journalism and (new)
journalism practices were taken into consideration, without estab-
lishing a specific definition of journalism.37 The GIS Journalisme 37
Fabio Henrique Pereira, Tredan
(Groupement d’Intérêt Scientifique Journalisme) was created in 2010 Olivier, and Langonné Joël, “Penser
les mondes du journalisme,” Hermès
as French journalism scholars wished to give more visibility and vi- 82, no. 3 (2018): 101–2. See also Rose-
tality to journalism research in France, which at that point in time lyne Ringoot and Jean-Michel Utard,
“Introduction,” in Le journalisme en
was done by individuals scattered around France without any clear invention: Nouvelles pratiques, nouveaux
common structure. Its founding members came from four French acteurs (Rennes: Presses universitaires
universities: CARISM (Paris-Panthéon-Assas University), CRAPE de Rennes, 2006).
(University of Rennes 1), ELICO (Lumière University Lyon 2), and

GRIPIC (Sorbonne University). The members of these four distinct
research units together organized five conferences between 2011 and
2017, allowing scholars to exchange their knowledge of this relatively
new field of study. There are, of course, other research collectives,
such as the Brazil-France-Francophone Belgium Journalism Research
Conference, or the French-Brazilian collaboration called MEJOR, or
the conferences for young scholars in journalism (Jeunes chercheur·es
en journalisme). In addition, the French-Québecois journal Les Cahiers
du Journalisme, as well as the international and multilingual (English,
French, Portuguese, and Spanish) journal Sur le journalisme, About
journalism, Sobre jornalismo provide other ways of increasing the visi-
bility of French journalism studies.
Whereas in Germany journalism studies is a major field of study
in communication science with one formal division within the na-
tional association of communication studies, French journalism re-
search and the visibility of a French journalism academic community
relies more on individual initiative and efforts. The frequently de-
plored lack of international visibility of French journalism scholars
can be explained by the structure of the French academic system and
by how academic recruitment works in France. As young scholars in
France do not necessarily need international experience or interna-
tional publications to get a tenured academic position (though this
might be an asset and it becomes more and more important as labs

need international competence to have good evaluations), there is no

specific need to spend time abroad or to publish internationally.
Of course, each country has its own way of creating and structur-
ing scientific communities, and France and Germany are only two
examples that illustrate how scholars and exchange are organized
within the field of journalism studies. The structure of the main sci-
entific association, the way recruitment works in different countries,
and the role and importance of certain individuals regarding the
structure of the scientific community all have an impact on research
topics and research habits as well. In the case of France and Ger-
many, it is striking to see how journalism studies and communication
studies have had such different dynamics in their development; and
these were caused by differences in the history of the academic dis-
ciplines in each country, the point of view and influence of certain
individuals, the timing of certain decisions, and traditions within the
scientific communities.
Journalism Education in France and Germany
Both in France and in Germany, there are many ways to become a

journalist and there is no (formal) need to have a certain degree or
to have studied at a journalism school. There are more or less com-
mon ways to enter the profession of journalism, but in both countries,
there are numerous examples of journalists who have not followed a
journalistic degree program or any other kind of formal professional
training. However, the connection between university journalism
education and journalism studies in France and in Germany differs
slightly and this difference is indicative of variations within journal-
ism studies in each country. In France, journalism studies is strongly
linked to journalism education and related activities. Before taking a
closer look at journalism studies and its link to journalism education,
it is important to understand the main ways of becoming a journal-
ist in France and in Germany, since academic journalism education
doesn’t have the same significance in both countries.
Becoming a Journalist in Germany: Choosing between Traineeship,

Journalism Schools, and Academic Journalism Education
In Germany, there are three main ways to become a journalist: A
traineeship (Volontariat) at a media organization, which usually takes
about eighteen to twenty-four months, enables prospective journal-
ists to learn and work in a newsroom and to contribute directly to
the daily journalistic tasks. Further training complements the profes-
sional experience, even though the standards and benefits can vary.38 38
Matthias Kurp, “Volontariat: Re-
formstau auf dem Königsweg: Diskus-
sion mit Michael Geffken, Annette
Hillebrand, Christian Lindner, Ulrich
History of Media Studies, vol. 3, 2023 Pätzold, Maximiliane Rüggeberg,” in
Dokumentation: IQ-Herbstforum; Qualität
und Qualifikation: Impulse zur Journaliste-
nausbildung (Berlin, 2013), 24.
The second path to a career as a journalist in Germany is through

journalism school. Many of these were founded in the 1980s when
different media organizations decided to take care of the education
of their future colleagues. In addition, there are journalism schools
that belong to an association or an institution.39 Studying at one of 39
Walther von La Roche, Gabriele
these journalism schools sometimes does not require a degree, but Hooffacker, and Klaus Meier, “Jour-
nalistenschulen,” in Einführung in den
realistically, the candidates need a university degree in order to enter praktischen Journalismus: Journalistische
the most prestigious schools, such as the German Journalism School Praxis (Wiesbaden: Springer, 2013).
in Munich (Deutsche Journalisten Schule). The third main way to
get journalism training is by studying at one of the universities that
offer academic journalism training (Journalistik). In the 1970s a greater
exchange regarding journalism education took place with the aim
to reform journalism training and to install university degrees that
would meet the new demands required of journalists. The universi-
ties of Dortmund and Munich were the first to really combine theory
and practice. These are the three most common pathways to a ca-
reer in journalism, but there are many other possibilities and smaller
programs for professional journalism education, too.
Becoming a Journalist in France: Fourteen Elite Schools for

Journalism Education
In France, the main pathway into journalism is by studying jour-
nalism at a university. Even though there are over a hundred jour-
nalism degree–granting programs in France, many journalists hope
to break into the industry by studying at one of the fourteen jour-
nalism schools that are “recognized” by the profession (“reconnues
par la profession”)—even though only about 20 percent of new jour-
nalists come from one of these schools.40 The “recognition” by the 40
Ivan Chupin, Les écoles du journal-
profession means that the degrees at those fourteen schools are more isme: Les enjeux de la scolarisation d'une
profession (1889–2018) (Rennes: Presses
valued by media organizations than other degree programs, which universitaires de Rennes, 2018), 9.
means that graduates have better prospects in journalism. As most
of these schools offer a master’s degree, students in France start their
journalism training right after a three-year bachelor’s degree.
History of Journalism Education and Journalism Studies
It is, of course, impossible to take into consideration all of the jour-

nalism degree programs in these two countries. In the following
sections, I will return to just a few aspects of journalism education
that are directly linked to journalism studies—which is to say, univer-
sity journalism programs in Germany and the journalism schools in
France.

The History and Development of Academic Journalism Education

in Germany
Both in France and in Germany, the first attempts to establish jour-
nalism education go back to the nineteenth century. Authors and
journalists wrote about their experiences in journalism and gave ad-
vice to future journalists. J. H. Wehle, for example, gave insights into
journalism and newspapers as well as the work of journalists in order
to teach a new generation of journalists that would be able to meet
new demands in the journalistic field.41 And in 1899, Richard Wrede 41
J. H. Wehle, Die Zeitung: Ihre Organisa-
founded a private journalism school in Berlin and published a hand- tion und Technik (Vienna: A. Hartleben’s
Verlag, 1883).
book shortly afterwards in 1902.42 Despite these early attempts and 42
Martin Löffelholz, “Kommunikator-
the journalism focus of the first academic institutions that today are forschung: Journalistik,” in Öffentliche
among the biggest departments for communication studies, Günter Kommunikation: Studienbücher zur
Kommunikations- und Medienwissenschaft,
Kieslich’s working paper from 1970 on problems of journalistic edu- ed. Günter Bentele, Hans-Bernd Bro-
cation (“Probleme der journalistischen Aus- und Fortbildung”) marks sius, and Otfried Jarren (Wiesbaden:
Verlag für Sozialwissenschaften, 2003),
the beginning of academic journalism education in Germany.43 This 29.
text led to the “Memorandum of Journalism Education” (“Memoran- 43
Michael Steinbrecher, “Alte Werte,
dum der Journalistenausbildung”) that the German Press Council neue Kompetenzen: was sich in der
Journalistenausbildung ändern muss,”
published one year later, describing journalism education in Ger- in Dokumentation: IQ-Herbstforum;
many and asking for specialized university degrees and academic Qualität und Qualifikation: Impulse zur
professional training. A second memorandum two years later (1973) Journalistenausbildung (Berlin, 2013),
11; Walter Hömberg, “Expansion
insisted even more on the necessity of (applied) academic journalism und Differenzierung: Journalismus
education and marked a turning point regarding the perception of und Journalistenausbildung in den
vergangenen drei Jahrzehnten,” in
the profession of journalists, which was now no longer considered Journalistenausbildung für eine veränderte
purely talent based.44 Medienwelt: Diagnosen, Institutionen,
These texts were the beginning of a larger discourse on academic Projekte, ed. Klaus-Dieter Altmeppen
and Walter Hömberg (Wiesbaden:
journalism education. The German association for communication Westdeutscher Verlag, 2002), 18.
studies (DGPuK) organized a first conference on this topic in 1976, at 44
Wolfgang Donsbach, “Hausaufgaben
which the curricula from three universities (Munich, Dortmund, Ho- noch immer nicht gemacht: Versäum-
nisse und Konzepte der Journalismus-
henheim) that combined theory and practice were presented.45 Dif- forschung,” in Didaktik der Journalistik:
ferent German universities developed different ways of incorporating Konzepte, Methoden und Beispiele aus
der Journalistenausbildung, ed. Beat-
applied journalism education into their curricula. It is impossible rice Dernbach and Wiebke Loosen
to explain every characteristic of all these degree programs as they (Wiesbaden: Springer, 2012), 33.
are quite different, but two German universities have each imple- 45
Hömberg, 18.
mented their own interesting program in an effort to combine theory
and practice: the University of Dortmund and the University of Mu-
nich. The so-called Dortmund Model (Dortmunder Modell) favored
the “integration of theory and practice”46 by integrating a practical 46
Steinbrecher, 13.
traineeship (Volontariat) into the academic curriculum that allows the
department to build extended partnerships with media organizations
in order to regularly adapt the study program.47 In Munich, the de- 47
Ulrich Pätzold, “Die Anfänge in
Dortmund: eine Erfolgsgeschichte
partment for communication research cooperates with the German
mit viel Glück,” in Journalismus und
journalism school (Deutsche Journalistenschule).48 Öffentlichkeit, ed. Tobias Eberwein and
Daniel Müller (Wiesbaden: Verlag für
Sozialwissenschaften, 2010).

In the 1990s, Siegfried Weischenberg, Klaus-Dieter Altmeppen, and 48 Michael Meyen and Manuel Wen-
Martin Löffelholz described the main skills that journalists would delin, eds., Journalistenausbildung,
Empirie und Auftragsforschung: Neue
need in order to be professional journalists. They identified journalis- Bausteine zu einer Geschichte des Münch-
tic knowledge (Fachkompetenz) as important—a skill which included, ners Institution für Kommunikationswis-
senschaft; Mit einer Bibliographie der
for example, the ability to investigate, to select the right news item, Dissertationen von 1925 bis 2007 (Köln:
and to write news, as well as knowledge about media economics, Herbert von Halem Verlag, 2008).
media politics, media law, media history, and media technique. The
second competence these authors describe is intermediation (Vermit-
tlungskompetenz), which they specify is the ability to articulate and to
present news for a certain public or audience, as well as knowledge
of genres and formats. The third competence refers to specific knowl-
edge (Sachkompetenz) that journalists need in order to write news for
society: knowledge about their specialty and knowledge of societal
issues (sociology, politics, etc.), as well as knowledge of sources, sci-
entific work, and research methods.49 Later researchers extended this 49
Siegfried Weischenberg, Klaus-Dieter
framework by adding further competences that became important as Altmeppen, and Martin Löffelholz, Die
Zukunft des Journalismus: Technologische,
a result of changes in the media landscape. Some of these additions ökonomische und redaktionelle Trends
included technical and entrepreneurial competences50 and an under- (Opladen: Westdeutscher Verlag, 1994),
48.
standing of professional values. Explaining why prospective journal- 50
Löffelholz, “Theorien des Journalis-
ists would need specific instruction and how this knowledge would mus,” 29.
be necessary for working as a journalist was important to Wolfgang
Donsbach, who called for interdisciplinary “team-teaching.”51 All 51
Donsbach, 42.
in all, there is a rich tradition of academic exchange about journal-
ism education in Germany which attempts to combine theory and
practice.
The question of how to integrate theory and practice is one of
the main concerns of academic journalism education. Whereas jour-
nalism schools do not have to justify their curriculum, since their
main goal (and their legitimation) is the professional education of
future journalists,52 it is more complicated for academic or university 52
Klaus-Dieter Altmeppen and Walter
journalism training programs, which try to offer practical training Hömberg, “Traditionelle Prämissen
und neue Ausbildungsangebote: Kon-
through external teachers and exchanges or internships with media tinuitäten oder Fortschritte in der
companies, for example. Even though the metaphor of a zipper53 Journalistenausbildung?” in Journalis-
tenausbildung für eine veränderte Medien-
describes the ambition of combining theory and practice, practical welt: Diagnosen, Institutionen, Projekte,
elements are usually additional to the theoretical studies rather than ed. Klaus-Dieter Altmeppen and Walter
being really integrated into the discussion about journalism.54 Hömberg (Wiesbaden: Westdeutscher
Verlag, 2002), 9.
53
Michael Haller, “Didaktischer Etiket-
The History and the Development of Journalism Schools in France tenschwindel? Die Theorie-Praxis-
Verzahnung in der Journalistik,” in
Even though Delphine Girardin wrote a theatrical piece about a jour- Didaktik der Journalistik: Konzepte,
Methoden und Beispiele aus der Journaliste-
nalism school in 1839, and she was not the only one during the nine- nausbildung, ed. Beatrice Dernbach and
teenth century to envision journalism education in France,55 the first Wiebke Loosen (Wiesbaden: Springer,
2012), 48.
French journalism school was founded in 1899 by Jeanne Weill, better 54
Altmeppen and Hömberg, 9.
known as Dick May.56 This happened at a time when journalism had 55
Thomas Ferenczi, L’invention du
journalisme en France: Naissance de la
presse moderne à la fin du XIXème siècle
History of Media Studies, vol. 3, 2023 (Paris: Payot, 1996), 251–52; Christophe
Charle, Le siècle de la presse (1830–1939)
(Paris: Seuil, 2004), 217–21.
a great impact on French society (e.g., the Dreyfus affair) and when 56 Vincent Goulet, “ ‘Transformer la
journalism underwent many changes—for example, the shift from société par l’enseignement social’: La
trajectoire de Dick May entre littérature,
political and literature journalism towards reportage journalism and sociologie et journalisme,” Revue
a more popular journalism for a broad readership. The peak of this d’Histoire des Sciences Humaines 19
(2008).
development was during the so-called golden press era (“âge d’or de
la presse”).57 Strictly speaking, the first journalism school was one of 57
Michael Palmer, “L’âge d’or de la
four departments of the School of Social Science (École des hautes presse,” Le Temps des médias 27, no. 2
(2016).
études sociales), but it was less popular than the other departments.
Dick May was interested in journalism and the emerging field of so-
ciology and combined both by teaching the newly founded social sci-
ence within the journalism program.58 Well known journalists such 58
Vincent Goulet, “Dick May et la pre-
as Jules Cornély, Henry Fouquier, and Jules Claretie, as well as two mière école de journalisme en France:
Entre réforme sociale et professionnal-
historians, Alphonse Aulard and Charles Seignobos, were among the isation,” Questions de communication 16
educational advisory board.59 A journalistic article about Dick May (2009).
59
Ferenczi, 254.
and the new journalism school from December 1, 1899 even mentions
Gabriel Tarde, who wrote about newspapers and public opinion,60 60
See Elihu Katz, “Influence et récep-
as one of the teachers.61 Contemporary journalists criticized the tion chez Gabriel Tarde: Un paradigme
pour la recherche sur l’opinion et les
new journalism program as the profession was still viewed as talent communications,” in La réception, ed.
based.62 Before the rise of formal journalism education, journalistic Cécile Méadel (Paris: CNRS Éditions,
2009).
writing was not yet perceived as a technique but rather as a writing 61
“L’école du journalisme,” La Femme:
style that could be learned from older journalists.63 Hence, Robert de journal bi-mensuel, December 1, 1899,
Jouvenel, a member of the labor union of French journalists (Syndi- 182.
62
Chupin, 54.
cat national des journalistes, SNJ) writing in 1920, criticized the idea 63
Ruellan, para. 4.24.
of journalism schools that would undermine the secrets of newspa-
per production.64 When in 1929 the labor union was asked to help 64
develop the curriculum of the Parisian journalism school, the labor
union, in return, demanded that a greater emphasis be put on practi-
cal teaching as the conferences did not seem to prepare the students
for later professional life as journalists.
At the same time, the labor union was also interested in a theoret-
ical discussion about journalism, especially Georges Bourdon, who
had returned from Germany, where he had heard about the newly
founded Berlin institute for press research, the Deutsches Institut
für Zeitungskunde (1927). In 1929, he founded the center for jour-
nalism studies (Centre d’études journalistiques)—which would later
inspire the creation of the Institut de Science de la Presse, ISP—and
envisioned a press science.65 Denis Ruellan points out that the la- 65
bor union’s interventions gave it control in journalism education as
well as in scientific discourse on journalism, with still the same goal
in mind: the recognition of journalism as a collective profession.66 66
After World War II, the ISP was transformed into the French Insti-
tution for Press (Institut Français de Presse, IFP). Nicolas Pélissier
and François Demers describe how academic interest decreased as
journalists instead turned to the newly founded journalism school.67 67
Pélissier and Demers, para. 15.

The ESJ (École supérieure de journalisme) in Lille is the oldest jour-

nalism school in France, founded in 1924. This was followed in 1945
by the foundation of the Parisian journalism school CFJ (Centre de
formation des journalistes). Both schools gained official recognition
by the journalistic profession in 1956. Other journalism schools were
founded after World War II.68 68
For the history of journalism schools
In France, journalism research and journalism education have in France, see Chupin, Les écoles du
journalisme.
strong links, which can be explained by looking at the structure of
academic research as well as at the collaboration between researchers
and journalists. However, journalism research was for a long time not
done within journalism schools.69 Today, in France, faculty members 69
Groupe de Recherche sur les Enjeux
are responsible for certain degree programs or part of them. This de la Communication (GRESEC), “La
recherche sur le journalisme: Apports et
means that during the recruitment process for a specific position, the perspectives,” Les Enjeux de l’information
candidate’s experience and research agenda have to fit with the needs et de la communication, no. 1 (2005).
of the institution. Colleagues that are responsible for a journalism
degree program are usually researchers with a proven expertise in
journalism research that would be needed for teaching in journalism
programs and for linking journalism research and journalism edu-
cation,70 although there are cases where journalists are recruited in 70
Jacques Walter et al., eds., Dynamiques
order to supervise a degree program. des recherches en sciences de l’information
et de la communication (Conférence per-
Today, the fourteen main journalism schools in France are grouped manente des directeur.trices d’Unité de
as the Conférence des écoles de journalisme (CEJ) and are all “recog- Recherche en Sciences de l’information
et de la communication [CPDirSIC],
nized” by the national committee of employers and the trade unions 2018).
(Commission paritaire nationale de l’emploi des journalistes, CPNEJ).
For students, this status is a guarantee that they will have a quality
education and an easier start in their professional career thanks to
privileged pathways into the media organizations (stipends, awards,
etc.). The collaboration between these fourteen journalism schools as
members of the CEJ enables them to have a collective voice. For ex-
ample, during the COVID-19 pandemic, their collective effort allowed
journalism students to continue their practical journalism sessions
even during the strict, nation-wide lockdown or to return to cam-
pus earlier than other students as the technical equipment available
there was indispensable for their education. Once a year the CEJ
schools take part in a national conference on journalistic professions
(Conférence nationale des métiers du journalism, CNMJ), where
researchers, journalists, and others discuss current topics in journal-
ism. In 2019, members of the CEJ organized the World Journalism
Education Congress, which took place in Paris. Another annual meet-
ing, the Assises du journalisme, independent of the CEJ, reunites
researchers and journalists to discuss a main topic that changes each
year. These different working groups show how journalism educa-
tion is linked to a greater debate concerning journalism, in which
journalism researchers are involved.

The dynamics between journalism studies and journalism edu-

cation in France and in Germany are quite different: In Germany,
journalism was the main interest that led Bücher to found the first
institute to analyze journalism in 1916. This was the beginning of
German Zeitungswissenschaft, which later became German communi-
cation studies. In numerous debates, conferences, and publications,
German researchers exchange views about the relationship between
journalism studies and journalism education and try to find the right
balance between practice and theory. In France, journalism education
preceded the French science of communication, and journalism re-
search does not exist as a division within the French communication
science association (SFSIC). The orientation of journalism schools
towards practical education has led to less research in the field of
journalism studies, which might explain why the majority of research
on journalism has been conducted outside journalism schools71 and 71
Groupe de Recherche sur les Enjeux
why journalism research in France is so scattered. de la Communication (GRESEC).
Journalism Studies in France and Germany Today
Journalism studies in France and Germany have certain commonal-

ities, and yet when looked at in detail, they are quite different. As
seen above, the thought processes underlying the early phases of
communication science in Germany (Kommunikationswissenschaft) and
sciences de l’information et de la communication in France were not the
same. In Germany, there was a need to better understand journalism
at the beginning of the twentieth century, whereas mass media re-
lated questions were the starting point of a new academic discipline
in France. Several researchers underline the differences between the
two sciences of communication as they are represented in each coun-
try:72 The German Kommunikationswissenschaft addresses questions 72
Averbeck, “Über die Spezifika ‘na-
regarding public and mass media communication using empirical tionaler Theoriediskurse’ ”; Sarah
Cordonnier and Hedwig Wagner,
research methods, whereas the French SIC have a broader under- “La discipline au prisme des activités
standing of social communication when analyzing the mediation of internationales dans les trajectoires
de chercheurs en France et en Alle-
signification through communication processes.73 magne,” Hermès (2013): 133–35; Lisa
Even though it is impossible to point out every development Bolz, “Recherches sur le journalisme en
France et en Allemagne, un dialogue
within journalism studies in a given country, a look at the tenden-
impossible? Regards croisés sur des
cies of journalism research and the major readings in journalism méthodologies et des développements
studies helps one to better understand the esprit of journalism studies divergents,” Revue française des sciences
de l’information et de la communication 18
in France and in Germany, especially against the background of the (2019); Averbeck-Lietz et al., “ ‘Terre du
history of its development in alliance with academic journalism edu- milieu’?”; Hubé, “À la recherche d’une
cation. Journalism studies in France and Germany are geographically universalité.”
73
Averbeck, 212.
close, but differ in many respects—with notable differences in their
methodological approaches and core texts, for instance.74 The object 74
Averbeck; Bolz; Hubé.
of analysis—journalism—is the same, but the way researchers ap-

proach and analyze it differs between France and Germany. It is quite

astonishing to see that certain topics are well studied in one country,
while receiving little attention in the other.
Especially in Germany, many researchers analyzed the history of
the academic discipline, and the history and development of journal-
ism studies in particular, and divided the academic field into several
different approaches to journalism research. Several handbooks and
collaborative books attempt to provide an overview of the many dif-
ferent methodological and theoretical approaches to journalism while
at the same time presenting a survey of the large field of journalism
as an academic discipline and offering insights into the evolution of
journalism research and journalism theory in Germany. In fact, the
profusion of handbooks and other such texts in Germany shows that
journalism studies in Germany are more structured than in France.75 75
Hubé, para. 7.
There are different kinds of theories and theoretical approaches to
journalism research in Germany.76 While the early days of German 76
Löffelholz, 21.
journalism research saw more normative considerations and empiri-
cism, the field from the 1960s on has primarily adopted a sociological
orientation, and today’s research is mainly theory driven with sev-
eral theoretical perspectives and approaches. Based on the overviews
written by Martin Löffelholz (2004) as well as by Martin Löffelholz
and Liane Rothenberger (2016), four main perspectives might best
describe current research within today’s German journalism stud-
ies: functionalist system theories, (critical) action theory, integrative
social theories, and cultural studies.77 This list represents neither a 77
Löffelholz, 62; Löffelholz, “Paradig-
chronological development nor a hierarchy among the theories but mengeschichte der Journalismus-
forschung,” in Martin Löffelholz
instead represents the coexistence of multiple theories and the “dis- and Liane Rothenberger, eds., Hand-
continuous development of a multi-perspective.”78 Löffelholz states buch Journalismustheorien (Wiesbaden:
Springer, 2016), 54. For an English (but
that journalism theory is neither a linear process nor a process with older and shorter and therefore less
different “revolutionary” phases, but rather is characterized by the detailed) text, see: Thomas Hanitzsch,
existence of different theoretical perspectives at the same time, even “Journalism Research in Germany:
Origins, Theoretical Innovations and
though the empirical-analytical perspective has been the dominant Future Outlook,” Brazilian Journalism
one in Germany since World War II.79 Research 2, no. 1 (2006).
78
Löffelholz, “Theorien des Journalis-
The first perspective is mainly based on Niklas Luhmann’s theory
mus,” 35.
of social systems (Systemtheorie), which has had a major influence on 79
Löffelholz, 35.
German journalism studies since the 1990s. The system approach to
journalism enabled researchers to understand and study journalism
within society and journalism as a system in and of itself,80 alongside 80
Frank Marcinkowski, Publizistik
other systems such as politics or the economy. Social systems, ac- als autopoietisches System: Politik und
Massenmedien; Eine systemtheoretische
cording to Luhmann, are systems of communication and are defined Analyse (Wiesbaden: Springer, 1993);
by the boundary between themselves and the environment, between Bernd Blöbaum, Journalismus als soziales
System: Geschichte, Ausdifferenzierung
the interior and the exterior. The distinction between systems is a und Verselbständigung (Wiesbaden:
distinction of meaning (Sinn). Considering journalism as a system, Springer, 1994); Matthias Kohring,
therefore, is to define boundaries that distinguish journalism from “Journalismus als soziales System:
Grundlagen einer systemtheoretischen

other areas81 and to define its structure and functions. The systemic Journalismustheorie,” in Theorien
approach underlines the stability of journalistic structures and rou- des Journalismus, ed. Martin Löffel-
holz (Wiesbaden: Springer, 2004);
tines and allows us to understand why new media technologies are Bernd Blöbaum, “Die Struktur des
not always immediately adopted as “innovation as well as tradition Journalismus in systemtheoretischer
Perspektive,” in Theorien des Journalis-
enable evolution.”82 Different scholars have suggested different ways mus, ed. Martin Löffelholz (Wiesbaden:
of applying the theory of social systems to journalism.83 Siegfried Springer, 2004); Alexander Görke,
Weischenberg introduced an analytical framework that enabled em- “Programmierung, Netzwerkbildung,
Weltgesellschaft: Perspektiven einer
pirical research on journalism according to the system-theoretical systemtheoretischen Journalismusthe-
dictum. He suggested four axes for the analysis of journalism: me- orie,” in Theorien des Journalismus, ed.
Martin Löffelholz (Wiesbaden: Springer,
dia systems (societal frameworks, historical foundation, professional 2004); Wiebke Lossen, “Journalismus
and ethical standards), media institutions (economic, political, orga- als (ent-)differenziertes Problem,” in
nizational, and technical contexts), media statements (information Handbuch Journalismustheorien, ed. Mar-
tin Löffelholz and Liane Rothenberger
sources, formats, construction of reality) and media actors (demogra- (Wiesbaden: Springer, 2016).
phy of journalists, political orientation, understanding of the journal- 81
Matthias Kohring, “Komplexität ernst
istic role, professionalization).84 This way of perceiving and studying nehmen: Grundlagen systemtheoretis-
cher Journalismustheorie,” in Theorien
journalism is still a current framework among German journalism des Journalismus, ed. Martin Löffelholz
scholars. During the 2019 conference of the German association for (Opladen: Westdeutscher Verlag, 2000);
Kohring, “Autopoiesis und Autonomie
communication science (DGPuK) in Münster, researchers even orga- des Journalismus: Zur notwendigen
nized a panel to discuss system theory and journalism (“Journalismus Unterscheidung von zwei Begriffen,”
als System revisited”). In France, in contrast, this approach is not Communication Socialis 34, no. 1 (2001).
82
Löffelholz, 27.
found in journalism research. On the one hand, Luhmann’s books 83
Armin Scholl and Siegfried Weischen-
Social Systems and Theory of Society were only translated into French berg, Journalismus in der Gesellschaft:
in 2011 and 2021, and therefore do not (yet) play an important role in Theorie, Methodologie und Empirie (Wies-
baden: Verlag für Sozialwissenschaften,
French communication and journalism research. On the other hand, 1998), 76.
the perspective of social systems does not coincide with the esprit of 84
Siegfried Weischenberg, Journalistik:
French journalism research, which emerged with a more materialistic Theorie und Praxis aktueller Medienkom-
munikation; Band 1, Mediensysteme, Me-
perspective on journalism and journalistic products taking into con- dienethik, Medieninstitutionen (Opladen:
sideration both the technical dimension of communication devices Westdeutscher Verlag, 1992), 69.
and social interaction (“conception informationnelle”).85 85
Nicolas Pélissier, Journalisme: avis
Along with the functionalist system theory, action theories are an- de recherches; La production scientifique
française dans son contexte international
other of the major perspectives on journalism in German journalism (Bruxelles: Bruylant, 2008), 4.
studies. Whereas functionalist system theory excludes the individual
actor in the theoretical framework, action theories take into consider-
ation individual and collective actors. Action theory focuses on the
“formalized processes which build the frame of reference for journal-
istic activities and the consumption of news by the public.”86 Based 86
Hanitzsch, 45.
on Habermas’s Theory of Communicative Action, certain researchers
explain journalistic action as “social action in both its everyday life
and its systemic contexts.”87 Susanne Fengler, for example, examines 87
Hanitzsch, 45.
economic-rational motives of actors withing journalistic contexts.88 88
Susanne Fengler, “Journalismus als
Hans-Jürgen Bucher insists that analyzing journalistic actions and rationales Handeln,” in Handbuch Jour-
nalismustheorien, ed. Martin Löffelholz
system theory can be complementary, as journalists are not only act- and Liane Rothenberger (Wiesbaden:
ing on a personal or individual level but also within social structures. Springer, 2016).
Certain tendencies in journalism cannot be reduced to individual ac-

tions and have to be considered as collective dynamics—for example,

digitalization within journalism.89 89
Hans-Jürgen Bucher, “Journalismus
The huge importance of the systemic point of view within German als kommunikatives Handeln: Grund-
lagen einer handlungstheoretischen
journalism research can eclipse the journalist from the theoretical Journalismustheorie,” in Theorien des
framework. In order to go beyond the division between individ- Journalismus, ed. Martin Löffelholz
(Wiesbaden: Springer, 2004).
ual and system, or between individual action and structure, several
German journalism scholars introduced theoretical models that com-
bine macro and micro level perspectives on journalism, relying, for
example, on the actor-structure dynamics by the sociologist Uwe
Schimank.90 Christoph Neuberger points out that journalism should 90
For more on this, see Hanitzsch.
be analyzed on different levels that would include other sociological
concepts beyond social system theory.91 Sabine Schäfer is another re- 91
Christoph Neuberger, “Journalismus
searcher who seeks to overcome the division between actor-centered als systembezogene Akteurskonstel-
lation: Grundlagen einer integrativen
theory and system theory. She suggests that journalism be thought of Journalismustheorie,” in Theorien des
as a social field based on the theory of Pierre Bourdieu.92 Journalismus, ed. Martin Löffelholz
Some of the most recent journalism research in Germany is in- 92
Sabine Schäfer, “Journalismus als
fluenced by cultural studies93 and focuses more on the journalistic soziales Feld: Das relationale Denken
product, the consumer perspective, and journalism as cultural dis- Pierre Bourdieus als Grundlage für eine
Journalismustheorie,” in Theorien des
course94 and cultural practice.95 Journalismus: Ein diskursives Handbuch,
Even though the research field is quite structured, this should ed. Martin Löffelholz (Wiesbaden:
not undermine the multiplicity of points of view in German jour- Springer, 2004).
93
See also Andreas Heep, Cultural Stud-
nalism studies. Perspectives beyond the theoretical approaches dis- ies und Medienanalyse: Eine Einführung
cussed here exist, of course. Among these are research on journalism (Wiesbaden: Springer, 2010).
ethics,96 research on journalism and gender topics,97 and compar- 94
Rudi Renger, “Journalismus als
kultureller Diskurs: Grundlagen der
ative research,98 not to mention all the research done in other aca- Cultural Studies als Journalismusthe-
demic disciplines, such as media studies, for example. Even though orie,” in Theorien des Journalismus: Ein
German journalism research is mainly theory based, researchers have diskursives Handbuch, ed. Martin Löf-
felholz (Wiesbaden: Springer, 2004);
also been critical of this way of doing research, with some arguing Margreth Lünenborg, “Journalismus als
that theory building might predetermine the research and, accord- kultureller Diskurs,” in Handbuch Jour-
ingly, calling for more theory openness. and Liane Rothenberger (Wiesbaden:
As the major research perspectives in German journalism stud- Springer, 2016).
ies are based on the texts of German sociologists such as Luhmann, 95
Johannes Raabe, “Journalismus als
kulturelle Praxis,” in Handbuch Jour-
Habermas, and Schimank, whose texts were not received at the same
time and in the same way in France, and as major French texts that and Liane Rothenberger (Wiesbaden:
influenced French journalism studies are not read in Germany—with Springer, 2016).
96
See, for example, Barbara Thomaß,
the exception of Pierre Bourdieu’s texts—it is no surprise that each
“Ethik des Journalismus,” in Hand-
of these countries has a different approach to journalism. Neverthe- buch Journalismustheorien, ed. Martin
less, certain points of view and research areas seem similar, such as Löffelholz and Liane Rothenberger
sociological approaches regarding the main actor in journalism—the 97
See, for example, Elisabeth Klaus and
journalists—as an individual or as a collective actor99 and within a Margreth Lünenborg, “Der Wandel des
journalistic field.100 More macro perspectives101 were and are also Medienangebots als Herausforderung
an die Joumalismusforschung: Plädoyer
common, as well as culture-oriented research102 and the analysis of fur eine kulturorientierte Annäherung,”
gender topics103 in French journalism studies. The field of journal- Medien & Kommunikationswissenschaft 48,
no. 2 (2000); Elisabeth Klaus, “Von Sub-
ism research in France is not as structured and institutionalized as
jekt und System zur Kultur: Theorien
zur Analyse der Geschlechterverhält-
nisse im Journalismus,” in Theorien des
History of Media Studies, vol. 3, 2023 Journalismus: Ein diskursives Handbuch,
ed. Martin Löffelholz (Wiesbaden:
Springer, 2004).
in Germany, and the journalism research community is therefore 98See, for example, Frank Esser, “Jour-
nalismustheorie und komparative
less visible and cohesive. Whereas German journalism studies have
Forschung,” in Handbuch Journalis-
a theory-based approach to journalism and media, involving rather mustheorien, ed. Martin Löffelholz
strict research protocols (validation or not of a hypothesis), and aim and Liane Rothenberger (Wiesbaden:
Springer, 2016).
to systematize empirical research results and to obtain a holistic 99 See, for example, Rémy Rieffel,
perspective; French journalism research values the heterogeneity of L’élite des journalistes (Paris: Presses
different research approaches.104 There is not one common way of universitaires de France, 1984); Denis
Ruellan, Le professionnalisme du flou:
doing journalism research in France or a common methodology. In Identité et savoir-faire des journalistes
fact, the openness of journalism research with respect to other aca- français (Grenoble: Presses universi-
demic disciplines has been one of the main developments in the field taires de Grenoble, 1993); Eric Neveu,
Sociologie du journalisme (Paris: La Dé-
since 1996. The qualitative approach, as well as the disciplinary open- couverte, 2001); Roselyne Ringoot and
ness (interdisciplinary and transdisciplinary) in France, is seen as a Jean-Michel Utard, Le Journalisme en
invention: Nouvelles pratiques, nouveaux
lack of methodological rigor by some German researchers, whereas acteurs (Rennes: Presses universitaires
others perceive this as a chance to pursue other research questions.105 de Rennes, 2006). See also the issue of
While discussion of theory, models, and empiricism is important Réseaux on the sociology of journalists,
Réseaux 1 (1992).
in German journalism studies and defines this field of research,106 100 See, for example, Rodney Benson
French journalism research is structured by a large panel of topics and Erik Neveu, Bourdieu and the
that are the core identity of the academic discourse as well as the Journalistic Field (Cambridge, MA: Polity
Press, 2005).
volitional openness regarding disciplines and research methods. The 101 See, for example, Michel Mathien,
association of directors of the French research units in communi- Les journalistes et le système médiatique
(Paris: Hachette, 1992).
cation science (Conférence permanente des directeur.trices d’Unité 102 See, for example, Nicolas Pélissier,
de Recherche en Sciences de l’information et de la communication, “Journalisme et études culturelles:
CPDirSIC) has provided an overview of current research in the field de nouveaux positionnements de la
recherche française?” Questions de
of journalism. The five main orientations they have identified are:
communication 1 (2010).
social and economic aspects of media organizations, the morphology 103 See, for example, Virginie Julliard,
and working conditions of the journalistic profession, media coverage De la presse à Internet: la parité en question
(Paris: Hermès-Lavoisier, 2012).
and media representation of events and social identities, media as 104
Hubé, para. 20–21.
places of discussion, and the interdisciplinary dimension.107 105
Stefanie Averbeck-Lietz, Fabien
There is more and more research on journalism within French Bonnet, and Jacques Bonnet, “Le dis-
communication research,108 and journalism is still an interdisci- cours épistémologique des Sciences
de l'information et de la communi-
plinary research topic in France. In particular, historians, sociologists, cation,” Revue française des sciences de
and scholars of literary studies participate in the general research l’information et de la communication 4
(2014).
into journalism which underlines the interdisciplinary history of 106
Hans Matthias Kepplinger, “Prob-
French journalism research. Pélissier and Demers identify three char- lemdimensionen des Journalismus:
acteristics of French journalism research: the concentration on the Wechselwirkung von Theorie und
Empirie,” in Theorien des Journalismus:
activity of journalistic production, which mainly means a focus on
Ein diskursives Handbuch, ed. Martin
journalists and the media message; the collection as well as the edit- Löffelholz (Wiesbaden: Springer, 2004);
ing and the dissemination of journalistic news; and, finally, the inter- Johannes Raabe, “Theoriebildung und
empirische Analyse: Überlegungen
nal interactions within newsrooms and external interaction between zu einer hinreichend theorieoffenen,
journalists and other actors in society.109 The focus on the writing empirischen Journalismusforschung,”
in Theorien des Journalismus: Ein diskur-
and editing process,110 with a discourse analytical approach111 or a
sives Handbuch, ed. Martin Löffelholz
semiotic-pragmatic interpretation, as well as on concrete and daily (Wiesbaden: Springer, 2004).
journalistic practices, is specific to French journalism research in 107
Walter et al., 19–36.
comparison to Germany: écritures and pratiques of journalism are the
108
Christine Leteinturier, “Journalistes
et journalismes en France: Bibliographie
analytique 1990–2012,” Université
Panthéon-Assas, 2015.
two terms that characterize a major part of contemporary journalism 109 Pélissier and Demers, para. 5–9.
110 Jean-François Tétu and Maurice
research in France, especially within the academic discipline of the
Mouillaud, Le journal quotidien (Lyon:
French SIC. Presses universitaires de Lyon, 1989);
Marc Lits and Adeline Wrona, “Per-
manence et renouveau des recherches
Conclusion sur l’écriture journalistique,” Revue
française des sciences de l’information et de
It is striking to know that two neighboring countries have such dif- la communication 5 (2014).
111 Patrick Charaudeau, Le discours
ferent histories regarding the development of journalism studies and d’information médiatique: La construction
points of view concerning journalism research. On the one hand, du miroir social (Paris: Nathan, 1997).
German journalism studies position themselves as an empirical social
science that uses empirical research methods. Theoretical frame-
works shape the scientific discourse. This was not always the case,
as the Zeitungswissenschaft at the beginning of the twentieth century
was more historically oriented. The empirical turning point after
World War II was not only inspired by the reception of American
empirical social research, but also a way to leave behind Nazi ideol-
ogy. Journalism and newspapers that were the first research topics
in Germany underwent the same evolution towards an empirical
orientation.
In France, research on journalism mainly came after the institu-
tionalization of French communication science, and mass media were
the primary topic of interest in the 1960s. The history of journalism
education and the orientation towards the practical side of the profes-
sion enables us to understand why it took so long before journalism
research was an important part of communication studies in France
and why journalism research remains scattered today.
Research practices and research habits depend on many factors,
whether it be the history and the development of the discipline as an
academic institution, certain turning points, or the influence of earlier
researchers and their opinions. The different dynamics between jour-
nalism research and journalism education in France and Germany
hark back to such factors and can explain the gap that seems to exist
between the two counties, despite efforts on the part of some com-
munication science scholars actively involved in the French-German
academic discussion today to establish a “terre de milieu” where
not only the differences but also the complementarities would be
acknowledged.112 Averbeck-Lietz et al., “ ‘Terre du
112
All in all, the different dynamics between journalism studies and milieu’?,” 363–80.
journalism education, as well as between France and Germany, oblige

researchers to recognize the impact that their own education and
integration into a particular academic discipline can have on their
ability to truly understand the habits of a different research commu-
nity.

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French-German Communication Research

Journalism Studies and Journalism

Journalism research and journalism education are highly interlinked,

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The ESJ (École supérieure de journalisme) in Lille is the oldest jour-

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Journalism Studies in France and Germany Today

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proach and analyze it differs between France and Germany. It is quite

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tions and have to be considered as collective dynamics—for example,

journalism education, as well as between France and Germany, oblige

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Altmeppen, Klaus-Dieter, and Walter Hömberg. “Traditionelle

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un dialogue impossible? Regards croisés sur des méthodologies

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Handbuch Journalismustheorien, edited by Martin Löffelholz and

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tion for Media and Communication Research (IAMCR).” IAMCR

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Köln: Herbert von Halem Verlag, 2016.

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Lünenborg, Margreth. “Journalismus in der Mediengesellschaft: