LECTURE 1 OCT.

2, 2024

SUSTUAINABLE DEVELOPMENT
“Development that meets the basic needs of all present without compromising the ability of future generations to
meet their own needs” (WCED, 1987)- World Commission on Environment and Development
SUSTAINABILITY
-Ability to exist and develop without depleting natural resources for the future.
-Ability to maintain or support a process over time.
-Implies Limit- not absolute limits, but limitations
WHY IS SUSTAINABILITY IMPORTANT?
- Improves the quality of our lives
- Protects our ecosystem and
- Preserves natural resources for future generations

PILLARS OF SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT

* These three aim to guarantee the planet’s integrity and to improve the quality of life.
1. Social 2. Economy 3. Environment

ECONOMIC PILLAR ENVIRONMENTAL PILLAR SOCIAL PILLAR

1 NO POVERTY 6 CLEAN WATER AND 4 QUALITY EDUCATION
SANITATION
2 ZERO HUNGER 7 AFFORDABLE AND CLEAN 5 GENDER EQUALITY
ENERGY
3 GOOD HEALTH & WELL-BEING 12 RESPONSIBLE CONSUMPTION 10 REDUCED INEQUALITIES
AND PRODUCTION
8 DECENT WORK AND ECONOMIC 13 CLIMATE ACTION 11 SUSTAINABLE CITIES AND
GROWTH COMMUNITIES
9 INDUSTRY, INNOVATION AND 14 LIFE BELOW WATER 16 PEACE, JUSTICE AND
INFRASTRUCTURE STRONG INSTITUTIONS
15 LIFE ON LAND 17 PARTNERSHIPS FOR THE
GOALS
NOTE; SDG 16 & 17 CAN ALSO FALL UNDER ECONOMIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL

SDG1 No Poverty SDG10 Reduced Inequalities

SDG2 Zero Hunger SDG11 Sustainable Cities and Communities
SDG3 Good Health and Well-being SDG12 Responsible Consumption and Production
SDG4 Quality Education SDG13 Climate Action
SDG5 Gender Equality SDG14 Life Below Water
SDG6 Clean Water and Sanitation SDG15 Life on Land
SDG7 Affordable and Clean Energy SDG16 Peace, Justice and Strong Institutions
SDG8 Decent Work and Economic Growth SDG17 Partnerships for the Goals
SDG9 Industry, Innovation and Infrastructure
LECTURE 2 OCT. 4,
2024

ECOLOGY
- comes from the Greek word “oikos” w/c means “house or dwelling spaces” and “logos” w/c means “study of”
- ecology is the study of relationships among and between organisms and the physical environment.
Its Main Area include:
- The process that makes up biological life including adaptation, distribution, abundance and spatial concentration,
and biodiversity.
- How and why ecosystems begin or are changed when subject to external pressures?
- Changes to and movement of, energy and materials through an ecosystem. Some ecosystems can change quickly
while some remain constant over longer periods.

STRUCTURE OF ECOSYSTEM

ECOSYSTEM

ABIOTIC BIOTIC COMPONENTS

COMPONENTS

EDAPHIC FACTORS: PRODUCERS - also CONSUMERS- also known DECOMPOSER- better

CLIMATIC FACTORS: soil, minerals, known as as heterotrophs, they known as reducers
rain, light, wind, oxygen, autotrophs, they consume and transfer saptrotrophs recycle
temp topography produce energy energy energy.

ECOLOGICAL LEVELS OF ORGANIZATION

 ORGANIZATION- is the arrangement of smaller components into larger and so on a hierarchy or a pyramid in
which components of each level coordinate with one another towards a common goal.
 Basic level of ecological organization is INDIVIDUAL and the largest is BIOSPHERE
LEVELS OF ORGANIZATION
o Individual- Alone organism
o Population- A particular section, group, or type of people or animals living in an area or region.
o Community- All the organisms living in a particular area or place.
o Ecosystem- A biological community of interacting organisms and their physical environment.
o Biome- A large community of flora and fauna occupying a major habitat.
o Biosphere- This is where all life on earth lives.

CLASSIFICATION OF ECOLOGY on the basis of ecological group

a. Autoecology (population ecology)- it is the study of reciprocal relationship between the individuals of
population/s of same species.
b. Synecology (community ecology)- it is the study of reciprocal relationship between the members of different
populations of the biotic community.

CLASSIFICATION OF ECOLOGY on the basis of habitat or environment

a. Marine Ecology (oceanography)- study of inter-relationship between the biotic and abiotic components of
oceans, seas, reservoirs, etc.
b. Fresh-water ecology (limnology)- study of inter-relationship between biotic and abiotic components of rivers,
streams, lakes, reservoirs, etc.
 c. Terrestrial Ecology- study of inter-relationship between biotic and abiotic components of land. It includes deserts
ecology, forest ecology, grassland ecology, cropland, ecology, etc.
OTHER CATEGORIES OF ECOLOGY
- Human Ecology - Taxonomic Ecology
- Space Ecology - Cytoecology
- Applied Ecology - Pedoecology
- Production Ecology - Physiological Ecology
- Paleoecology - Consevational Ecology
- Biogeography - Radiation Ecology

FUNCTIONAL ASPECT OF ECOSYSTEM

The main functional aspects of an ecosystem are:
1. Food chain and food webs
2. Energy flow
3. Biogeochemical cycles
4. Cybernetics or control
5. Diversity pattern
SIGNIFICANCE OF ECOLOGY
 In conservation of natural resources.
 In restoration of our natural environment to ensure human survival
 Protection of animal and plant species from extinction.
 Conservation of biodiversity
 It helps in the reduction of pollution
 It emphasizes the use of bio-fertilizers over chemical or man-made ones which is threatening our natural climate,
flora, and fauna.

LECTURE 3 OCT. 7, 2024

ECOSYSTEM
Any unit that includes all the organisms (community) in a given area that interacts with its physical environment
through food chain and chemical cycles resulting in energy flow, biotic diversity and material cycling.

TROPHIC STRUCTURE
 Characteristic feature of any ecosystem
 It can be shown graphically by the various
ECOLOGICAL PYRAMIDS
• refers to how organisms use food resources, to get their energy for growth and reproduction, and is often referred
to as "FOOD CHAIN" or "FOOD WEB"
ENERGY FLOW
• Amount of energy at each trophic level decreases as it moves through an ecosystem
•10% of the energy is transferred to the next level (10% RULE)
•The rest is lost largely through metabolic processes such as heat.
TROPHIC LEVELS
• all organisms in an ecosystem can be placed in TROPHIC LEVELS depending on what energy source they rely upon
and how they provide energy for other organisms in the food web
• i.e. a healthy marine ecosystem consists of trophic levels that have complex linkages to form a food web
Basic Trophic levels -examples
TROPHIC EXAMPLE EXAMPLE
st
Producer- 1 TL Plants
nd
Primary consumer-2 TL Grasshoppers eat grass
Secondary consumer- 3rd TL Frogs eat grasshoppers
 Tertiary consumer-4th TL Snake eat frogs

ECOLOGICAL PYRAMID
 graphical representation of the relationship between the different living organisms at different trophic levels
 depicts how energy and biomass decrease from lower to higher trophic levels
 Charles Elton developed the concept of the pyramid of numbers
 G.Evylen Hutchinson and Raymond Lindeman developed the idea of the pyramid of energy or productivity
(biomass)

BIOMASS
• organic matter that can be used as a fuel
• Biomass fuels are renewable and replenishable in a short time frame, unlike fossil fuels like coal or oil.
 Biomass is a renewable energy source that contains stored chemical energy from the sun.
 Types of biomass for Energy: wood, crops and agriculture residues, vegetable oils and animal fats, animal
manure, trash/ garbage, sewage
FOOD CHAIN
 Model that shows a sequence of feeding
relationships (LINEAR NETWORK)
 Links species by their feeding relationships
 Shows the movement of energy (flow of energy)
from one trophic level to another
FOOD WEB
Most organisms eat more than just ONE organism, thus,
more organisms are involved
• Series of interconnecting food chains
• Describe the complex patterns of energy flow in an
ecosystem by modeling who consumes whom or what
LECTURE 4 OCT. 9, 2024

WATER CYCLE
 also known as the hydrologic cycle, describes the continuous movement of water on, above, and below the surface
of the Earth
 endless process that connects all of the water on Earth
 Water changes its state from one phase to another (solid, liquid, and gas),
 water ties together the major parts of the Earth's climate system — air, clouds, the ocean, lakes, vegetation,
snowpack, and glaciers.

MAJOR STEPS IN WATER CYCLE

1. EVAPORATION
- happens when water molecules at the surface of water bodies become excited and rise into the air.
- usually takes place below the boiling point of water
- evapotranspiration occurs when evaporation occurs through the leaves of plants
2. SUBLIMATION
- occurs when snow or ice changes directly into water vapor without becoming water
- occurs as a result of dry winds and low humidity
- Sublimation can be observed on mountain peaks, where the air pressure is quite low
- the primary source of sublimation is from the ice sheets covering the poles of the earth
3. CONDENSATION
- water vapor that accumulated in the atmosphere eventually cools down due to the low temperatures found at high
altitudes
- vapors become tiny droplets of water and ice, eventually coming together to form clouds.
4. PRECIPITATION
- Above 0 degrees centigrade, the vapors will condense into water droplets. However, it cannot condense without
dust or other impurities
- When enough droplets merge, they falls out of the clouds and onto the ground below
- In particularly cold weather or extremely low air pressure, the water droplets freeze and fall as snow or hail
5. INFILTRATION
- Rainwater gets absorbed into the ground through the process of infiltration
- The level of absorption varies based on the material the water has seeped into.
6. RUNOFF
- Occurs when there is more water than the land can absorb
- The excess liquid flows across the surface of the land and into nearby creeks, streams, or ponds.
- In colder regions, icecaps form when the amount of snowfall is faster than the rate of evaporation or sublimation.

SOME IMPLICATIONS OF THE WATER CYCLE

- influences the intensity of climate variability and change (e.g. droughts and floods)
- integral part of other biogeochemical cycles affects all life processes on Earth known to clean the air.

LECTURE 5 OCT. 11,2024

ECOSYSTEM SERVICES
Ecosystem services are the BENEFITS people obtain from ecosystems.
 "Ecosystem services are the conditions and processes through which natural ecosystems, and the species that
make them up, sustain and fulfill human life. They maintain biodiversity and the production of ecosystem goods, such as
seafood, forage timber, biomass fuels, natural fiber, and many pharmaceuticals, industrial products, and their precursors."
"Ecosystem goods (such as food) and services (such as waste assimilation) represent the benefits human
population derive, directly or indirectly, from ecosystem functions."

MILLENIUM ECOSYSTEM ASSESSMENT (MA)

- a major UN-sponsored effort to analyze the impact of human actions on ecosystems and human well-being
- identified four major categories of ecosystem services: provisioning, regulating, cultural and supporting services.

FOUR MAJOR CATEGORIES OF ECOSYSTEM SERVICES

1. PROVISIONING SERVICES
- Are the material benefits people get from ecosystems
- Many are traded in markets
- Supply of food, water, fibers, wood and fuels, raw materials, medical resources.
2. REGULATING SERVICES
- Are the benefits obtained from the regulation of ecosystem processes
- Regulation of air quality and soil fertility, control of floods or crop pollination
Local Climate Air Quality
- trees provide shade whilst forests influence rainfall and water availability both locally and regionally
- trees or other plants also play an important role in regulating air quality by removing pollutants from the
atmosphere
Carbon Sequestration and Storage
- Ecosystems regulate the global climate by storing greenhouse gases.
- trees and plants grow, they remove carbon dioxide from the atmosphere and effectively lock it away in their
tissues.
Erosion Prevention and Maintenance of Soil Fertility
- Vegetation cover prevents soil erosion and ensures soil fertility through natural biological processes such as
nitrogen fixation.
- Soil erosion is a key factor in the process of land degradation, loss of soil fertility and desertification, and
contributes to decreased productivity of downstream fisheries.
Moderation of Extreme Events
- Ecosystems and living organisms create buffers against natural disasters.
- They reduce damage from floods, storms, tsunamis, avalanches, landslides and droughts.
Pollination
- Insects and wind pollinate plants and trees which is essential for the development of fruits, vegetables and seeds.
- mainly provided by insects but also by some birds and bats. - in agroecosystems, pollinators are essential for
orchard, horticultural and forage production, as well as the production of seed for many root and fiber crops.
Biological Control
- The activities of predators and parasites in ecosystems that act to control populations of potential pest and disease
vector.
Regulation of Water Flow
- provided by land cover and configuration
- Agriculture and livestock is a large consumer of water, and at the same has strong impacts on water flow
regulation.
- Fish and other aquatic species are sensitive to changes in water flows
- Forests influence the amount of water available and the timing of water delivery.
Waste-water Treatment
- Ecosystems such as wetlands filter effluents, decompose waste through the biological activity of microorganisms,
and eliminate harmful pathogens.
3. CULTURAL SERVICES
- Are non-material benefits people gain from ecosystems
- Aesthetic and engineering inspiration, cultural identity and spiritual well-being.
- Ex.- Recreation and mental and physical health, tourism, aesthetic appreciation and inspiration for culture, art and
design, spiritual experience and sense of place

4. SUPPORTING SERVICES
- Are necessary for the production of all other ecosystem services
- Providing plants and animals with living spaces, allowing for diversity of species, and maintaining genetic
diversity.
- Ex: Maintenance of genetic diversity and Habitat species

LECTURE 6

BIODIVERSITY
Biodiversity is all the different kinds of life you’ll find in one area—the variety of animals, plants, fungi, and even
microorganisms like bacteria that make up our natural world. Like an intricate web, these species and organisms work
together in ecosystems to maintain balance and support life. Biodiversity supports everything in nature that we need to
survive such as food, clean water, medicine, and shelter.
The term biodiversity was coined in 1985. As defined in a convention on Biological Diversity signed at Rio De
Janeiro (Brazil) in 1992 by 154 countries, Biodiversity is defined as “the variability among living organisms from all
sources including, among other things, terrestrial, marine and other aquatic eco-systems and the ecological complexes
of which they are part”.
This includes diversity within species, between species and of an ecosystem.” In addition, according to IUCN
(International Union for Conservation of Nature) in 1998, “the variety and variability of species of their population, the
variety of species of their life forms, the diversity of the complex association with species with their interaction and
their ecological process which influences perform”.

TYPES OF BIODIVERSITY
1. Species diversity – refers to the variety of different types of species found in a particular area. It is the
biodiversity at the most basic level. It includes all the species ranging from plants to different microorganisms.
Example: monkeys, grasses, trees – they all have different species
2. Genetic diversity – Refers to the differences in genetic makeup between distinct species and genetic variations
within a single species
Example: Dogs (Canis lupus familiaris) – Golden Retriever, Poodle, Great Dane, Chihuahua, Pomeran, etc.
3. Ecosystem diversity – the enormous variation of terrestrial and aquatic environments
Example: Aquatic Ecosystems – Wetlands, rivers, lakes, coastal estuaries Terrestrial Ecosystems – Tundra, taiga,
temperature forests, tropical rainforest, grasslands, desert

LECTURE 7
DISTRIBUTION OF BIODIVERSITY
Because of various influential factors such as topography, climate and access to sunlight, and evolutionary
processes throughout the ages, biodiversity is not equally distributed across the world. There are regions of the earth that
are able to support countless life forms, while there are also places that are nearly uninhabitable.
Biogeographic regions across the world have also been identified to further understand the distribution of each
species. Biogeographic regions (or biogeographic realms) are geographical areas that are defined based on the species
found in them, which provides valuable information to ecologists and natural resources managers for understanding large
scale processes that affect species and ecosystems.
Alfred Russel Wallace (1823-1913) played a key role in defining and recognizing biogeographic regions. He
improved the existing maps of biogeographic regions and provided basic rules to identify them. In more recent years,
regionalization has been used to understand the spatial drivers of biological evolution and to protect those regions
characterized by particularly unique flora and fauna.
8 Biogeographic Realms:
1) Antarctic Biogeographic Realm 5) Neotropical Biogeographic Realm
2) Oceania Biogeographic Realm 6) Afrotropical Biogeographic Realm
3) Indo-Malayan Biogeographic Realm 7) Nearctic Biogeographic Realm
4) Australasian Biogeographic Realm 8) Palearctic Biogeographic Realm

In the Philippines, there are only two biogeographic regions identified which are presented in Table 1.

BIODIVERSITY CHECKLIST
- Flora and fauna diversity depend on:
a. Biotic – presence of other species in a given area; interactions between and among inter and intraspecies.
b. Abiotic – non-living factors in an ecosystem i.e. temperature, pH, humidity, precipitation level, soil nutrients, soil
quality, humidity, water quality and quantity, etc.
c. Human Influences – Human activities increasingly affects biodiversity in ecosystems i.e. can range from
pollution to habitat destruction.
What is it about the Philippines that enables it to support 70-80% of the entire world’s species?
Here are the geographic and ecological characteristics of the country that allow it to support such a varied and well-
distributed diversity of species of wild fauna and flora.
1. The Philippines is found in the tropics, where the climate supports a high level of organic productivity to provide
the resources needed by interdependent organisms to survive.
2. The Philippines has a highly heterogeneous and complex topography. Philippine ecological locations vary from
mountain ranges to coral reefs – and everything in between, providing multitudes of plant and animal species more
than adequate space to occupy.
 3. The isolation created by separate islands, as well as peaks of mountain ranges support geneslevel and species-level
diversity.
4. Elevation has an influence on biodiversity. Productivity stressors such as heat and atmospheric pressure decrease
while other more life-supporting factors such as humidity and rainfall as elevation increases. Therefore, in the
Philippines’s rugged topography, one may find a generous offering of biological diversity, especially in the
highlands.

NOTE: [1] In 1998, Conservation International identified the Philippines as one of the 17 megadiverse countries in the
world which have the majority of the Earth’s species and a high number of endemic species.
[2] Megadiversity means exhibiting great diversity
[3] According to the World Conservation Monitoring Centre, a country is considered mega-diverse when it has the
following:
o At least 5,000 endemic plants
o Marine ecosystems within its borders

BENEFITS OF BIODIVERSITY
- See previous topic on Ecological Services.
CONSERVATION OF BIODIVERSITY
- this incorporates the preservation, maintenance, sustainable use, recovery and enhancement of the components
of biological diversity
o Conservation - is the sustainable use of resources and encompasses protection as well as exploitation
o Preservation - is an aspect of conservation meaning to keep something without altering or changing it.
A. In situ Conservation
- on-site conservation or the conservation of genetic resources in natural populations of plant or animal species,
such as forest genetic resources in natural populations of tree species.
- In-situ conservation is being done by declaring area as protected area. – i.e. Sacred groves and lakes, biosphere
reserves, national parks and wildlife sanctuaries
B. Ex situ Conservation
- the preservation of components of biological diversity outside their natural habitats This involves conservation of
genetic resources, as well as wild and cultivated or species, and draws on a diverse body of techniques and facilities
- Some of these include:
 Gene banks, e.g. seed banks, sperm and ova banks, field banks;
 In vitro plant tissue and microbial culture collections;
 Captive breeding of animals and artificial propagation of plants, with possible reintroduction into the wild; and
 Collecting living organism for zoos, aquaria, and botanical gardens for research and public awareness.

THREATS TO BIODIVERSITY
 1. Habitat Loss and Fragmentation
A habitat is the place where a plant or animal naturally lives. Habitat loss is identified as main threat to
85% of all species described as threatened or endangered. Factors responsible for this are deforestation, fire and
over-use and urbanization.
1. Over-exploitation for Commercialization
Over-exploitation of resources has costed more environmental degradation than earning. For example,
shrimp farming in India, Thailand, Ecuador and Indonesia results in Wetland destruction, pollution of coastal
waters and degradation of coastal fisheries. Scientific studies have concluded that cost of environmental
degradation resulting from shrimp farming was costing more than the earning through shrimp exports.

2. Invasive Species
Invasive species are ‘alien’ or ‘exotic’ species which are introduced accidentally or intentionally. These
species become established in their new environment and spread unchecked, threatening the local biodiversity.
These invasive alien species have been identified as the second greatest threat to biodiversity after habitat loss.
3. Pollution
Pollution is a major threat to biodiversity, and one of the most difficult problems to overcome. Pollutants
do not recognize international boundaries. For example, agricultural run-off, which contains a variety of fertilizers
and pesticides, may seep into ground water and rivers before ending up in the ocean. Atmospheric pollutants drift
with prevailing air currents and are deposited far from their original source.
4. Global Climate Change
Many climatologists believe that the greenhouse effect is likely to raise world temperatures by about 2°C
by 2030, meaning that sea levels will rise by around 30-50 cm by this time. Global warming, coupled with human
population growth and accelerating rates of resource use will bring further losses in biological diversity. Vast areas
of the world will be inundated causing loss of human life as well as ecosystems.
5. Population Growth and Over-consumption
From a population of one billion at the beginning of the 19th century, our species now numbers more than
six billion people. Such rapid population growth has meant a rapid growth in the exploitation of natural resources
— water, foods and minerals. Although there is evidence that our population growth rate is beginning to slow
down, it is clear that the exploitation of natural resources is currently not sustainable. Added to this is the fact that
25% of the population consumes about 75% of the world’s natural resources. This problem of over-consumption is
one part of the broader issue of unsustainable use.
6. Illegal Wildlife Trade
The international trade in wild plants and animals is enormous. Live animals are taken for the pet trade, or
their parts exported for medicines or food. Plants are also taken from the wild for their horticultural or medicinal
value.
7. Species extinction
Extinction is a natural process. The geological record indicates that many hundreds of thousands of plant
and animal species have disappeared over the eras as they have failed to adapt to changing conditions.