U4 IP & Feature Extraction

UNIT-4
Fundamentals of Image Processing

and Feature Extraction
Fundamentals of Image Processing and Feature Extraction
Basic Image Manipulation- Image Filtering
If you think of images as functions mapping locations in images to

pixel values, then filters are just systems that form a new, and preferably
enhanced, image from a combination of the original image's pixel values.
Images as Functions
To better understand the inherent properties of images and the

technical procedure used to manipulate and process them, we can think of
an image, which is comprised of individual pixels, as a function, f. Each
pixel also has its own value.
For a grayscale image, each pixel would have an intensity between

0 and 255, with 0 being black and 255 being white. f(x, y) would then give
the intensity of the image at pixel position (x, y), assuming it is defined
over a rectangle, with a finite range: f: [a, b] x [c, d] → [0, 255].
A color image is just a simple extension of this. f(x, y) is now a vector of

three values instead of one. Using an RGB image as an example, the
colors are constructed from a combination of Red, Green, and Blue (RGB).
Therefore, each pixel of the image has three channels and is

represented as a 1x3 vector. Since the three colors have integer values
from 0 to 255, there are a total of 256*256*256 = 16,777,216
combinations or color choices.
An image, then, can be represented as a matrix of pixel values.

Image Processing
There are two main types of image processing: image filtering
and image warping. Image filtering changes the range (i.e. the pixel
values) of an image, so the colors of the image are altered without
changing the pixel positions, while image warping changes the domain
(i.e. the pixel positions) of an image, where points are mapped to other
points without changing the colors.
We will examine more closely image filtering. The goal of using filters
is to modify or enhance image properties and/or to extract valuable
information from the pictures such as edges, corners, and blobs. Here
are some examples of what applying filters can do to make images
more visually appealing.
Two commonly implemented filters are the moving average filter and
the image segmentation filter.
The moving average filter replaces each pixel with the average pixel
value of it and a neighbourhood window of adjacent pixels. The effect is
a more smooth image with sharp features removed.
If we used a 3x3 neighbouring window:
*Often times, applying these filters, as seen with the moving average,
blurring, and sharpening filters, will produce unwanted artifacts along the
edges of the images. To rid of these artifacts, zero padding, edge value
replication, mirror extension, or other methods can be used.
Image segmentation is the partitioning of an image into regions where
the pixels have similar attributes, so the image is represented in a more
simplified manner, and so we can then identify objects and boundaries
more easily.
There are multiple ways, to perform segmentation. Here, we
will look at one simple way it can be implemented based on
thresholding. In this example, all pixels with an intensity greater than
100 are replaced with a white pixel (intensity 255) and all others are
replaced with a black pixel (intensity 0).
2D Convolution
The mathematics for many filters can be expressed in a principal

manner using 2D convolution, such as smoothing and sharpening
images and detecting edges. Convolution in 2D operates on two images,
with one functioning as the input image and the other, called the
kernel, serving as a filter. It expresses the amount overlap of one
function as it is shifted over another function, as the output image is
produced by sliding the kernel over the input image.
Let's look at some examples:

Here's a fancier one that is a combination of two filters:

Sharpening filter:
A sharpening filter can be broken down into two steps: It takes a
smoothed image, subtracts it from the original image to obtain the
"details" of the image, and adds the "details" to the original image.
Step 1: Original - Smoothed = "Details"
Step 2: Original + "Details" = Sharpened

Correlation
While a convolution is a filtering operation, correlation measures the
similarity of two signals, comparing them as they are shifted by one
another. When two signals match, the correlation result is maximized.
One application is a vision system for using a hand to remotely

control a TV. Template matching, based on correlation, is used to
determine the hand position of the user to switch channels, increase or
decrease volume, etc.
Edge Detection
In computer vision, edges are sudden discontinuities in an image, which
can arise from surface normal, surface color, depth, illumination, or
other discontinuities. Edges are important for two main reasons.
1) Most semantic and shape information can be deduced from them,

so we can perform object recognition and analyse perspectives and
geometry of an image.
2) They are a more compact representation than pixels.
We can pinpoint where edges occur from an image's intensity profile

along a row or column of the image. Wherever there is a rapid change in
the intensity function indicates an edge, as seen where the function's
first derivative has a local extrema.
Edge Detection
An image gradient, which is a generalization of the concept of derivative

to more than one dimension, points in the direction where intensity
increases the most. If the gradient is ∇f = [δf⁄δx,δf⁄δy], then the gradient
direction would be θ = tan-1(δf⁄δy/δf⁄δx), and the edge strength would be
the gradient magnitude: ||∇f|| = √(δf/δx)2+(δf/δy)2.
However, plotting the pixel intensities often results in noise, making it

impossible to identify where an edge is by only taking the first derivative
of the function.
Edge Detection
If we apply a filter that is a derivative of a Gaussian function, we can

eliminate the image noise and effectively locate edges.
Edge Detection
Building off of this procedure, we can design an edge detector.
The optimal edge detector must be accurate, minimizing the number

of false positives and false negatives; have precise localization,
pinpointing edges at the positions where they actually occur; and
have single response, ensuring that only one edge is found where
there only is one edge.
Edge Detection
The Canny edge detector is arguably the most commonly used edge
detector in the field. It detects edges by:
1. Applying the x and y derivatives of a Gaussian filter to the image to

eliminate noise, improve localization, and have single response.
Edge Detection
2. Finding the magnitude and orientation of the gradient at each pixel.

3. Performing non-maximum suppression, which thins the edges down
to a single pixel in width, since the extracted edge from the gradient
after step 2 would be quite blurry and since there can only be one
accurate response.
Edge Detection
4. Thresholding and linking, also known as hysteresis, to create connected

edges.
The steps are to 1. determine the weak and strong edge pixels by defining
a low and a high threshold, respectively, and to
2. link the edge curves with the high threshold first to start with the strong
edge pixels, continuing the curves with the low threshold
Edge Detection
Final result:
Edge Detection
The Gaussian kernel size, σ, also affects the edges detected. If σ is

large, the more obvious, defining edges of the picture are retrieved.
Conversely, if σ is small, the finer edges are picked out as well.
Hough Transform
Input to Hough – thresholded edge image

Hough Transform
Hough Transform basic idea
Hough Transform
Hough Transform
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Hough Transform
Real World Example
Hough Transform
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Hough Transform
RANSAC Algorithm
RANSAC Algorithm
RANSAC Algorithm
Line Fitting Example
RANSAC Algorithm
RANSAC Algorithm
RANSAC Algorithm
RANSAC Algorithm
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RANSAC Algorithm
Frequency Analysis
Frequency Analysis
Frequency Analysis
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Feature Recognition
Features and Image Matching
Feature Recognition
Suppose you want to create a panorama
Feature Recognition
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UNIT-4

Fundamentals of Image Processing

If you think of images as functions mapping locations in images to

To better understand the inherent properties of images and the

For a grayscale image, each pixel would have an intensity between

A color image is just a simple extension of this. f(x, y) is now a vector of

Therefore, each pixel of the image has three channels and is

An image, then, can be represented as a matrix of pixel values.

If we used a 3x3 neighbouring window:

The mathematics for many filters can be expressed in a principal

Let's look at some examples:

Here's a fancier one that is a combination of two filters:

Step 1: Original - Smoothed = "Details"

Step 2: Original + "Details" = Sharpened

One application is a vision system for using a hand to remotely

1) Most semantic and shape information can be deduced from them,

2) They are a more compact representation than pixels.

We can pinpoint where edges occur from an image's intensity profile

An image gradient, which is a generalization of the concept of derivative

However, plotting the pixel intensities often results in noise, making it

If we apply a filter that is a derivative of a Gaussian function, we can

Building off of this procedure, we can design an edge detector.

The optimal edge detector must be accurate, minimizing the number

1. Applying the x and y derivatives of a Gaussian filter to the image to

2. Finding the magnitude and orientation of the gradient at each pixel.

4. Thresholding and linking, also known as hysteresis, to create connected

The Gaussian kernel size, σ, also affects the edges detected. If σ is

Input to Hough – thresholded edge image

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