MATHEMATICS FOR ENGINEERING

TUTORIAL 6 – VECTORS

This tutorial is essential pre-requisite material for anyone studying

mechanical engineering. This tutorial uses the principle of learning by
example. The approach is practical rather than purely mathematical.

On completion of this tutorial you should be able to do the following.

• Explain Cartesian and Polar Co-ordinates.

• Define vectors and scalars.

• Explain the various notations for vectors and scalars.

• Add and subtract vectors.

• Resolve vectors.

• Explain and use the Unit Vector.

• Express vectors in various coordinate systems.

• Convert vectors from one coordinate system to another.

It is presumed that students are already proficient at basic algebra and trigonometry.

© D.J.Dunn 1
1. INTRODUCTION

When we use ordinary numbers we can add them, subtract them,

and multiply them and so on.

Consider a weighing scale as shown. If we put a 10 N on the hanger

the instrument shows 10 N. If we put another 10 N on the
instrument indicates 20 N being the sum 10 + 10 as we would
expect.

This is not always the case.

Figure 1
Now consider the following system.
When two 10 N weights are hung on the hangers, the
instrument reads 15 N not 20 N. This is because the two
weights are no longer pulling in the same direction but in two
different directions. Clearly when the direction is important,
we need a different method of adding them together. This is
one reason why we use vectors.

Figure 2
2. VECTOR and SCALAR DEFINITIONS

A vector may represent anything that has magnitude (size) and direction. Examples are force and
velocity.

If the quantity has magnitude and no direction, it is called a scalar. Examples

are temperature and density.

We will see later how alternating electrical voltage and current may be treated
as vectors. In order to represent a force as a vector, we draw an arrow with the
length proportional to the force and the direction the same as the true direction
of the force. The diagram shows a vector representing 30 N at 45o. Figure 3

Let’s revise the ways of representing a point on a graph. You

should be familiar with CARTESIAN and POLAR co-ordinates.

Point p is at Cartesian coordinates x and y or polar coordinates

R andθ.

Note θ is measured anticlockwise from the positive x axis.

Figure 4

The two systems are clearly linked as we can convert from one to the other using trigonometry and
Pythagoras’ theorem.

y = R sinθ x = R cosθ and R = (x2 + y2) ½

© D.J.Dunn 2
3. VECTOR NOTATION and BASIC RULES

Typical notation to designate a vector is a boldfaced character, a character with and arrow on it, or a
r
character with a line under it (i.e., A, A or A). The magnitude of a vector is its length and is
normally denoted by │A│or A. Throughout this tutorial a vector and scalar will be denoted
typically as A and A respectively.

A vector may be multiplied by a scalar so A a is a vector A multiplied by scalar a and it doesn’t

matter which way round you write it so A a = a A

When we add two vector A and B we get a third vector C and we write C = A + B
The order doesn’t matter so C = A + B = B + A . If we multiply C by a scalar a it follows that:-
C a = (A + B ) = A a + B a

4. UNIT VECTOR

To show the direction of a vector, the idea of the unit vector is used. A unit vector is a vector of
)
length one unit. In maths a unit vector is often denoted by adding ^ over the symbol such as a . It
)
follows that │ a │= 1.
) A
Any vector can be changed into a unit vector by dividing by its length. a =
A
)
It follows that A = a A

When using Cartesian coordinates the unit vector is denoted j when in the y direction, i when in the
x direction and k for the z direction.

5. VECTOR ADDITION and SUBTRACTION

When two forces act at a point as in figure 2, the total force and its true direction are found by
adding them as vectors. We do not add the values of the forces (unless they are both in the same
direction). To add the forces we draw the first vector (it doesn't matter which one) and then draw
the second starting on the tip of the first. The new vector starts at the tail of the first and ends at the
head of the second and is called the RESULTANT. Subtracting is the same as adding but the one
being subtracted is drawn in the reverse direction.

WORKED EXAMPLE No. 1

Determine the result of adding

4 N at 90o to 2 N at 0o.

SOLUTION

Figure 5

Figure 5

The magnitude and direction of the resultant may be found graphically by drawing it all out to
scale and measuring it, or by trigonometry. In this case it is a right angle triangle so use
Pythagoras.

R2 = 22 + 42 = 4 + 16 = 20 R = √20 = 4.47
Tan θ = 2/4 = 0.5 θ = 26.6o

© D.J.Dunn 3
 WORKED EXAMPLE No. 2

Subtract a vector of 2 at 0o from a vector of 4 at 90o.

SOLUTION

Figure 6

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE No. 1

1. Determine the result of the vector additions shown.

Figure 7
o o
(Answers 5.831 at 59 and 4.64 at 72.2 .)

2. Find the resultant vector for the cases shown.

Figure 8

(Anwers 5.83 at 121o and 4.64 at 107.8o)

© D.J.Dunn 4
6. RESOLUTION OF VECTORS

6.1 BASIC METHOD

Consider a vector designated V. We cab identify this vector by its length and
angle as V = V ∠ θ

We could consider that this vector is the result of adding a horizontal vector A
to a vertical vector B. In that case A and B are the result of resolving V in those
directions. This might be done by trigonometry as follows.
A = V cos θ B = V sin θ Figure 9
Since the components are in the x and y direction we can use the unit vector to write them as

V=Ai+Bj

WORKED EXAMPLE No. 3

Find the magnitude and direction of the vector V = 4i + 3j

SOLUTION

The vector is a shown. It follows that:

Magnitude V= √(42 + 32) = 5 Angle θ = tan-1 (¾) = 36.9o

Figure 10
V = 5 ∠ 36.9 o

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE No. 2

Represent the vectors shown as V = i A + j B

Figure 11

Answers
14.14 i + 14.14 j
25 i + 43.3 j

© D.J.Dunn 5
6.2 A MORE FORMAL METHOD

Vectors expressed in the form V = Ai + Bj can easily be added and subtracted. Consider two vectors
V1 and V2 added together to form a vector V3.

Figure 12

V1 = A1i + B1j V2 = A2i + B2j Adding we see that V3 = A1i + A2i + B1j + B2j

V1 + V2= V3 = (A1 + A2)i + (B1 + B2)j and it follows that:

V1 - V2 = V3 = A1i - A2i + B1j - B2j = (A1 - A2)i + (B1 - B2)j

WORKED EXAMPLE No. 4

Find the magnitude and angle of vector resulting from adding V1 and V2.

V1 = 4i + 5j V2 = 2i – 3j

SOLUTION

V3 = (4+2)i + (5-3)j = 6i + 2j

Magnitude = (62 + 22)½ = 6.324 Angle = tan-1 (2/6) = 18.4o

V3 = 6.324 ∠ 18.4o

WORKED EXAMPLE No. 5

Find the magnitude and angle of vector resulting from subtracting V2 from V2.

V1 = 4i + 5j V2 = 2i – 3j

SOLUTION

V3 = (4-2)i + (5+3)j = 2i + 8j

Magnitude = (22 + 82)½ = 8.246 Angle = tan-1 (8/2) = 76o

V3 = 8.246 ∠ 76o

© D.J.Dunn 6
 SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE No. 3

Sketch the following vectors and determine their magnitude and direction.

1. V = 5i – 6j (7.81 ∠ -50.2o)

2. V = 3i – 2j (3.6 ∠ -33.7o)

Add the following vectors and find the magnitude and direction of the resulting vector.

3. V1 = 3i + 6j V 2 = 5i + 5j (13.6 ∠ 54o)

4. V 1 = -4i + 6j V 2 = 4i - 6j (0 ∠ 0o)

Subtract V 2 from V 1 and find the magnitude and direction of the resulting vector.

4. V 1 = 3i + 6j V 2 = 5i + 5j (2.24 ∠ -26.6o)

5. V 1 = -4i + 6j V 2 = 4i - 6j (14.4 ∠ -56.3o)

© D.J.Dunn 7
7. THREE DIMENSIONAL EXAMPLES

The tutorial on coordinate systems covered the geometry linking Cartesian and spherical
coordinates and the derivation of the formulae used here may be found in that tutorial. To specify a
vector in three dimensions we would use the unit vectors i, j and k for x, y and z directions
respectively.

WORKED EXAMPLE No. 6

Find the spherical coordinates of the vector V = 2i + 5j + 3k

SOLUTION

The length of the vector is the radius of the spherical coordinate.

R2 = x2 + y2 + z2
R2 = 22 + 52 + 32 = 38
R = 6.164
The angle made to the z – x plane is θ
θ = tan-1 y/( x2 + z2)1/2
θ = tan-1 5/( 22 + 32)1/2 = 54.2o
The angle rotated from the x – y plane is φ
φ = tan-1(z/x)
φ = tan-1(3/2) = 56.31o

The spherical coordinates are 6.164, 54.2o and 56.31o

WORKED EXAMPLE No. 7

Add the vectors V1 = 3i + 6j - 5k and V2 = -1i + 3j + 2k and determine the resultant in spherical
coordinates.

SOLUTION

V = V1+ V2 = (3i + 6j - 5k) + (-1i + 3j + 2k) = 2i + 9j - 2k

V= 22 + 92 + (-2)2 = 89

V= 9.434

θ = tan-1 9/( 22 + (-2)2)1/2 = 72.55o

The angle rotated from the x – y plane is φ
φ = tan-1(-2/22 = -45o

The resulting vector is V = 9.434, 72.55o, -45o

© D.J.Dunn 8
 WORKED EXAMPLE No. 8

The spherical coordinates of a vector are p (7, 60o -45o).

Express this in the form V = ix + jy + kz

SOLUTION

x = R sinθ cosφ y = R sinθ z = R cosθ sinφ

x = 7 cos(60)cos(-45) =2.475 y = 7 sin(60) = 6.06 z = 7 cos(60)sin(-45) = -2.48

V = 2.475i + 6.06j - 2.48k

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE No. 4

Add the following vectors and find the magnitude and direction of the resulting vector.

1. V1 = 3i + 6j - 5k V 2 = 5i + 5j + 2 k (13.93, 52.16o, -20.56o)

2. V 1 = -4i + 6j + 3k V 2 = 4i - 3j + 2k (5.83, 30.96o, 90o)

Express the following vectors in the form V = ix + jy + kz

3. V = 8.3, 28.8o, -74 o (V = 2i + 4j - 7k )

4. V = 17, -30o, 60o (V = 7.36i – 8.5j + 12.75k )

© D.J.Dunn 9