MODULE 1 - SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY, AND SOCIETY COURSE OVERVIEW

Science, Technology and Society (STS) is an interdisciplinary field

that studies the conditions under which the production, distribution
and utilization of scientific knowledge and technological systems
occur. Through STS, we will be able to develop critical thinking
and creativity as we utilize science in understanding various
human conditions and social issues, explore the role of science
and technology in nation building, analyze scientific ideas,
theories, innovations, research and practices, and discover technological advancements
brought by science to the society.

Our STS learning journey will be integrated into three parts: 1. analysis of the concepts,
theories, principles, historical events in science and its development in various civilizations, the
role of science in nation building with emphasis on government programs and projects for the
advancement of science and technological capabilities of the country; 2. the discussion of
science and human conditions that introduces different philosophies, ideas, policies, and
personalities in THE files of science and technology; and 3. deals with various issues in the
society related to science and technology.

Intellectual Revolutions That Defined Society. Though we all know the basic definition of
science, but there is no one who can exactly identify when and where science began. So, how
do we define science in different aspects?

Science as an idea This includes all the ideas, theories and even available systematic
explanations and observations that explains the natural and physical
world.
Science as an This includes the systematic observations and experimentation of
intellectual natural and physical world.
activity.
Science as a body Science as a discipline, a field of study, or body of knowledge that
of knowledge process the learning about natural and physical world.

Science as a This will explain that science is both knowledge and activities done by
personal and humans to further develop better understanding of the world around
social activity us.

People have engaged in scientific activities to know and understand everything around us and
even persistently observed and studies both natural and physical world in order to find and seek
answers to may questions. We were also able to develop noble ideas, later known as
philosophy in order to provide explanations to certain phenomena.

Scientific revolution is claimed to have started in the early 16 th to 18th century in Europe. It is
where most of the invention of printing machine and other intellectual activities took place, and
places of learning and growing number scholars in various field of interest.

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Scientific revolution was the period of enlightenment
when the developments in the fields of mathematics,
physics, astronomy, biology and chemistry transformed
the views of society about nature. This gives birth to
modern science as a result of the disciplined mentioned.

It is very significant in the development of human being,

transformation of society and formulation of scientific
ideas. It also improves the conduct of scientific
investigations, experiments and observations. Moreover, it led to the creation of new research
fields in science and established strong foundation for modern science.

Some Intellectuals and their Revolutionary Ideas

Scientists are driven by their curiosity, critical thinking and creativity to explore the scientific
world. They are not driven by publicity and honor, but they love doing extraordinary things.

As can be derived from figure 2, scientists have deep passion to know and discover different
scientific phenomenon which leads to many discoveries in science and technology.

Cradles of Early Science

Development of Science in Mesoamerica

Maya Civilization  Famous civilization that lasted for 2,000 years and known for their
works in astronomy and incorporate it to their temples and other
religious structures.

 Advanced knowledge and understanding of celestial bodies during

their time, such as predicting eclipse and using astrological cycles
in planting and harvest.

 Built looms for weaving and clothing and devised a rainbow

glittery paints from mineral called mica.

Inca Civilization  Developed scientific ideas and tools such as road paved with
stones and stone building that surmounted earthquakes and other
disasters.

 Irrigation system and technique in storing water.

 Quipu, a system of knotted ropes to keep records that only

experts can explain.

Aztec Civilization  Mandatory Education. Children are mandated to get education

regardless of social class, gender or age.

 Chinampa, a form of Aztec technology for agricultural farming.

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  Invention of canoe. A light narrow boat used for traveling in water
systems.

Development of Science in Asia

India  Famous in medicine such as Ayurveda, a system of traditional

medicine originated in ancient India before 2500BC and is still
practiced nowadays.

 Known for their contribution in mathematics through Indian

astronomer and mathematician Aryabhata, who introduced a
number of trigonometric functions, tables, techniques and
algorithms in algebra.

China  In terms of technology, Chinese are known to develop many tools

such as: compass, papermaking, gunpowder and printing tools.

 In field of astronomy, they made a significant record on

supernovas, lunar and solar eclipses and comets, which were
recorded to understand the heavenly bodies.

Middle East  Dominantly occupied by Muslim; Muslim scientists value science

Countries experiments rather than plain-thought experiments.

 A Muslim scientist named Ibn al-Haytham is regarded as Father of

Optics, especially for his empirical proof of intromission theory of
light.

Development of Science in Africa

Ancient Egypt  Development of geometry to build rectilinear structures

Civilization
 Center of Alchemy known as the medieval forerunner of chemistry.

African region  Used three types of calendars: lunar, solar and stellar or a
combination of three.

 Mettalurgy as iron technology from Near East region.

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MODULE 2 - SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY AND NATION-BUILDING

Brief Historical Background of Science and Technology in the Philippines. The science and
technology history of the country dated back before we gained independence in American
colonizers. Even before Spanish colonizers, the early inhabitants of the archipelago already
have their own culture and traditions. They even had their own belief system and indigenous
knowledge system that keeps them organized and sustained their lives and communities for
many years.

Pre-Spanish  Scientific knowledge is observed in the way they plant their crops
Philippines that provides food, taking care of animals and food production.

 Use science in preparing the soil for agricultural purposes and

discovered medicinal plants.

 Technology is used for building houses, irrigation and developing

tools that can be used in their everyday life. Also develop tools for
planting, cooking, hunting and fishing;

Spanish  Established schools for boys and girls; beginning of formal science
Colonization and technology in the country

 Developed ways to replicate technology brought by Spaniards

using indigenous materials.

 Filipinos who were able to study in Europe also contributed to the

advancement of medicine, engineering, arts, music and literature
in the country;

American  Influenced the development of Science and Technology and

Colonization established public educational system, which improved the
engineering works and health conditions of the people.

 Established a modern research university, the University of the

Philippines, and created public hospitals

 Science teaching in higher education has greatly improved and

modernized.

Science and technology may have significant impact on the lives of the people and in the
development of Philippine society. However, it remains as a big challenge in the country to
improve the quality of science education.

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MODULE 3 - SCIENCE EDUCATION IN THE PHILIPPINES

Science education deals with the teaching and learning of science and helped in public
development of science literacy. Moreover, it is important in the promotion of science and
technology in our country. Examples of Science Basic Education in the Philippines: Philippine
Science High School (PSHS). It is a government program for the students under the
Department of Science and Technology (DOST) whose mandate is to offer free scholarship
basis for secondary course with special emphasis on subjects pertaining to sciences, with the
end-view of preparing the students for a science career (RA 3661). The PSHS have brought
exemplary achievements in various international competitions and research circles.

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MODULE 4 - INDIGENOUS SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY IN THE PHILIPPINES

Indigenous Knowledge System. During early times, Filipinos tried to invent different tools that will help
them in their everyday lives. They even developed alternative ideas in explaining different phenomena
that occurs around them. This system of knowledge is called indigenous knowledge, which is the
foundation of indigenous science. The indigenous knowledge is embedded in the daily life of Filipinos and
were prominently practiced by the community. These knowledges were passed from generation to
another, with their parents and older folks as their teacher. Below are the examples of indigenous
knowledge taught and practiced by the indigenous people:

 Predicting weather conditions

and seasons using knowledge in
observing animal’s behavior and
celestial bodies;

 Using herbal medicine;

preserving foods; preserving
and selecting good seeds for
planting.

Indigenous Science. It is part of the

indigenous knowledge system
practiced by different groups of people
and early civilizations (Gribbin, 2001).
This includes complex knowledge,
expertise, and practices that guide
humans into agriculture, medicine, naming and explaining natural phenomena (Pawilen, 2005). Shown in
the figure is the summary of the concept of indigenous science. Indigenous science is important in the
development of S&T in the Philippines. Just like the ancient civilizations as discussed from previous topic,
indigenous science gave birth to the development of science and technology as a field and discipline. It
helped the people in understanding the natural environment and in coping with everyday life.

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CHAPTER II: SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY, AND SOCIETY AND THE HUMAN CONDITION

Eudaimonia- (n) lit. “human flourishing”; a contented state of being happy and healthy and
prosperous.

 It is a Greek word commonly translated as happiness or welfare; however “human

flourishing” has been proposed as a more accurate translation.
 Etymologically, it is consist of words eu (“good) and daimon (“spirited). It is a concept in
Aristotelian ethics and political philosophy along with the terms arête, most often
translated as “virtue” or “excellence” and phronesis often translated as “practical or
ethical wisdom”.
 In Aristotle’s work, eudaimonia was based on older Greek tradition. It describes the
pinnacle of happiness that is attainable by humans.

Nicomachean Ethics- discussed that the human flourishing arises as a result of different
components such as:
PHRONESIS FRIENDSHIP WEALTH POWER
 Ancient Greek Society believed that acquiring these qualities will surely bring the
seekers happiness and allows them to partake in the greater notion of what we call the
GOOD.
 As the time change, components of human flourishing changed which are subject to the
dynamic social history as written by humans.

People found means to live more comfortably, explore more places, develop more products
and make more money and then repeating the process in full circle.
EARLY Make grander and more sophisticated
PEOPLE Simple machines to hunt and gather machines

Today, our concept of human flourishing proves to be different from Aristotle originally
perceived then.

HUMANS OF TODAY "MAN OF THE WORLD"

EASTERN CONCEPTION WESTERN CONCEPTION
1. Most are community-centric. 1. Tends to focused on the individual.
2. Human flourishing is less concern than 2. Human flourishing is much concern.
Western. 3. Greek Aristotelian view.
3. Chines Confucian system
4. Japanese Bushido.

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 Nevertheless, such stereotypes cannot be said to be true given the current stance of
globalization. Flourishing borders allowed people full access to cultures. Competition as a
means of survival has become passé. Coordination is the new trend.

SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY AND HUMAN FLOURISHING

 Human flourishing is deeply intertwined with goal setting relevant to science and technology.
 The end goals of both science and technology, and human flourishing are related in that “The
good is inherently related to the truth”.

SCIENCE AS METHOD AND RESULTS

1. Observe and determine if there are

unexplained occurrences unfolding.
2. Determine the problem and identify factors
involved.
3. Through past knowledge of similar instance,
formulate hypothesis that could explain the
said phenomenon. Ideally, the goal is to
reject the null hypothesis and accept the
alternative hypothesis for the study.
4. Conduct experiment by setting up
dependent and independent variables, and
trying to see how independent ones affect
dependent ones.
5. Gather and analyze results throughout and
upon culmination of the experiment. Examine if the data gathered are significant enough
to conclude results.
6. Formulate conclusion and provide recommendation in case others would want to
broaden the study.

VERIFICATION THEORY FALSIFICATION THEORY

 Earliest criterion that distinguished philosophy and  Current prevalent methodology in science.
science.  Asserts that as long as an ideology is not proven to
 Proposes that a discipline is a science if it can be be false and can best explain a phenomenon over
confirmed or interpreted in the event of an alternative theories- ACCEPT THE IDEOLOGY.
alternative hypothesis being accepted.  Emergence of theories rejected by verification
 Espoused by a movement in the early 20th century theory.
called Vienna Circle.  Karl Popper- known proponent of this view.
 American philosopher Thomas Kuhn warned us  Believed in theories of Marx’s theory of Social
against bridging the gap between evidence and History and Sigmund Freud Psychoanalysis- not
theory. testable and thus not falsifiable.

SCIENCE AS A SOCIAL ENDEAVOR presents an alternative notion that goes beyond the
boundaries of cold, hard facts of science and instead projects it in a different light, such as a
manifestation of shared experienced forging solidarity over communities.

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 SCIENCE AND RESULTS
 People who do not understand science are won over when the discipline is able to produce results. Religion,
luck, and human randomness are some of science’ contemporaries in the field.
 Some communities without access to science turn to divination and superstition and still get the same
results.
 Science is not entirely foolproof. It does not monopolize the claim for definite results.

SCIENCE AS EDUCATION

There is no such thing as a singular scientific method. Scientists can experiment in a

variety of procedures to get results and call them science. Aristotle’s eudaimonic person is
required to be knowledgeable about science, among other things of equal importance. They are
supposed to possess intellectual virtues that will enable them to determine truth from falsehood
or good reasoning from poor reasoning. They understand that they should not focus on one
aspect alone.
How much is TOO MUCH?

Economists believe that growth is primarily indicator of development. Technology has been
a primary instrument in enabling them to pursue said goal, utilizing resources, machineries and
labor. However, the world’s resources cannot cope with the rapid pace of technological growth.

EXPLOITATION AND IRREVERSIBLE DAMAGES TO NATURE

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INTRODUCTION

Comparing the lives of the people before and now will make anyone realize the changes
that happened in society in terms of culture, language or rights but more importantly changes in
people’s way of life due to the existence of science and technology.

THE HUMAN CONDITION BEFORE COMMON ERA

Stone Age- marked by tools from stone and flints. There is a little capacity for our ancestors to
contemplate and perceive things outside themselves in a more reflective manner.
Homo erectus  Have been using fire to cook through chipping one flint over the other to produce
a spark, all the while without realizing the laws of friction and heat.
Homo  Humans began to sharpen stones as one would a knife; an example of this is the
sapiens simple machine called wedge.

Metal Age- marked by the discovery of minerals.

 People began forging metalwork.
 Fur clothing and animal skin are primarily used for comfort against harsh winds.
 Our ancestors have been deeply engaged in the concept of beauty.
 Found the need to explain things in a way that makes sense to them.
 Realized that there are events outside of their control and attempted to justify things as
being a work of a supernatural being.

THE HUMAN CONDITION IN THE COMMON ERA

 Humans were content with their relationship with nature.
100,000-  The Holocene extinction, also called as the sixth extinction or more aptly
200,000 Anthropocene extinction pertains to the ongoing extinction of several species- both
years ago flora and fauna- due to human activity (overhunting and overfishing).
 Humans were quick to find ways to drive off other megafaunas threatening a
prospective hunting spot and eventually, settling grounds.
 Hunting, coupled with a changing terrain that the humans began cultivating when
agriculture emerged caused several species to lose competition in territory and food
9,000 years resources.
ago  Formation of communities caused humans to expand more in territory and more
people to feed.
 Waging wars with other tribes albeit.
 Engaged in peaceful negotiation and less bloody method.
 The process of trade emerged, leading to cross-town and eventually cross-cultural
5000 years interaction as more products were exchanged and the initial needs extended to
ago wants.
 They have turned to wealth as one of their goals as humans and ultimately as
civilizations. Thus, they began to do things with prospect of profit.
 They were able to find and create niches for interests.
 Humanity became more complex. The primary goal was not merely to survive, but to
live the good life.
Nowadays  Due to differing races, belief, or abundance of resources and/or territory, wars were

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 always waged, leading communities to allocate resources to the militia.
 Advancement in medicine, technology, health, and education ushered in humanity’s
best yet, and show no sign of stopping.

THE ESSENCE OF TECHNOLOGY (“We were more DEVELOPED than we were before”.)
Modern humans are reliant on technology in their search for the good life. Together with
science, it gave us explanations, which worked for us and benefited us.

1. Instrumental Definition- Technology is a means to an end.

2. Anthropological Definition- Technology is a human activity.
Both definitions are correct. However, neither touches on the true essence of technology.

Martin Heidegger- argued that the essence, or purpose of technology, and being are different
from each other.
 “Technology can either be perceived as first, a means to achieve man’s end and second,
that which constitutes human activity”.
 The second perspective paints technology in such a way that each period reveals a
particular character regarding man’s being.
 It can be stated that technology allows human to confront the unknown and see how
they would react.
Danger presented by too much reliance on technology

1. Human lose track of things that matter.

Reducing their surroundings to their economic value.

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ARISTOTLE AND HOW WE ALL ASPIRE FOR A GOOD LIFE

It is interesting to note that the first philosopher who approached the problem of reality from a
“scientific” lens is Aristotle who is also the first thinker who dabbled into the complex
problematization of the end goal of life: happiness.

According to Aristotle, human beings are potentialities who aspire for their actuality. Every
human being moves according to some end. This end; we have learned from the previous
lessons, is happiness or human flourishing. No individual resists happiness. We all want to be
happy. Aristotle claims that happiness is the be all and end all of everything that we do. We
may not realize it but the end goal of everything that we do is happiness.

When Aristotle claims that we want to be happy, he does not necessarily mean the everyday
happiness that we obtain when we win a competition or we eat our favorite dish in a restaurant.
What Aristotle actually means is human flourishing, a kind of contentment in knowing that one
is getting the best out of life. A kind of feeling that one has maxed out his potentials in the world,
that he has attained the crux of his humanity.

HAPPINESS AS THE GOAL OF A GOOD LIFE

John Stuart Mill- declared Greatest Happiness Principle.

 “An action is right as far as it maximizes the attainment of happiness for the greatest
number of people”.
 Also said that individual happiness of each individual should be prioritized and
collectively dictates the kind of action that should be endorsed.

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DIFFERENT SCHOOLS OF THOUGHT (All of which aim for the good and happy life)
1. Materialism  There is no need to posit immaterial entities as sources of purpose. As such,
only material entities matter.
 Matter is what makes us attain happiness.
2. Hedonism  See the end goal of life in acquiring pleasure.
 Life is about obtaining and indulging in pleasure because life is limited.
 Mantra- “Eat, drink, and be merry for tomorrow we die.”
3. Stoicism  To generate happiness, one must learn to distance oneself and be apathetic. A
careful practice of apathy.
 Adopt the fact that some things are not within our control. The sooner we
realize this, the happier we can become.
4. Theism  Find the meaning of their lives using God as a fulcrum of their existence.
 Base their life goals on beliefs that hinged on some form of supernatural reality
called heaven.
 The ultimate basis of happiness is the communion with God.
 The world where we are in is only just a temporary reality where we have to
maneuver around while waiting for the ultimate return to the hands of God.
5. Humanism  Espouses the freedom of man to carve his own destiny and to legislate his own
laws, free from the shackles of a God that monitors and controls.
 Man is literally the captain of his own ship.
 Humanists see themselves not merely as stewards of the creation but as
individuals who are in control of themselves and the world outside them.

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Technology- came from the Greek words techne and logos which mean art and word,
respectively.
 Taking the two words together, it means a discourse on arts (Buchanan, 2010)
 Concepts like machine and tools were also attached to the word which is more popular
sense of the concept nowadays.
 These days, it enjoys such fame and glory because of the many different benefits it
brings to mankind.
CONVENIENCE PLEASURE AND HAPPINESS

In general, technology keeps on progressing due to not only the changing times and
environment but also to the ever-progressing mind of mankind. However, it is also important to
note that anything too much is bad. The same problem is faced by technology.
TELEVISION SETS, MOBILE PHONES, COMPUTERS, AND HUMANITY
1. Television  A product of different experiments by various people:
Sets o Paul Gottlieb Nipkow (Late 1800s) - sent images through wires with
the aid of a rotating metal disk.
 “Electric telescope”- had 18 lines of resolution.
o Alan Archibald Campbell-Swinton & Boris Rosing (1907) - created a
new system of television by using the cathode ray tube in addition to
the mechanical scanner system. This gave rise to two types of
television systems, namely: mechanical and electronic television
(Jezek, n.d.).
o Other scientists who inspired by previous experiments and inventions
that led them to the modern television people now have.
2. Mobile  Martin Cooper- a senior engineer at Motorola, made the world’s first mobile
Phones phone call dated April 3, 1973.
 Motorola DynaTAC 8000X (1983) - the first commercial mobile phone available
to the public (Goodwin, 2016).
3. Computers  Charles Babbage (19th century) - designed the Analytical Engine which was
and used as the basic framework of the computers even until the present time.
Laptops  In general, computers can be classified into three generations and each was
used for a certain period of time and gave people a new and improved version
of the previous one (Steitz, n.d.).
 Osborne 1- the first true portable computer that was released on April 1981
(Orfano, 2011).

Some facts about Filipinos and their use of gadgets and the Internet (Rappler, n.d.):

 Mobile phone subscription is at 119 million.

 Filipinos spend approximately 3.2 hours on mobile and 5.2 hours on desktop daily.
 Currently, the Philippines has one of the highest digital populations in the world.
 There are now 47 million active Facebook accounts in the Philippines.
 The Philippines is the fastest-growing application market in Southeast Asia.

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 ROLES PLAYED BY THESE TECHNOLOGICAL ADVANCEMENTS
Televisions Mobile Phones
1. Mainly used as a platform for advertisements 1. Primarily used for communication (texting and
and information dissemination. calling).
2. Serves as a recreational activity and good 2. Use to surf the Internet and to take pictures.
stress reliever to most families. A good way to 3. Include other applications like music player,
bond with one’s family members. calendar, radio, television, and photo editor
3. Good platform for different propagandas and (like an all-in-one device).
advocacies.
Computers and Laptops
1. Most of its functions are now also available in mobile phones (movie player, calculator, etc.).
2. A lot of people prefer to do their job using either a personal computer or laptop:
 Wide screen and separate keyboard
 Availability of a mouse or touchpad
 Allow to play different computer games with comfort and convenience
ETHICAL DILEMMA FACED BY THESE TECHNOLOGICAL ADVANCEMENTS
1. These devices make people lazy and unhealthy.
2. Moral dilemma (especially the children).

ROBOTICS AND HUMANITY

According to International Federation of Robotics (IFR) in 2012:

 A robot is an actuated mechanism programmable in two or more axes with a degree of
autonomy, moving within its environment, to perform intended tasks.
Autonomy in this context means the ability to perform intended tasks based on
current state and sensing without human intervention.
 A service robot is a robot that performs useful tasks for humans or equipment excluding
industrial automation application.
A robot may be classified according to its intended application as an industrial robot
or a service robot.
 A personal service robot or a service robot for personal use is a service robot used
for a noncommercial task, usually by laypersons.
Examples are domestic servant robot, automated wheelchair, personal mobility
assist robot, and pet exercising robot.
 A professional service robot or a service robot for professional use is a service
robot used for a commercial task, usually operated by a properly trained operator.
Examples are cleaning robot for public places, delivery robot in offices or hospitals,
fire-fighting robot, rehabilitation robot, and surgery robot in hospitals.
In this context, an operator is a person designated to start, monitor, and stop the
intended operation of a robot or a robot system.

Ancient Egypt (3000 B.C.) - earliest conception of robots can be traced in their water clocks that used
human figurines to strike the hour bells.
“Unimate” (early 1950s) – the earliest robots as people know was created by George Devol. From the
words “Universal Automation”.

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 ROLES PLAYED BY ROBOTICS
 Primarily used to ease the workload of mankind. Invented to make life more efficient and less stressful.
 Perform complicated activities which human beings are incapable of doing.
 There are also robots which are made for pleasure. They perform activities to entertain people. Also, some
robots were made to serve as toys.
 An inspiration for a number of local and international movies.

Isaac Asimov’s Three Laws of Robotics (1940)

First Law: A robot may not injure a human being or, through inaction, allow a human being
to come to harm.

Second Law: A robot must obey the orders given it by human beings except where such
orders would conflict with the First Law.
Third Law: A robot must protect its own existence as long as such protection does not
conflict with the First or Second Law.
ETHICAL DILEMMA/S FACED BY ROBOTICS
 Safety
 Emotional component
 Autonomy
o Partial autonomy- includes active human-robot interaction.
o Full autonomy- excludes active human-robot interaction. A robot with this autonomy can perform actions
or activities even without a master telling it what should be done or what should be performed next (IFR,
2012).

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CHAPTER III: SPECIFIC ISSUES IN SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY, AND SOCIETY

Information- “knowledge communicated or obtained concerning a specific fact or

circumstance” (Webster’s Encyclopedic Unabridged Dictionary).

 Defined as a “period starting in the last quarter of the 20 th century when information
became effortlessly accessible through publications and through the management of
information by computers and computer networks” (Vocabulary.com, n.d.).
 It is also called the Digital Age and the New Media Age because it was associated with
the development of computers.
 James R. Messenger- proposed the Theory of Information Age in 1982. According to
him, “The Information Age is a true new age based upon the interconnection of
computers via telecommunications, with these information systems operating on both a
real-time and as-needed basis. Furthermore, the primary factors driving this new age
forward are convenience and user-friendliness which, in turn, will create user
dependence.”

HISTORY

Table 1. Timeline of the Information Age (United States American History, n.d.)
Year Event
3000 BC  Sumerian writing system used pictographs to represent words
2900 BC  Beginnings of Egyptian hieroglyphic writing
1300 BC  Tortoise shell and oracle bone writing were used
500 BC  Papyrus roll was used
220 BC  Chinese small seal writing was developed
100 AD  Book (parchment codex)
105 AD  Woodblock printing and paper was invented by the Chinese
1455  Johannes Gutenberg invented the printing press using movable metal type
1755  Samuel Johnson’s dictionary standardized English spelling
1802  The Library of Congress was established
 Invention of the carbon arc lamp
1824  Research on persistence of vision published
1830s  First viable design for a digital computer
 Augusta Lady Byron writes the world’s first computer program
1837  Invention of the telegraph in Great Britain and the United States
1861  Motion pictures were projected onto a screen
1876  Dewey Decimal system was introduced
1877  Eadweard Muybridge demonstrated high-speed photography
1899  First magnetic recordings were released
1902  Motion picture special effects were used
1906  Lee DeForest invented the electronic amplifying tube (triode)
1923  Television camera tube was invented by Zvorkyn
1926  First practical sound movie
1939  Regularly scheduled television broadcasting began in the US
1940’s  Beginnings of information science as a discipline
1945  Vannevar Bush foresaw the invention of hypertext

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1946  ENIAC computer was developed
1948  Birth of field-of-information theory proposed by Claude E. Shannon
1957  Planar transistor was developed by Jean Hoerni
1958  First integrated circuit
1960’s  Library of Congress developed LC MARC (machine-readable code)
1969  UNIX operating system was developed, which could handle multitasking
1971  Intel introduced the first microprocessor chip
1972  Optical laserdisc was developed by Philips and MCA
1974  MCA and Philips agreed on a standard videodisc encoding format
1975  Altair Microcomputer Kit was released: first personal computer for the public
1977  RadioShack introduced the first complete personal computer
1984  Apple Macintosh computer was introduced
Mid 1980s  Artificial intelligence was separated from information science
1987  Hypercard was developed by Bill Atkinson recipe box metaphor
1991  Four hundred fifty complete works of literature on one CD-ROM was released
January  RSA (encryption and network security software) Internet security code cracked for a
1997 48-bit number

“Information Anxiety”- the difficulty in collecting and managing information starting in the
1960’s because of its abundance (Richard Wurman).

In the present generation, there is no doubt that information has turned out to be a/an:

COMMODITY OVERDEVELOPED MASS-PRODUCED UNSPECIALIZED

PRODUCT

“Truths of the Information Age” (n.d.), by Robert Harris- an article that detailed some facts on the
Information Age.
1. Information must compete. There is a need for information to stand out and be recognized in the
increasing clutter.
2. Newer is equated with truer. We forgot the truth that any fact or value can endure.
3. Selection is a viewpoint. Choose multiple sources for your information if you want to receive a more
balanced view of reality.
4. The media sells what the culture buys. In other words, information is driven by cultural priorities.
5. The early word gets the perm. The first media channel to expose an issue often defines the
context, terms, and attitudes surrounding it.
6. You are what you eat and so is your brain. Do not draw conclusions unless all ideas and
information are presented to you.
7. Anything in great demand will be counterfeited. The demand for incredible knowledge, scandals,
and secrets is ever-present; hence, many events are fabricated by tabloids, publicists, or other
agents of information fraud.
8. Ideas are seen as controversial. It is almost certainly impossible to make any assertion that will not
find some supporters and some detractors.
9. Undead information walks ever on. Rumors, lies, disinformation, and gossips never truly die down.
They persist and continue to circulate.
10. Media presence creates the story. People behave much differently from the way they would if being
filmed when the media are present, especially film news or television media.
11. The medium selects the message. Television is mainly pictorial, partially aural, and slightly textual,
so visual stories are emphasized: fires, chases, and disasters.
12. The whole truth is a pursuit. The information that reaches us is usually selected, verbally charged,
filtered, slanted, and sometimes, fabricated. What is neglected is often even more important than
what is included.

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COMPUTER- is an electronic device that stores and processes data (information). It runs on a
program that contains the exact, step-by-step directions to solve a problem (UShistory.org,
2017)
Types of Computer
1. Personal Computer (PC) - a single-user instrument.
 First known as microcomputers
2. Desktop Computer- described as a PC that is not designed for portability.
 Offer more storage, power, and versatility than their portable versions
3. Laptops- are portable computers that integrate the essentials of a desktop computer in a battery-
powered package.
 Commonly called as notebooks.
4. Personal Digital Assistants (PDAs) - are tightly integrated computers that usually have no
keyboards but rely on a touch screen for user input.
 Typically smaller than a paperback, lightweight, and battery-powered
5. Server- a computer that has been improved to provide network services to other computers.
 Usually boast powerful processors, tons of memory, and large hard drives
6. Mainframes- are huge computer systems that can fill an entire room.
 Used especially by large firms to describe the large, expensive machines that process
millions of transactions every day.
 The term “mainframe” has been replaced by enterprise server. Although some
supercomputers are single computer systems, most comprise multiple, high-performance,
parallel computers working as a single system.
7. Wearable Computers- involve materials that are usually integrated into cell phones, watches, and
other small objects or places.
 Perform common computer applications such as databases, email, multimedia, and
schedulers.

THE WORLD WIDE WEB (INTERNET)

 Claude E. Shannon- “Father of Information Theory”. He published a paper proposing

that information can be quantitatively encoded as a sequence of ones and zeroes.
 Internet- is a worldwide system of interconnected networks that facilitate data
transmission among innumerable computers. Developed during the 1970s by the
Department of Defense.
 Internet service providers like CompuServe set up electronic chat rooms. These were
open areas of cyberspace where interested parties could join in a conversation with
perfect strangers.
 “Surfing the net” became a pastime in and of itself.
Criticisms
1. It created a technological divide that increased the gap between the members of the higher class
and lower class of society.
2. Many decried the impersonal nature of electronic communication compared to a telephone call or a
handwritten letter.
3. The unregulated and loose nature of the Internet allowed pornography to be broadcast to millions
of homes.
4. Crimes in various forms are rampant because of the use of social media.

APPLICATIONS OF COMPUTERS IN SCIENCE AND RESEARCH (Madan, n.d.)

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One of its significant applications is evident in the field of bioinformatics. Bioinformatics is the
application of information technology to store, organize, and analyze vast amount of biological
data which is available in the form of sequences and structures of proteins- the building blocks
of organism and nucleic acids- the information carrier. The human brain cannot store all the
genetic sequences of organisms and this huge amount of data can only be stored, analyzed,
and be used efficiently with the use of computers.

Computers and software tools are widely used for generating protein sequence databases and
to identify the function of proteins, model the structure of proteins, determine the coding (useful)
regions of nucleic acid sequences, find suitable drug compounds from a large pool, and
optimize the drug development process by predicting possible targets. Some of the software
tools which are handy in the analysis include:
 BLAST- used for comparing sequences
 Annotator- an interactive genome analysis tool
 GeneFinder- tool identify coding regions and splice sites

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INTRODUCTION

– Decrease in biodiversity is eminent worldwide.

– Vertebrates fell to 60% from the 1970’s due to human causes.
– It is projected that by 2020, wildlife decline will be 67 % of the present number.
– The World Wide Fund for Nature and Zoological Society of London reported an annual
decrease in wildlife by 2 %.
– A major cause is human population which has doubled in number since 1960 to 7.4
billion.
– Humans have industrialized the natural habitat of wildlife as well as marine life.
– Earth might enter the sixth mass extinction event according to experts.
– Mass extinction is described as the disappearance of species at a rate of 1000 faster
than usual.

– The disappearance of species in a certain environment causes an imbalance in the

ecosystem, producing more chaotic changes that harm the entire ecosystem
(Inquirer.net,2016)

– This is but a pressing statement for people to know more about the importance of our
diverse environment, and how human activities can either contribute to its growth or
destruction.

Biodiversity and Ecosystem

- is defined as the vast variety of life forms in the entire Earth.

- it encompasses all kinds of life forms, from the single-celled organisms to the largest
multi-celled organisms.
- the variability among living organisms from all sources, including terrestrial, marine, and
other aquatic ecosystems and the ecological complexes of which they are part; this
includes diversity within species, between species, and of ecosystems.
- the source of the essential goods and ecological services that constitute the source of
life for all and it has direct consumptive value in food, agriculture, medicine, and in
industry.
- relationship of the biotic and the abiotic.
- Interdisciplinary approach is needed to study the ecosystem.
- Biodiversity plays a major role in this natural dynamics.
- Sustainability of the ecosystem ensures a better survival rate against any natural
disaster.
- Therefore, we, as human inhabitants of the ecosystem, must preserve and conserve the
biodiversity of all creatures.

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Changes in Biodiversity is caused by a range of drivers. A driver is any natural or human-
induced factor that directly or indirectly causes a change in an ecosystem.

Biodiversity loss is caused by five primary drivers are: habitat change/loss, climate change
associated with global warming, invasive species, overexploitation (extreme hunting and
fishing pressure), and pollution. In each case, human beings and their activities play direct
roles

Biodiversity loss can have significant direct human health impacts if ecosystem services are
no longer adequate to meet social needs. Indirectly, changes in ecosystem services affect
livelihoods, income, local migration and, on occasion, may even cause or exacerbate political
conflict.

Threats to Biodiversity

1. Habitat loss and destruction

2. Alterations in ecosystem composition
3. Over-exploitation
4. Pollution and contaminant
5. Global climate change

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INTRODUCTION

In 2001, Rosalie Ellasus – a former OFW in Singapore turned farmer attended the
Integrated Pest Management – Farmers Field School and was introduced to Bt Corn – a
genetically modified corn that is resistant to the destructive Asian corn borer.

Ms. Ellasus volunteered for demo testing in her field, and the Bt Corn yielded 7.2 tons
per acre. This was one of the success stories of genetically modified organisms (GMOs)
(Ongkiko, 2016)

In 1951, the term “Genetic Engineering” was coined by Jack Williamson.

The general process of genetic engineering is the deliberate manipulation of the

organism’s genes, where it may involve transfer of genes from other organism.

Genetically Modified Organism

Genetically modified organisms (GMOs) can be defined as organisms (i.e. plants, animals or
microorganisms) in which the genetic material (DNA) has been altered in a way that does not
occur naturally by mating and/or natural recombination.

According to new research it is an organism whose genome has been engineered in the
laboratory in order to favor the expression of desired physiological traits or the generation of
desired biological products. In conventional livestock production, crop farming, and even pet
breeding, it has long been the practice to breed select individuals of a species in order to
produce offspring that have desirable traits. In genetic modification, however, recombinant
genetic technologies are employed to produce organisms whose genomes have been precisely
altered at the molecular level, usually by the inclusion of genes from unrelated species of
organisms that code for traits that would not be obtained easily through conventional selective
breeding (Diaz, 2021).

A diagram of how bacterial gene is introduced through genetic engineering to plant cells and
tissues to develop and breed a genetically modified plant.

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The Genetic Engineering Process on a Plant
GMOs in Food and Agricultural Industries

The Center for Ecogenetics and

Environmental Health (CEEH, 2013)
identified the following role of GMOs in the
food and agricultural industries:

1. Pest resistance – genetically modified

plants to resist certain pests.
An example is Bt Corn. The
DNA (genome) of the Bt Corn has

been modified with the gene of Bacillus thuringiensis, a

soil bacterium that produces proteins which is toxic to
corn borers (worms).

2. Virus Resistance – genetically modified plants to resist

certain viruses.
An example is GM papaya or rainbow papaya. The
papaya ringspot virus (PSRV) is known to be detrimental to papaya plants. The protein of
PRSV was introduced to the papaya plant through plant
tissue which turned out to be resistant to the virus itself.
The effect was like the vaccines humans have against
measles or influenza virus.

3. Herbicide Tolerance – genetically modified plants to tolerate

herbicide.
An example is Roundup Ready soybean. Glyphosate, an herbicide for weeds, was
introduced to soybeans making it tolerant to the herbicide itself. Farmers then can spray the
herbicide killing the weeds but not the soybeans.

4. Fortification – genetically modified plants fortified with certain minerals,

An example is Golden Rice. Beta-carotene, a precursor of vitamin A, was introduced
through biosynthesis genes to the rice, making the rice grains fortified with vitamin A.

5. Cosmetic preservation – genetically modified plants resist natural discoloration.

An example is Arctic Apple. The apple variety was genetically modified to suppress the
browning of apple due to superficial damage.

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6. Increase growth rate – a genetically modified organism that has higher yield in growth than
normal species.
An example is AquAdvantage salmon. A gene from an ocean pout, an eel-like fish was
introduced to Pacific Chinook salmon, making the salmon grow faster than its normal rate.

GMOs in Non-Food Crops and Microorganisms

1. Flower Production – are seen in modified color and extended vase life of flowers.
Example: Blue Roses

2. Paper Production – modified characteristics of trees for higher yield of paper production.
Example: Lignin trees
3. Pharmaceutical productions – modified plants to produce pharmaceutical products.
Example: periwinkle plants (cancer treatment)
4. Bioremediation – use of modified plants that can assist in the bioremediation of polluted
sites.
Example: shrub tobacco
5. Enzyme and drug production – use of modified microorganisms that can produce enzymes
for food processing and medicines.
Example: Cyclomaltodextrin glycosyltranferase (CGTase) an enzyme used for food
flavor enhancer. Another is artemesin. Artemesinic acid is a compound used for anti-malarial
drug.
6. GMOs in the medical field – genetic engineering is playing a significant role from diagnosis
to treatment of human-dreaded diseases. It helps in the production of drugs, gene therapy,
and laboratory researches.
Example: Humulin, the genetically engineered insulin used by Type 1 diabetes
patients who are insulin-dependent.

Benefits of GMOs

Studies show some of the potential benefits of GMOs.

o Higher efficiency in farming

o Increase in harvest
o Control in fertility
o Increase in food processing
o Improvement of desirable characteristics
o Nutritional and pharmaceutical enhancement
o Reduce the use of fertilizer and pesticides

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Potential Risks of GMOs

Opponents of GMOs have the following major concerns:

1. Since genetic engineering is still a young branch of science, there are inadequate studies on
the effects of GMOs to humans and the environment.
2. Genetic engineering promotes mutation in organisms which the long-term effect is still
unknown.
3. Human consumption of GMOs might have the following effects:
o More allergic reactions
o Gene Mutation
o Antibiotic resistance
o Nutritional value

Potential Environmental Risks Caused by GMOs

Karki (2006) summarized the perceived potential environmental risks caused by GMOs. The
identified major risks are the following:

1. Risk in gene flow

2. Emergence in new forms of resistance and secondary pests and weed problems.
3. Recombination of Virus and Bacteria to Produce New Pathogens

Biosafety on GMOs

There are initiatives for the protection of the general human population regarding the issues and
concerns about GMOs. International organizations developed principles and treaties that
somehow ensure biosafety on GMOs. Some of the initiatives are as follows:
 The Codex Alimentarius Commission (Codex)
 Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety
 International Trade Agreement on Labeling of GM food and food products.

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GMOs in Philippine Context

Philippine Policies in Relation to GMOs

1990 – Executive Order 430 (EO 430): -- Created the National Committee on Biosafety of
the Philippines (NCBP)
1991 – First Edition of the Philippine Biosafety Guidelines (PBG)

2002 – Department of Agriculture- Administrative Order 8 (DAO 8) -- appoints its Bureau of

Plant Industry (DA-BPI) to regulate field trials and propagation and
commercial release of GMOs

2006 – Executive Order 514 (EO 514): National Biosafety Framework 2010 – Republic Act
10068 or the Organic Agriculture Act

2013 – Republic Act 10611 or the Food Safety Act Relevant Laws

Related Issues

 No GMO Labeling Law.

 Regulatory agencies as clearing houses.
 No mechanisms to assess the safety of these GMOs on the environment and on human
and animal health.
 Government agencies are clueless as to their particular role in the assessment and
regulation of GMOs
 Enforcement of liberalized agriculture, thereby opening the agriculture sector for market-
oriented and corporation-controlled systems and mechanisms

Impacts of GMOs

Defined and known useful genes when inserted into an organism will definitely affect the growth
pattern, behavior and products of the said organism in a short span of time saving a lot of pesos
in conducting research when compared to traditional breeding. GMOs have been around for
several years and their impacts are already felt. Through the GM technologies, "designer crops”
can be produced. These are crops with more nutrients, pesticide resistant, insect resistant,
require less inputs to grow and produce more yield. Some agricultural soils are saline. This

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condition hampers the growth of crops because they cannot grow well or sometimes the crops
are unable to grow. Thus, there is a need to research to come up with salt tolerant organisms.
The commercialization of Bt corn is very useful to farmers as they were able to have increased
income.

Growing GM plants allows the farmers to spend less time and money in pesticides and
herbicides. Papaya resistant to Papaya Ringspot Virus and with delayed ripening command a
good place in export market. GMO foods are also now available in the market. In other parts of
the world, GMOs are considered to have health threats. The downside of farming with GMOs
includes "creating super weeds” that have evolved a resistance to glyphosate, a common
herbicide in GMO food production.

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The Nano World

Just as human understanding of the natural world was revolutionized by the discovery of light
microscopes, modern microscopes that can expose and change individual atoms are once
again exposing a whole new world-the nano world. Scientific researchers have developed new
technological tools that greatly improved different aspects of our lives through the use of
nanoscale.

Nanotechnology refers to the science, engineering, and technology conducted at the nanoscale.
It is concerned with building 'things' - generally, materials and devices on the scale of atoms and
molecules. It encompasses science and technology that manufactures materials of great help
to the improvement of various areas of society especially health, environment, energy,
electronics, food, water, and agriculture.

How Small is a Nanoscale?

A nanometer is one-billionth of a meter. The illustration below shows how small nanoscale is
compared to other particles or materials.

How to view Nanomaterials

Scientists use special types of microscopes to view minute nanomaterials. These are the
electron microscopes, and the atomic force microscope and scanning tunneling microscope
which are just among the modern and remarkable advances in microscopy.
1. Electron microscope - It utilizes a particle beam of electrons to light up a specimen and
develop a well-magnified image. They can magnify objects up to a million times.

2. Atomic force microscope - It makes use of a

mechanical probe that gathers information from the
surface of a material.

income levels.

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3. Scanning tunneling
microscope - It enables
scientists to view and
manipulate nanoscale particles,
atoms, and small molecules.

Nanomanufacturing
 Refers to scaled-up,
reliable, and cost-
effective manufacturing
of nanoscale
 Involves research,
improvement, and
incorporation
 Leads to the
development of new
products and improved
materials

Two Fundamental
Approaches to
nanomanufacturing:
1. Bottom-up fabrication
 Build products
from atomic-and
molecular-scale
components
 Can be time-consuming
 Scientists and engineers are still in search
for the effective ways of putting up
components that self-assemble
2. Top-down fabrication
 Trims down to large pieces of materials
into nanoscale
 Needs larger amounts of materials and
discards excess raw materials

New approaches to the assembly of nanomaterials based from the top-down and bottom-
up fabrications
1. Dip-pen lithography

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  Tip of an atomic force microscope is “dipped” into a chemical fluid and then utilized
to “write” on a surface

2. Self-assembly
 Set of components join together to mold an organized structure in the absence of an
outside direction
3. Chemical vapor deposition
 Chemicals act in response to form very pure, high-performance films
4. Nanoimprint lithography
 Generating nanoscale attributes by “stamping” or “printing” them on a surface
5. Molecular beam epitaxy
 Depositing extremely controlled thin films
6. Roll-to-roll processing
 High-volume practice for constructing nanoscale devices on a roll of ultrathin plastic
or metal
7. Atomic layer epitaxy
 Laying down one-atom-thick layers on a surface
These techniques made nanomaterials more durable, stronger, lighter, water-repellent, etc.

Computers
 Near future: better, more efficient, larger storage, faster, energy-saving
 Entire memory of a computer will be aved in a single tiny chip

Nanotechnology
 Construct high-efficiency, low-cost batteries and solar cells

Distinct Features of Nanoscale

Nanotechnology – operating at a very small dimension; allows scientists to make use of
the exceptional optical, chemical, physical, mechanical, and biological qualities of materials

1. Scale at which much biology occurs

 Various cell activities at the nanoscale
 Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) – genetic material of the cell; only about 2 nanometers in
diameter
 Hemoglobin – transports oxygen to tissues throughout the body; 5.5 nanometers in
diameter
 Bio-barcode assay – fairly inexpensive approach for identification of specific disease
markers in the blood despite their small number in a particular specimen
2. Scale at which quantum effects dominate properties of materials

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  Particles with dimensions of 1-100 nanometers have properties significantly discrete
from particles of bigger dimensions
 Quantum effects – direct the behavior and properties of particles
 Size of material = properties
 Essential properties of nanoscale that change as a function of size:
o Chemical reactivity
o Fluorescence
o Magnetic permeability
o Melting point
o Electrical conductivity
 Nanoscale gold – yellow-colored element which may appear red or purple;
 Gold’s electron – display restricted motion in nanoscale
 Nanoscale gold particles – build up in tumors; permit both precise imaging and targeted
laser destruction of the tumor
3. Nanoscale materials have far larger surface areas than similar masses of larger-scale
materials
 Surface area per mass of a material = greater amount of the material comes in contact
with another material [ affects the reactivity]

Possible Applications of Nanotechnology in the Philippines (Dayrit, 2005)

1. ICT and semiconductors
2. Health and medicine
3. Energy
4. Food and agriculture
5. Environment

Nanotech Roadmap for the Philippines (funded by PCAS-TRD-DOST)

1. ICT and semiconductors

2. Health and
biomedical
3. Energy
4. Food and agriculture
5. Environment
6. Health and
environmental risk
7. Nano-metrology
8. Education and public
awareness

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Government Funding for Nanotechnology
in Different Countries (Dayrit, 2005)

Benefits and Concerns of Using Nanotechnology

Nanotechnology has various applications in different

sectors of the society and environment. However,
there are concerns that need to be addressed before
using and promoting materials derived from
nanotechnology.

1. Nanotechnology is not a single technology; it may

become prevalent.
2. It seeks to develop new materials with specific
properties.
3. New efficiencies and paradigms may be
introduced that may render certain natural
resources and current practices
uncompetitive or obsolete.

4. It may be complicated to detect its presence unless one has the specialist tools of
nanotechnology.

Summary

Nanotechnology
 Advanced interdisciplinary field
 Manufactures materials of great help to the improvement
 Field that needs to be explored by experts and neophytes
 Before engaging with nanotechnology, we need to account the social, ethical, and
environmental concerns of using such nanomaterials

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 INTRODUCTION

Gene Therapy

Medical Science has detected many human diseases related to defective genes. These types of
diseases are not curable by traditional methods like taking readily available medicines.
Gene therapy is an experimental technique for the treatment or prevention of disease using genes. In
the future, instead of using drugs or surgery, this technique could allow doctors to treat a disease by
inserting a gene into the cells of a patient.

The Basic Process

There are several approaches to gene therapy. These are the following:
 Replacement of mutated gene that causes disease with a healthy copy of the gene.
 Inactivation of a mutated gene that is functioning improperly.
 Introducing a new gene into the body to help fight a disease.
In general, a gene cannot be directly inserted into a human gene or cell. A gene is inserted into another
gene using a carrier or vector. At present, the most common type of vectors are viruses that have been
genetically changed to carry normal human DNA.

Two Types of Gene Therapy

1. Somatic gene therapy- involves the manipulation of genes in any cells of the body except sperm and
egg cells that will be helpful to the patient but not inherited to the patient's descendants.

2. Germ-line gene therapy- involves the genetic modification of reproductive cells such as sperm and
egg cells that will pass the change on to the next generation.

Stem Cell Gene Therapy

Have you heard about stem cells in the news? If yes, perhaps you've wondered if they might help you
or your loved one with a serious disease. You may wonder how they're being used to treat diseases,
and why they are being discussed so vigorously.
Stem cells are mother cells that have the potential to become any type of cell in the body. Under the
right conditions in the body or a laboratory, stem cells divide to self-renew or multiply. They can
become cells of the blood, heart, bones, skin, muscles, brain, among others.
Why is there such an interest in stem cells? Researchers and doctors hope stem cell studies can help
to:
1. Increase understanding of how diseases occur.
2. Generate healthy cells to replace diseased cells (regenerative medicine).
3. Test new drugs for safety and effectiveness.

Sources of stem cells

1. Embryonic stem cells - are derived from a three to five-day-old human embryo that is in blastocyst
phase of development and has about 150 cells. The embryos are usually extras that have been
created in IVF (in vitro fertilization) clinics where several eggs are fertilized in a test tube then
implanted into a woman.
2. Somatic stem cells - are cells that exist throughout the body after embryonic development. They
are also capable of self-renewal and, with appropriate signals, differentiate into various cell types from
the organ from which they are derived. The extent to which they are capable of creating various types

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 of cells is controversial.

The Bioethics of Gene Therapy

There are ethical issues involved in gene therapy. Some of the inquiry cited are the following:
1. How can “good” and “bad” uses of gene therapy be distinguished?
2. Who decides which traits are normal and which constitute a disability or disorder?
3. Will the high costs of gene therapy make it available only to the wealthy?
4. Should people be allowed to use gene therapy to enhance human traits such as height, intelligence,
or athletic ability?

SUMMARY

Gene therapy is a method that may treat or cure genetic-related human illnesses. There are two forms
of gene therapy. One is somatic gene therapy which involves the manipulation of genes in cells that will
be helpful to the patient but not inherited to the next generation. The other is germline gene therapy
which involves the genetic modification of germ cells or the origin cells that will pass the change to the
next generation.

There are many ethical issues on gene therapy. Some of these issues are about questions on whose
authority or power to decide which human traits should be altered; other concerns are on the
discriminatory effects of those who may not or cannot avail gene therapy.

CLIMATE CHANGE

The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), a United Nations body that evaluates and
monitors climate change science, released its report on global climate change. The report's important
conclusions were the following:
o the world's climate has changed significantly over the past century;
o the significant change has human influence;

o using climate models and if the trend continues, the global mean surface temperature will increase
between 1°C and 3.5°C by 2100.

 Climate is a measure of the average pattern of variation in temperature, humidity, atmospheric

pressure, wind, precipitation, atmospheric particle count and other meteorological variables in a given
region over long periods of time.

 Climate change refers to the statistically significant changes in climate for continuous period of time.

 Factors that contribute to climate change can be (1) natural internal process, (2) external forces and
(3) persistent anthropogenic changes or human acts in the composition of the atmosphere or in land
use.

Causes of Climate Change

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The causes of climate change could be natural or by human activities.

1. Volcanic Eruptions
• Volcanic eruptions are one of the natural causes of climate change. When volcanoes erupt it
emits different natural aerosols like carbon dioxide, sulfur dioxides, salt crystals, volcanic ashes
or dust, and even microorganisms like bacteria and viruses.

• Temporarily, volcanic aerosols can provide cooling effect to the atmosphere for 1 to 2 years
because it blocks solar radiation coming from the sun.

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• What happens in violent volcanic eruptions is the release of ash particles in the stratosphere.
The volcanic ashes which have sulfur dioxide combine with water vapor. It then forms to sulfuric
acid and sulfurous aerosols. The sulfurous aerosols then are transported by easterly or westerly
winds.

• There are several recorded major volcanic eruptions that cause climate change. Mount
Tambora of Indonesia erupted in 1816. It was considered as the largest known eruption in

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human history. The eruption caused snowfall in the northeastern United States and Canada. It
affected their agricultural lands, losing crops that caused food shortage and increased human
mortality. The eruptions of Mount Krakatau of Indonesia in 1883 and Mount Pinatubo of the
Philippines in 1991 contributed, too, to the cold years of planet Earth.

2. Orbital Changes
• Earth's orbit can also cause climate change. This was proposed by the Milankovitch theory.
The Milankovitch theory states that as the Earth travels through space around the Sun, cyclical
variations in three elements of Earth-Sun geometry combine to produce variations in the amount
of solar energy that reaches Earth (Academic Emporia, 2017).
• The three elements that have cyclic variations are eccentricity, obliquity, and precession.

o Eccentricity is a term used to describe the shape of Earth's orbit around the Sun. The impact
of the variation is a change in the amount of solar energy from perihelion (around January 3) to
aphelion (around July 4). The time frame for the cycle is approximately 98,000 years (Academic
Emporia, 2017).

 Currently Earth's eccentricity is 0.016 and there is about a 6.4% increase in insolation from
July to January (Academic Emporia, 2017), Academic Emporia (2017) states, "The eccentricity
influences seasonal differences: when Earth is closest to the Sun, it gets more solar radiation. If
the perihelion occurs during the winter, the winter is less severe. If a hemisphere has its
summer while closest to the Sun, summers are relatively warm.
o Obliquity is the variation of the tilt of Earth's axis away from the orbital plane. As this tilt
changes, the seasons become more exaggerated.
 The obliquity changes on a cycle taking approximately 40,000 years. Academic Emporia
(2017) states the more tilt means more severe seasons-warmer summers and colder winters;
less tilt means less severe seasons-cooler summers and milder winters."
o Precession is the change in orientation of Earth's rotational axis. The precession cycle takes
about 15,000 to 23,000 years.

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 Precession is caused by two factors: a wobble of Earth's axis and a turning around of the
elliptical orbit of Earth itself (Academic Emporia, 2017).
 Obliquity affected the tilt of Earth's axis; precession affects the direction of Earth's axis. The
change in the axis location changes the dates of perihelion (closest distance from Sun) and
aphelion (farthest distance from Sun), and this increases the seasonal contrast in one
hemisphere while decreasing it in the other hemisphere (Academic Emporia, 2017).
 Currently, Earth is closest to the Sun in the Northern Hemisphere winter, which makes the
winters there less severe (Academic Emporia, 2017). Another consequence of procession is
shin in the celestial pales.
 Five thousand years ago, the North Star was Thuban in the constellation Draco. Currently,
the North Star is Polaris in the constellation Ursa Minor.

3.
Anthropogenic
or by Human
Activities
• Human
activities
contribute to
climate change.
The largest
known
contribution
comes from the
burning of fossil
fuels, which
releases carbon
dioxide gas to
the atmosphere.

The Carbon
Dioxide Theory
• Carbon dioxide
(CO2) is added
when power and heat are produced by burning coal, oil, and other fossil fuels.
• Carbon dioxide is transparent to visible light but visible to infrared radiation leaving the ground.
• Carbon dioxide absorbs part of the infrared radiation in the air and returns it to the ground
keeping the air near the surface warmer than it would be if the carbon dioxide did not act like a
blanket.
• Doubling the carbon dioxide raises the temperature to 2°C to 3°C
• Greenhouse gases and aerosols affect climate by altering incoming solar radiation and
outgoing infrared (thermal) radiation that are part of Earth's energy balance.
• Changing the atmospheric abundance or properties of these gases and particles can lead to a
warming or cooling of the climate system.

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• Changing the atmospheric abundance or properties of these gases and particles can lead to a
warming or cooling of the climate system.

• Since the start of the industrial era (about 1750), the overall effect of human activities on
climate has been a warming influence. The human impact on climate during this era greatly
exceeds that due to known changes in natural processes, such as solar changes and volcanic
eruptions.

• Human activities result in emissions

of four principal greenhouse gases:
carbon dioxide (CO2), methane
(CH4), nitrous oxide (N2O) and
halocarbons (a group of gases
containing fluorine, chlorine, and
bromine). These gases accumulate
in the atmosphere, causing
concentrations to increase with time
(www.c02now.org). The greenhouse
gases mentioned are natural gases

• However, the high level of these

gases in the atmosphere contributes
to the greenhouse effect. The
increasing amount of these gases is
due to human activities.

• High level of carbon dioxide comes

from fossil fuel use in transportation;
and the building, heating, cooling,
and manufacture of cement and
other goods. Deforestation releases
carbon dioxide and reduces its
uptake by plants.

• High methane emission is related to

agriculture, natural gas distribution, and
landfills.

• High nitrous oxide is also emitted by human

activities such as fertilizer use and fossil fuel
burning.
• Halocarbon gas concentrations have
increased primarily due to human activities.
Principal halocarbons include the
chlorofluorocarbons (eg., CFC-11 and CFC-12)
which were
used extensively as refrigeration agents and in
other industrial processes before their
presence in the atmosphere was found to
cause Stratospheric ozone depletion.

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• The abundance of chlorofluorocarbon gases is decreasing as a result of international
regulations designed to protect the ozone layer (The Encyclopedia of Earth, 2016).

• Ozone is another greenhouse gas that is continually produced and destroyed in the
atmosphere by chemical reactions.

• In the troposphere, human activities have increased ozone through the release of gases such
as carbon monoxide, hydrocarbons and nitrogen oxide, which chemically react to produce
ozone.

• Halocarbons released by human activities destroy ozone in the stratosphere and have caused
the ozone hole over Antarctica.

• With the average global temperature which is predicted to rise by 2 to 3°C within the next fifty
years, glaciers will continue to melt faster.
• Melting or collapse of ice sheets would raise sea levels and eventually threaten at least 4
million km² of land, which today is home to 5% of the world's population (Stern, 2007).

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• Ecosystems will be particularly
vulnerable to climate change, with one
study estimating that around 15-40% of
species face extinction with 2°C of
warming.
• The consequences of climate
change will become
disproportionately more damaging
with increased warming. Declining
crop yields due to drought, especially
in
Africa, are likely to leave hundreds of
millions without the ability to produce or
purchase sufficient food. At mid to high
latitudes, crop yields may increase for
moderate temperature rises (2 to 3°C), but then decline with greater amounts of warming.
• Ocean acidification, a direct result of rising carbon dioxide levels, will have major effects on
marine ecosystems, with possible adverse consequences on fish stocks (Stern, 2007).
• Climate change will increase worldwide deaths from malnutrition and heat stress. Vector-borne
diseases such as malaria and dengue fever could become more widespread if effective control
measures are not in place.

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• Rising sea levels may result in more flooded areas each year with a warming of 3 or 4°C.
There will be serious risks and increasing pressures for coastal protection (Stern, 2007).

• Warming may induce sudden shifts in regional weather patterns like the monsoons or the El
Niño. Such changes would have severe consequences for water availability and flooding in
tropical regions and threaten the livelihood of billions.

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