DEBRE BIRHAN POLY TECHNIC COLLEGE

DEPARTMENT OF MANUFACTURING
Machine Level: 1
Unit of Competence: Performing Hand Forging
Module code: IND MAC1 M06 0322
Nominal duration: 60Hour

Prepared by: Habtam .W

2016E.C
Introduction to the Module
In machine filed; the basic skills, knowledge and attitude required using hand tools
and formers, applying hand forging techniques and operating heat treatment
equipment. for machine filed.
This module is designed to meet the industry requirement under the Perform
Hand Forging occupational standard, particularly for the unit of competency:
Perform Hand Forging

This module covers the units:

 Hand forging work
 Hand forging techniques
 Quality assure work

Learning Objective of the Module

 Analyze and plan hand forging work
 Perform hand forging techniques
 Assure quality work

Module Instruction
For effectively use this modules trainee are expected to follow the following
module instruction:
1. Read the information written in each unit
2. Accomplish the Self-checks at the end of each unit
3. Perform Operation Sheets which were provided at the end of units
4. Do the “LAP test” giver at the end of each unit and
5. Read the identified reference book for Examples and exercise
 Unit one: Analyze and plan hand forging work
This unit is developed to provide you the necessary information regarding the
following content coverage and topics:
 Interpret drawing for swaging, bending, upsetting, spreading,
punching and drifting
 Hand tools and formers for required forging techniques.
 Forging temperatures and heat specifications
 work plan according to specifications
This unit will also assist you to attain the learning outcomes stated in the cover
page. Specifically, upon completion of this learning guide, you will be able to:
 Interpret drawing for swaging, bending, upsetting, spreading,
punching and drifting
 Select hand tools and formers for required forging techniques.
 Apply forging temperatures and heat specifications to for various
materials requirement
 Draft work plan according to specifications

1.Analyze and plan hand forging work

1.1. Interpret drawing for swaging, bending, upsetting, spreading,

punching and drifting

 Forging is an oldest shaping process used for the producing small articles
for which accuracy in size is not so important. The parts are shaped by
heating them in an open fire or hearth by the blacksmith and shaping them
through applying compressive forces using hammers. Thus, forging is
 defined as the plastic deformation of metals at elevated temperatures into a
predetermined size or shape using compressive forces exerted through some
means of hand hammers, small power hammers, die, press or upsetting
machine. It consists essentially of changing or altering the shape and section
of metal by hammering at a temperature of about 980°C, at which the metal
is entirely plastic and can be easily deformed or shaped under pressure. The
shop in which the various forging operations are carried out is known as the
smithy or smith’s shop.
 A metal such as steel can be shaped in a cold state but the application of
heat lowers the yield point and makes permanent deformation easier.
 Forging operation can be accomplished by hand or by a machine hammer.
Forging processes may be classified into hot forging and cold forgings and
each of them possesses their specific characteristics, merits, demerits and
applications.
 Hand forging process is also known as black-smithy work which is
commonly employed for production of small articles using hammers on
heated jobs. It is a manual controlled process even though some machinery
such as power hammers can also be sometimes used.
You will be expected to use the specified or appropriate techniques to prepare the
materials and equipment in readiness for the hand forging activities.
The forging activities will include operations such as bending, twisting,
drawing down, upsetting, swaging, punching, cutting off and flame welding,
as applicable to the task

1.1.1. FORGING METHODS

(1) Hand forging

(2) Drop forging
 (3) Press forging
(4) Roll forging
 Hand forging: Hand forging is made by heating the metal until it is plastic
state in an open-hearth furnace and there by hammering is done on anvil by
smith/sledge hammer with use of open face dies to get the desired shape and
size by judgment of an individual.
 Drop forging: In this process of forming the desired shape by placing a heated
bar or billet on the lower half of the forging die and hammering the top half of
the die into the metal by means of a power hammer by repeated blows the
impact of which compel the plastic metal to conform the shape of the die. This
method is used to produce large number of small and medium sized forging of
similar parts.
 Press forging: In this process the heated billet is squeezed between die. The
pressure is applied by the forging press which completes the operation in a
single stroke. Large forging is generally shaped by thin method.
 Roll forging: Rolling involves the passing of a heated bar between revolving
rolls that contains an impression of the required shape. It is used to reduce short
thick section to long slender pieces.

1.1.2. Advantages of forging

 Usually have better mechanical properties, especially if the fiber

flow lines are directed.

 Can be held to within fairly close dimensional tolerances

 A wide range of forgeable metals is available.

 Forgings are readily welded & incorporated in welded structures.

 1.1.3. Limitations of forging processes

 Many intricate and cored shapes possible by casting processes can’t

be forged

 Usually, forgings cost more than castings

 Closed impression dies for forgings normally cost more than

patterns.

 Permanent molds, or die equipment needed for casting processes

 High tool cost and high tool maintenance

 Limitations in size and shape

 High tool cost and high tool maintenance and Limitations in size and
shape

1.2. Hand tools and formers for required forging techniques.

Hand Forging is also called as Smithing or Blacksmithing. It is the simplest form

of forging in which the metal to be heated to high temperatures in the fire of a
forge, and then it is beaten into shape on a metal anvil with sledges or hammers in
order to get the required shape

1.2.1. Types of Forging Tools

The types of forging tools include anvil, chisel, tong, fuller, hammer, press, die,
flatter, punch and drift, swage, swage block, clamping vice, and hearth.
Using appropriate forging tools and equipment leads to perfect forge work. This
forge is sometimes called hearth because it uses hearth as a source of heating metal
for easy deformation. The modern forging equipment is highly automated, made of
high-tech machinery, and has made life easier for blacksmiths.

Fig. 1.1 Typical hearth

Fig .1.2. Types of hand forging tools

Anvil: Anvils are types of forging tools that serve as a workbench for blacksmiths.
It is a large slab of metal usually made of steel. It is used to perform different
operations like, flatting metal surfaces and obtaining shapes with the used of
hammer. Some anvil contains hardy holes and punches holes. The hardy hole
serves as square shank for hardy and the punch hole provides clearance for
punching hole in the metal.

For the sake of understanding some of the common terms, there are five main parts
on anvils:

Fig. 1.3. Anvil

 Chisel: chisel is used for cutting and chipping out metal. It is made of high
petroleum steel with an octagonal cross-section with a tapered cutting edge
on one end. Chisel used in forging is of two types, Hot and cold chisel. Hot
chisel is used for hot forging and cold chisel is used for cold forging.
 Tong: These types of forging tools are used in transporting the heated metal
to the anvil. Tongs are available in different types and designs to provide
adequate gripping of different metal shapes and sizes.

Fig. 1.4. Tongs

 Fuller: fuller helps to create groove or indentions in the forging process. It is
also used to stretch the metal. Fuller works in pears, by placing one
underneath the metal, and the other on top. This allows the indentation of
both sides of the metal to occur simultaneously.

Fig. 1.5. Fuller

 Hammers are types of forging tools used in several ways, base on the type
of forging needed to be performed, such as, hot forging, cold forging, closed
die forging, upset forging, press forging etc. Hammer serves as a forging
tool used in achieving shapes on work pieces. It is used as a striking tool and
can be classified as, drop hammer and power hammer.
 Drop hammer: heavy ram is falling onto the metal by gravity. It is
used by the smith’s hand power.
 Power hammer: the power source is from hydraulics, compressed air,
or electricity in driving the hammer. It is used when a large quantity
of jobs is needed. The power works by placing the work piece on its
anvil, level is used in controlling the heavy ram to fall on the work
piece.
 Fig. 1.6. Hammers

Punch and drift: These types of forging tools are made of high carbon steel which
helps in making hot hole on hot metal pieces. This forging tool is available in
different sizes and has a common shape. Drift is a large size of punch used in
enlarging holes.

Fig. 1.7. Punch and drift

Flatter: this forging tool is used to flatten the surface of the work piece. It consists
of a plane face joined with a straight shank. Flatters materials are high carbon steel.
 Fig 1.8. Flatter

Swage: Swage is a forging tool type that gives various shapes to the work piece. It
is also made of high-carbon steel.

Fig 1.9. Swage

Swage block: this forging equipment is made of cast iron or cast steel rectangular
block, having several holes in it. The holes are made of different sizes and shapes.
 Fig 1.10 Swage block

Set hammer: set hammer is a forging tool used for making surface plane, forming
and making corners. This forging tool has similar shapes with flatter. It is made of
tool steel. The work piece must be placed on an anvil before a set hammer can be
used.

Fig 1.11. Set hammer

Clamping vice: this forging equipment is used in holding workpieces in the smithy
show. It consists of two jaws, a spring, and a flat bottom. The work pieces are
clamped between two jaws and tighten to hold it strongly.
 Fig 1.12 Clamping vice

Bick iron: this forging equipment is made of tool steel and it is hardened. It has a
tapered tail at one side and the other portion is similar to the horn of an anvil. This
forging equipment can also work on an anvil due to its taper shank.
 Fig 1.13 Bick iron

Press: this forging equipment uses excessive pressure to fold metal into the desired
shape. This forging equipment can forge the entire product at once. Presses are
available in two types, mechanical and hydraulic press forging.

Mechanical press forging: this is a mechanical device, equip with a motor, crank,
flywheel etc. it easily forces the ram against the metal. This forging equipment is
not suitable for large or complex items, but it is useful when simple shaping effects
is required.

 Hydraulic press forging: the operation is performed by high-pressure

fluid propelled by hydraulic pumps in order to force ram against the
 metal. This forging equipment provides force while forging an item. It
is used and preferred
This forging equipment is required to properly mold metal. It serves as molds into
which malleable metals are pressed. The dies are important in all forging projects;
it is used for large production and complex job. Dies are available in two types:
open die and close die.

1.3. Forging temperatures and heat specifications

1.3.1. Forging Temperature

The calculation of the temperature distribution within the workpiece offers an

optimal process planning (32). Based on this, the lowest possible forging
temperature of the raw part can be determined depending on transport and storage
times and the maximum available forming force in the design phase. In the
production of near-net shape forging parts, the surface-to-volume ratio is higher
than for conventional forgings. As this leads to a strong cooling in the thin-walled
component regions, the temperature distribution has to be already taken into
account in the design phase. Considering the contact time, the choice of the
forming machine has a high influence on the heat transfer into the tools and hence
on the temperature distribution in the forged part (33,34). Therefore, the thermal
coefficients in the creation of the simulation model are to be indicated as
realistically as possible (35–37). Furthermore, the calculation of the workpiece
temperature field is the basis for the design of a heat treatment out of the forging
heat.
The initial temperature before forging is 1200 °C; the temperature
distribution of the gear shows a maximum temperature of 1210 °C in the
center of the gear and a strong cooling in the teeth of about 400 °C (Figure
13). The reason for the strong temperature decreases in the teeth geometry is
the heat transfer into the die during forming.

 Steel forgings are regularly specified where strength, resistance to shock and
fatigue, reliability, and economy are vital considerations. Forged materials
also offer the desired degree of high or low temperature performance,
ductility, hardness, and machinability.
 Advances in forging technology have expanded the range of shapes, sizes,
and properties available in forged products to meet an increasing variety of
design and performance requirements.
Broadly, the steel forgings go through: (a) hot forging, (b) warm forging, or (c)
cold forging. These are briefly described as follows:

A. Hot forging of steel: The forging temperatures are above the

recrystallization temperature, and are typically between 950°C–1250°C. Usually,
one experiences good formability (i.e., filling of die-cavity in the context of
forging), low forming forces, and an almost uniform tensile strength of the work-
piece.

B. Warm forging of steel: Forging temperatures are still above the

recrystallization temperature: between 750°C and 950°C. The scale-loss is
lower at the work-piece surface and the tolerance is narrower compared to hot
forging. One experiences limited formability and higher forming forces than in
hot forging, but lower forming forces than in cold forming.

C . Cold forging of steel: Forging temperatures are around room conditions,

adiabatic self-heating might bring the temperature up to 150°C. One
experiences narrowest tolerances achievable and no scaling at work-piece
surface. Further, an increase in strength and drop in ductility due to strain
hardening might take place. The formability is rather low, and high forming
forces are necessary.

Most importantly, your forge needs to be able to reach the right temperature to
soften the metal, but not hot enough to melt it. The appropriate temperature for
forging iron is 2500 degrees Fahrenheit or 1371 degrees Celsius

1.3.2. The average temperature of a forge

Heating The Metal

Temperatures Color Description

900 °F Red

1,300 to 1,950 °F Orange

2,000 °F Yellow Typical forging temperature

2,100 to 2,500 °F Bright Yellow to White Hot enough to weld

 1.3.3. The function of forging temperature

 Isothermal forging
Adiabatic heating is used to assist in the deformation of the material, meaning the
strain rates are highly controlled. This technique is commonly used for forging
aluminum, which has a lower forging temperature than steels.

1.3.4. Forging temperature measured

The easiest way to tell what temperature a piece of steel is at is simply by seeing
what color it's glowing. As steel begins to approach forging temperatures, it will
start to glow red, then orange, and eventually yellow and white as it reaches higher
and higher temperatures.

1.4. Work plan according to specifications

 A work plan represents the formal road map for a project. It should clearly
articulate the required steps to achieve a stated goal by setting demonstrable
objectives and measurable deliverables that can be transformed into concrete
actions. An effective plan serves as a guiding document, enabling the
realization of an outcome through efficient team collaboration.

1.4.1. The five steps of impression die forging:

1. Heating. Pre-forged metal starts with metal blocks called "ingots," which
come in a variety of shapes and sizes depending on the part or component to
be produced. ...
2. Preforming. ...
3. Finish Forging. ...
4. Cooling. ...
5. Finishing.
A. Heating.
Pre-forged metal starts with metal blocks called "ingots," which come in a variety
of shapes and sizes depending on the part or component to be produced. These
ingots are heated to a near molten state where the metal still retains its shape but
can be altered easily with force.
B. Preforming.
In order to form a piece of the ingot to be pressed between the closed dies, the
heated ingot is edged and blocked with a press or hammer. Edging is done to
increase the working cross section and blocking is implemented to refine the shape
for finish forging.
C. Finish Forging.
To complete the shape, the preformed metal is forced into an impression between
two dies; this is where the metal takes on the general shape of the end product.
Simple items may only need one press, but more complicated items may require
multiple strokes at different pressures or even different dies to design the final
product.
D. Cooling.
By coordinating the cooling of the metal, forgers can increase the strength of the
final product by deforming and optimizing the grain flow within the metal. A
unique aspect of impression die forging is the "flash," which is the excess metal
that flows outside of the dies. The flash cools and hardens rapidly causing it to be
stronger than the metal in the dies. This forces the metal in the dies to completely
fill any cavities.
E. Finishing.
Once a forged product has gone through the pressing process, trimming and other
surface treatment operations are performed in order to improve the dimensional
accuracy of the forged product. Surface treatment can be completed to enhance
corrosion resistance and improve the appearance of the finished forged product.
 Unit Two: Perform hand forging techniques
This unit to provide you the necessary information regarding the following
content coverage and topics:
 Set up and operate heating equipment correctly.
 Appropriate forging techniques
 Allowance for materials shrinkage and oxidization
This guide will also assist you to attain the learning outcomes stated in the cover
page. Specifically, upon completion of this learning guide, you will be able to:
 Set up and operate heating equipment correctly.
 Apply and carry out appropriate forging techniques
 Make allowance for materials shrinkage and oxidization
2. Perform hand forging techniques

2.1. Set up and operate heating equipment correctly.

2.1.1. Heating equipment

 Fig. 2.1 Heating Procedure of Metal Setting for Fire

Setting up heating equipment

i) Clean out the old fire from the forge hearth and remove the ash.
ii) Put some wood shaving over the tubers and light.
iii) Turn on a little air using litter by hand or power blower to get the fire started.
iv) Keep a forging fire neutral throughout the heating of metal as shown in fig 39.
Operating Heating equipment

Heating Devices (Hearths and Furnaces)

 The heating of metal is done either in a smith’s hearth or in a furnace.
 The hearths (commonly known as forges) are used for heating metals for hand
forging.
 It is a very old method of heating still it is used.
 The furnaces are used for heating metals for heavy forging
 Hearths: - the hearths may be classified as open or closed hearths; the blacksmith
forges may have one or two hearths which are called single hearth or double hearth
respectively.
A common form of the hearth,
(a) Single hearth open type consists of a shallow dish or tray made of heavy gauge
mild steel or cast-iron sheets. Its size varies from 1.5 m to 2.5m square and 0.8 m
to 1.2 m deep. Look at Fig.1 below.
It is provided with a lining of fire clay or other refractory material to withstand the excessive heat produced due so
the combustion of fuel.

Fig.2.2. common form of the hearth

The fuel used in a hearth may be

 coke,
 coal or charcoal.
(b)The smoke and gases produced due to the burning of fuel is escaped through hood and chimney.
Water tank is provided for the purpose of quenching the work.
 The closed type hearths are employed in mass production for heating small parts.
  The hearths may be made of bricks especially for heavy work.
1. Furnaces: -The furnaces of refractory type are mostly used for heating large work to be forged under power
hammers.
 Since the work, in the furnaces, is heated by the flames produced from the combustion of fuel, therefore these
furnaces may be called as flame furnaces.
 The gas and oil mostly used as fuels as these are economical and easily controlled.
 The work does not come in direct contact with the fuel.
 The following are the various types of furnaces used for heating steel.
(a) Box or box type furnaces: -These are widely used in forging shops for heating small and medium size work;
these furnaces are usually made of steel frame lined with insulating and refractory bricks.

Fig 2.3 Box or box type furnaces

(b) Continuous type furnaces: -These furnaces are provided with mechanical pusher and are tad for mass production
of articles. In these furnaces, the pieces of steel are charged at one end and pushed to the furnace for heating at
correct temperature.

Fig 2.4. Continuous type furnaces

(c) Slot type furnaces: -These furnaces are commonly used for heating bars at one end for forging or other forging
operation, in these furnaces, a slot is provided at the front through which the bar is inserted for heating.

Fig 2.5. Slot type furnaces

(d) Rotary hearth furnaces: -These furnaces are sometimes used for heating large number of pieces steel for
forging. In these furnaces, the speed of rotation is adjusted in such a way that the ink is heated to the required
temperature after one or two revolutions.

Fig 2.6. Rotary hearth furnaces

e) High frequency induction furnaces: -these furnaces are quite popular with the availability (cheap electric
power). The work produced by induction heating is free from oxide scale, have uniform temperature and takes less
time,

f) Resistance furnaces: - These furnaces are faster than induction furnaces are often automated in these furnaces;
the work is connected to the circuit of a step-down transformer. The simple fixtures made to hold the work of
different shapes and sizes.

Blowers: - the supply of air at proper pressure is always necessary for the combustion of fuel in the hearth or furnace
Open fire: -The open fire (also called loose fire), as shown in Fig. 1(a), is used for ‘all general work. It is made in
the hollow space with coke left from the last fire, covered with green coal. At the fire burns away. Coke from the top
and sides is thrust into the center and its place is taken by green coal from the supply maintained on from plate of the
forge. The ash and clinkers clean at regular intervals of time.

2.1.2. Controlling Heat to specified areas

Heat during forging is controlled by the color of the metals.

Heating the metal

i. Never put the metal from the top with one end at the bottom of the fire. This heats the metal unevenly.

ii). Always place or put the metal in the center in a horizontal position.
iii) . Remove the metal from the fire at intervals to see how hot it is.
iv). Heat the metal to its proper color and temperature.
v). Poorly heated metal will be difficult to forge and is liable to cracks.

2.2. Appropriate forging techniques

 Forging techniques are essential elements of the blacksmithing and metalworking industries.
introduces the underpinning knowledge and forging skills that are the basis of all
blacksmithing production in the forge environment.
The forging company uses different types of forging techniques to shape up the metal. Although these techniques
are different from each other, they all provide the same kind of benefits. The pounding action used in forging
deforms and shapes the metal in the way you want. The said process also leads to an unbroken grain flow.

2.2.1. Forging techniques

The process of forging enables the metal to retain its strength and durability. Forging is relatively affordable when
compared to other metal fabrication processes. Here are the different kinds of forging techniques available with
many forging companies:

A. Hot Forging
This forging process includes heating the metal beyond its recrystallization temperature. The metal gets heated up to
2,300 degrees Fahrenheit. The advantage of hot forging is that it decreases the energy required to form the metal.
The excessive heat used in hot forging cuts down yield strength, thereby improving ductility

B. Cold Forging
As opposed to hot forging, the concept of cold forging shapes at metal at room temperature. Cold forging includes
many forging techniques such as extruding, bending, cold heading, and cold drawing. This versatile method of metal
reshaping requires the use of more powerful equipment. You may have to pay more to the forging company for this
kind of metal forging.

C. Open Die Forging

The metals that do not have any precut profile when engaging in forging constitute open die forging. The open
design in this process lets the metal flow everywhere except where it touches the flat die. This type of metal
reshaping is extremely popular in the field of art smithing. It is also used for shaping ingots before secondary
shaping measures.

D. Closed Die Forging

This concept of forging is also known as impression die forging. It makes use of molds. The molds are connected to
the anvil. There is a hammer that forces the molten metal that further flows into the cavities of the die. Closed die
forging is a cost-effective option to choose. It also offers exceptional strength to the metal over other alternative
methods.

E. Press Forging
This method of forging relies on the concept of compression. The metal is allowed to sit on a stationary die. After it,
many compressions are applied with continuous pressure, which helps it attain the desired shape. The process of
forging is time-consuming, but the results are incredible. You can also pair up press forging with hot or cold
forging.

F. Roll Forging Process

Roll forging includes increasing wires or rods in terms of length. Heated bars of metal are then placed between two
cylindrical rolls. These rolls then rotate and apply the desired pressure that eventually shapes the metal. This forging
process has many benefits. It eliminates flashing and offers a superior grain structure.

2.2.2. Forging Operations

 Forging is the oldest metal working process. Because it just requires heating and hammering of metals, man
found it easy. The following forging operations are performed

Drawing down or swaging: Drawing out is used to reduce the thickness of a bar and to increase its length. It may
be carried out by working the metal over the horn the anvil as shown in Fig. 14.17, then by hammering it on the
anvil face. The rounded horn of the anvil acts as a blunt edge, which forces the metal to flow lengthwise when struck
by the hammer. For drawing down very heavy work, fuller may be used for drawing down a bar over the horn (round
portion) of anvil.

Fig. 2.7. Drawing out

This process makes the metal thinner, by reducing its cross-section. Metal to be forged is first hammered on the back
of an anvil. The process can produce tapers that arc Hat, circular, or square. Figure 2.3. shows the steps to follow in
drawing down a circular taper:
I. Hammer four sides to produce a short square (Figure 2.3.(a)).
2. Lengthen the square taper (Figure 2.3.(b)).
3. Hammer the corners of the long square in step 2 to produce an octagonal shape (Figure 2.3.(c)).
4. Continue round all the corners in step 3 to obtain a circular end (Figure 2.3.(d)).
if the taper is fat or square go through either the first two or three stages above
 Avoid piping (hollow ends) when drawing down a taper.

Fig 2.8. Drawing down or swaging

Figure 2.3 Stages in drawing down: 4a)

first stage - short square; b) second stage -long square; (C) third stage-octagonal shape; (dl final stage - round shape.
Avoid piping (hollow ends) when drawing down a taper
 Fig: - 2.9. Drawing down

Upsetting: It is just reverse of drawing. The cross-sectional area of the work piece is increased and length
decreases. For it, the compressive forces are applied along the length axis of the metal piece.

Bending is flat stock. The question arises as to how long the flat stock is to be cut once the stock is bent; the
finished part will meet the dimension requirements. Finding the lengths of the various parts when unfolded
and laid- out in the flat is known as developing.

It should be noted that bending should take place at right angles to the grain direction, as shown in figure. If the
bending operation takes place parallel to the grain direction, separation will occur and cracking will develop. Stock
may be bent safely at angles up to 45 with the grain direction If there is any doubt whether a piece will bend without
cracking, a test should be run on the material to be used.
Since the neutral axis is not affected during bending by deformation, as this line remains unchanged the length of the
neutral bending line will give the true length of the piece after it has been bent.

Figure 2.10. Bends at right angle and parallel to the grain direction

 To have the exact size, the diameter of the neutral axis is usually taken with the internal dimensions It is good
practice to make a sketch and to convert all external dimensions to internal dimensions before applying the
equations.
Which follow the developed length on the neutral bending line for the bend shown in figure2.5.is L a l +b+ a2,
Where a = length of leg at neutral line, b = length of arc at neutral bending line, a l and a2 are under for mend parts of
the part.
 Figure 2.11. a 90° bend

 The neutral bending line is sometimes taken as one-third or half the thickness of the material, applied from the
inside of the bend.
The general equation for the length of the neutral bending line at a radius corner for any regular bend assuming 1/2
of the thickness of the material, applied from the inside bend is b = f l + tJ2) Where 0 = angle through which stock is
bent 180 r = internal radius = 0.01745 (O) (r + t12) t = thickness or diameter of material b length of arc at neutral
bending line If θ= 9O’, then the value of (θ Π)/ 180 = 1.571 and the equation for a 90° bend becomes b90= 1,571 (r
+ t/2) (1)
Note that if the work piece is a rod t is replaced by d, diameter of the rod.
Examples
1) Find the developed length in mm. of the part shown below.
Solution The part should be redrawn and internal dimensions applied as shown the internal radius for the given rod
with diameter equals 8mm is
R = 50 - 8 = 42mm.
The lengths of the linear dimensions are: N, = 100-42 = 58mm &N2 = 150-42 = 108mm. The length of a at the
neutral bending line is calculated using (1) as b 1.571 fr+t’2)
= 1.571(42÷8.2)
= 7227mm

Similar result is also found using arc length formula for different angle bends. In this case for 90-degree bend be D)
=14 or [11x2(r+O.5t) J/4 gives the same blank length to the calculated one.
Thus, the developed length or the required blank length L is
N1 + N2 + a = (58 + 108 + 72.27) mm = 238.27mm.
2) Calculate the length of the blank required to form the Coat hanger shown below. Assume that the diameter of the
rod is 10mm also explain the procedures how this part is made in a smith forging shop.
The bend allowance AB = n R (for semi-circle)
3.14x 35mm
= 10990mm
The bend allowance BC = =54, 95mm
Length of flat ab = 52- (80—2) = 12 mm end length of flat be = 70mm.
Thus the total length of blank L = ab cd + AB + BC
= 12 + 70 + 109.9 + 54.95
= 264.85 mm (before bending)
3) Find the developed length to form an eye shown below.

Fig 2.12. Coat hanger

Solution. ‘The length of material required to form the eye is calculated on the mean diameter, as the neutral axis is
the middle line of the metal all the way round Using the blacksmith’s formula; L of the eye at the neutral line = 3d +
4T where d1 = Inside diameter, T = Thickness diameter of metal used = (3x60 + 4X8) mm = 212mm.

Therefore, the total developed length is the sum of L of eye and L of the flat which is 1 2mm.
Like example (1) above, approximately the same result is found for the Length of the eye applying the
circumference of neutral line and following the steps, it is possible to determine the blank length Bending is not a
difficult process; it does not require much skill.
The stages involved are as follows:
1. Use chalk to mark the length that is to be bent.
2. Hear (pay attention to) the portion to be bent.
3. Place the marked line on an anvil.
4. Using the hammer (select the correct weight), bend the length to the angle required (Figure 5.13(a)).
If you are forming an eye, continue with the following stages:
5. Turn the work over on the hick and hammer i at the end (Figure 5.13(b)).
6. Work backwards (Figure 5.13(c)).
7. Turn it again and curve it round using the hick of the anvil (Figure (d)).

Never attempt to form the eye directly; bend it at right angles first.
Determine the length of metal to be formed, which is equal to three times the mean diameter. For example, to make a
24 mm external diameter eye from an 8 mm diameter rod, you will need 3 X (20 + 8) mm 84 mm of material.
 Figure 2.13. Bending/forming an eye: (a) first stage bending at right angles;
(b) second stage; (C) third stage; (d) final stage.

 Upsetting: - This process increasing the cross-section. It isa difficult process and requires skills developed
over the pars. The end to be processed is heated (it must be very hot before it is jumped-up on the anvil.

Upsetting involves the following stages:

I. Heat the portion to be jumped up.
2. Bounce the metal on the anvil face.
3. Hold the bar in the vice and hammer the end.

Fig 2.14.: - Upsetting

Punching is a main forging operation used for producing hole in metal plate by using a tool known as punch.
The metal plate is placed over the hollow cylindrical die and punch is placed above it at required location
 where hole is being made. For punching a hole, the metal job must be at near welding heat and the punch is
driven part way through the job with hammer blows. The work is then turned over and the hole is completed
from the other side. The above said practice is adopted for thicker jobs.

Punching therefore ensure that the grain structure of the metal is not disturbed after forging. The procedure for
punching and drifting is as follows:
1. Heat the metal to near welding heat.
2. Punch the hole first on the anvil.
3.Turn the piece above the punch hole and punch through the dark underside of the piece.
4. True up the punched hole using the drift,
Fig.2.9. Punching and drifting
Fullering operation generally used in forging shop is shown in Fig. 2.8. It involves heating the stock in the black
smith hearth. Then heated stock is placed on the fuller fixed on anvil. A fuller is put over the sock and hammering is
done to reduce the cross section of job at required point.

Fig. 2.10. Fullering

Cutting is a main forging operation to cut out a metal rod or plate into two pieces with the help of a chisel and
hammer when the metal is in red hot condition. A hot or cold cut (chisel) is used for cutting heated metal bars
in a smithy shop.
The hot set does not require hardening and tempering. Its cutting edge is keener than that of a cold set. Hot
sets are manufactured from a tough variety of steel in order that they may cut through relatively soft red-hot
metal with ease. While cutting, it is best to cut half through the workpiece to turn it over and cut through from
the other end.
Forge Welding It is a process of joining two metal pieces to increase the length by pressing or hammering
them when they are at forging temperature. It is performed in forging shop and hence sometimes it is called as
forge welding.
 Flattening You use the flatter with the sledge hammer to flatten filtered piece
Flattening enables you to finish off an undulating surface.
To flatten:
1. Hold the flatter on the surface.
2. Strike the end of the Hatter with the sledgehammer.
3. Move the Hatter to all areas and repeat step

Fig.2.11. Flattening

Piercing: - Metal flows around the die cavity as a moving die pierces the metal
Fig 2.12
Roll forging  In this process, the bar stock is reduced in cross-section or undergoes change in cross-section
when it is passed through a pair of grooved rolls made of die steel.  This process serves as the initial
processing step for forging of parts such as connecting rod, crank shaft etc.
 Fig 2.13 Roll forging

2.3. Allowance for materials shrinkage and oxidization

 Allowance for Shrinkage. In doing work in the blacksmith shop it must be constantly remembered that the
work is larger when being worked than it is when cool.
 Allowance must, therefore, always be made for shrinkage. As the pattern -maker allows for the contraction of
the molten metal to the cold casting, so the blacksmith must allow for the contraction of the hot iron or steel to
the cold forging.
 From the scale of iron heats at the several colors, given in Table before, it will be seen that the temperature at
which forgings are finished under the hammer, should be at about 900 ° Fahrenheit. When these same forgings
are cold their temperature will be from 6 0 ° to 70 ° Fahrenheit. There is, therefore, a difference of at least 840
° between the working and the finished temperature.
 The expansion of iron may be taken to average about .000006 62 of Its length for each increase of one degree
Fahrenheit in its temperature. If a bar of machine steel exactly 2 feet long when cold is heated red hot and
measured, it will be found to have increased nearly i inch in length. Taking the temperature of the red heat as
13 70 ° Fahrenheit, and that of the cold bar as 70 ° Fahrenheit, the increase in length would be X 24 (length in
inches) inches. This expansion must be allowed for when measuring forgings red hot.
 In precision forging, die components are subjected to high loads in a very short period of time.
  Components must withstand to high static and impact pressures, friction forces between surfaces, and both
mechanical and thermal fatigue. Although the workpiece is plastically deformed under compressive load,
forging stresses in the dies are a complex combination of tension, compression and shear.
 In order to increase the resistance of the die insert against internal pressure, the die insert is shrink fitted into
one or more shrink rings. Interference between mating diameters of adjacent rings imposes a compressive
hoop (tangential) pre-stress on the die insert.
 The compressive hoop stress imposed by shrink ring has a cumulative effect at the bore of the die insert.
Consequently, resultant tensile hoop stress on the bore, caused by the forging loads transmitted through the
forging part, can be substantially reduced. Thus, allowing for maximum stress differences particularly at the
bore makes it possible for higher forging pressures to be sustained.
The usual way to shrink fit design for precision forging of gear dies is to use thick wall cylinder theory (analytical
approach) assuming that bore diameter is equal to pitch diameter by neglecting actual gear tooth shape.
For more accurate determination, finite element method (FEM) can be used. The actual stresses predicted by FEM
are much higher than the analytical approach, so that the design of the gear shaped die is beyond the capability of the
analytical approach.
In this paper, analytical approach for dies with gear teeth is modified using FEM solution sets.
 FEM analyses results are verified by experiments. During experiments cylinder approach is observed to be
inadequate for forging loads. An easy-to-use set of formula and nomograms for determination of sizes of die
and ring, and radial interference are presented. The solution set is verified with experiments.
 Unit THREE: Quality assure work 3. Quality assure
This unit is developed to provide you the necessary information regarding the work
following content coverage and topics:
2.4. Equipment that
 Equipment that minimizes oxidization.
minimizes
 Controlling heat to specified areas as per instruction
oxidization.
 Standard devices measure form and shape
 Occupational Health and Safety (OHS) measures and procedure 2.4.1. Heating Devices

This unit will also assist you to attain the learning outcomes stated in the cover (hearth and

page. Specifically, upon completion of this learning guide, you will be able to: Furnaces)

 Operate equipment that minimizes oxidization.  The heating of metal is

 Control heat to specified areas as per instruction done either in a smith’s
 Measure form and shape by applying standard devices hearth or in a furnace.
 Follow Occupational Health and Safety (OHS) measures and procedure The hearths (commonly
known as forges) are used for heating metals for hand forging. It is a very old method of heating still it is used.
The furnaces are used for heating metals for heavy forging.
1. Hearths: - the hearths may be classified as open or closed hearths, the blacksmith forges may have one or two
hearths which are called single hearth or double hearth respectively.

A common form of the hearth, as shown in Fig (a), is a single hearth open type forge. Its size varies from 1.5 m to
2.5m square and 0.8 m to 1.2 m deep. It is provided with a lining of fire clay or other refractory material to withstand
the excessive heat produced due so the combustion of fuel.

Fig 3.1. Heating Devices (hearth)

The fuel used in a hearth may he coke, coal or charcoal. For general work, low sulphur is used. There is an inlet for
blowing air either through the back or bottom. The air is generally applied through a motorize fan blower.

The motorized fan is generally fitted with a series-wound variable speed motor.
 Heating controls allow you to easily regulate the temperature of your home. The controls automatically turn
the heating on and off based on settings input by the user, to ensure maximum comfort. ... The latest
technology allows you to automatically control your heating to work around your daily schedule.
Temperature is the most important one because it provides a critical condition for combustion, chemical
reaction, fermentation, drying, calcinations, distillation, concentration, extrusion, crystallization, and air
conditioning. Poor temperature control can cause major safety, quality, and productivity problems.

If your temperature is above 250°F, close down the vents to reduce the amount of oxygen in order to reduce the
temperature. If your temperature dips below 225°F, open up the vents fully to allow more oxygen in to increase
the temperature. Learn more about temperature control.
No-Cost Ways to Improve Air Conditioning Efficiency
1. Clean around outdoor condenser unit
2. Vacuum indoor vents and keep vents unblocked.

3. Increase your thermostat by a few degrees.

4. Keep lamps and other heat producing appliances away from your thermostat.

5. Keep curtains and blinds closed in the heat of the day.

6. Clear your drain line

2.4.2. MATERIALS USED IN FORGING:

Mostly in forging, Ferrous & Non-Ferrous metals are used in manufacturing purpose.

Ferrous metals: these contain iron as a main constituent, these are stronger.
Some of them are low and medium carbon steels, alloy steels, stainless steels, titanium, die-steels.

FERROUS METAL FORGING TEMP.IN ◦C

1. Low carbon steel 1250◦C

2. Medium carbon steel 850-1100◦C

3. Stainless steel 1200◦C

NON-FERROUS METALS:
Non-ferrous metals do not contain iron as the main constituent. Generally they are weaker than ferrous metals
but have other important properties such as corrosion resistance, high electrical and thermal conductivity,
good formability and special electrical & magnetic properties the chief non-ferrous metals used in the
industrial purpose are copper, aluminum, zinc, lead, tin, magnesium and their alloys.

NON-FERROUS METALS FORGING TEMP IN ◦C

1. Brass 650-800◦C
 2. Bronze 825-900◦C

3. Aluminum alloys 350-450◦C

4. Copper 900◦C

2.4.3. FORGING TEMPERATURES

Forging temperature is a temperature at which a metal becomes soft like clay or its shape can be changed by
applying a relatively small force without creating cracks in metal.

• Note: - Temperatures for alloys (combination of metals) will lie between the temperatures specified for the
metals utilized.

When heating a piece of steel on a forge the blacksmith must always watch the flame of the fuel. Metal is best
heated a bright slightly smoking flame, because such a flame excludes all possibility of overheating the metal. the
difference between the initial and final forging temperature is called the forging temperature interval.

There are three temperature ranges-cold, warm, and hot working:

Cold working Warm working hot working

TA 0.3Tm 0.5Tm 0.75 Tm

Fig 3.2. three temperature ranges

 TA is the ambient (room) temperature, and Tm is the work metal melting temperature

 Cold working is metal forming performed at room temperature.

 Advantages: better accuracy, better surface finish, high strength and hardness of the part, no heating is
required.
 Disadvantages: higher forces and power, limitations to the amount of forming, additional annealing for some
material is required, and some material are not capable of cold working.
 Warm working is metal forming at temperatures above the room temperature but bellow the recrystallization
one.
 Advantages: lower forces and power, more complex part shapes, no annealing is required.
 Disadvantages: some investment in furnaces is needed.

 Hot working involves deformation of preheated material at temperatures above the

Re-crystallization temperature.
  Advantages: big amount of forming is possible, lower forces and power is required, forming of materials with
low ductility, no work hardening and therefore, no additional annealing is required.
 Disadvantages: lower accuracy and surface finish, higher production cost, and shorter tool life.

2.5. Controlling heat to specified areas as per instruction

2.5.1. HEAT TREATMENT OF FORGING

 What is heat treatment in forging?

Heat treating is used to alter and improve the physical properties of a given material using a heat treat furnace.
Typical heat treatment techniques applied to steel forgings include annealing, normalizing, quenching, and
tempering. Precipitation hardening applies to superalloys, titanium and some PH stainless steels.
Heat treatment is carried out for releasing the internal stresses arising in the metal during forging and cooling
of work piece. It is used for equalizing the granular structure of the forged metal and improving the various
mechanical properties. Generally forged parts are annealed, normalized and tempered to obtain the desired
results.
 What are the major points depending upon the forging temperature?

The forging temperature of an alloy will lie between the temperatures of its component metals. For most metals,
forging temperature will be approximately 70% of the melting temperature in kelvins
 Table 3.1. Forging temperature.

Material Forging Temperature

Celsius Fahrenheit

Aluminum 300 – 480 600 - 900

Zinc 419.53 787.154

Lead 327.46 621.428

2.5.2. CONTROL OF HEATING DEVICES

 For good control of heating devices such as hearth or forging furnace, the following points are should always
be considered.

1. The nozzle pointing into the center of the hearth is called the tuyere and is used to direct a stream of air into the
burning coke. The air is supplied by centrifugal blower.

2. As the hottest part of the fire is close to the tuyere opening, therefore, the tuyere is provided with a water jacket to
prevent it from burning away.

3. The hood provided at the top of hearth collects smoke, fumes etc., and directs them away from the workplace
through the chimney in form of exhaust.
4. The fuel for the fire may be either black-smiting coal or coke. To light the fire, either use paper and sticks or
preferably a gas poker.

5. Impurities will collect as clinker and must be removed from the bottom of the fire when the fire cools.

6. The blowers are used to control the air supply using forced draught. Regulators control the draught and the
temperature of the fire.

7. Blower delivers to forge adequate supply of air at proper pressure which is very necessary for the combustion of
fuel.

8. A centrifugal blower driven by an electric motor is an efficient means of air supply

in forging hearth.

9. Fire tools such as rake, poker and slice are generally used to control or manage the fire and theses tools are kept
nearby the side of the hearth. Rake is used to take heated work piece out of the fire. Poker is a steel rod which is
used to poke (stir) fire in the hearth.

10. The place of the metal to be heated should be placed just above the compact center of a sufficiently large fire
with additional fuel above to reduce the heat loss and atmospheric oxidation

2.6. Standard devices measure form and shape

 2.6.1. TESTING OF METALS

 Metal testing is accomplished for the purpose of for estimating the behavior of metal under loading (tensile,
compressive, shear, torsion and impact, cyclic loading etc.) of metal and for providing necessary data for the
product designers, equipment designers, tool and die designers and system designers. The material behavior
data under loading is used by designers for design calculations and determining whether a metal can meet the
desired functional requirements of the designed product or part. Also, it is very important that the material
shall be tested so that their mechanical properties especially their strength can be assessed and compared.
There fore the test procedure for developing standard specification of materials has to be evolved. This
necessitates both destructive and non-destructive testing of materials.

Destructive tests of metal include various mechanical tests such as tensile, compressive, hardness, impact, fatigue
and creep testing. A standard test specimen for tensile test Non-destructive testing includes visual examination,
radiographic tests, ultrasound test, liquid penetrating test and magnetic particle testing.

2.6.2. Tensile test

 A tensile test is carried out on standard tensile test specimen in universal testing machine.

Fig. 7.3 shows a schematic set up of universal testing machine reflecting the test specimen griped between two cross
heads. Fig. 7.4 shows the stress strain curve for ductile material. Fig. 7.5 shows the properties of a ductile material.
Fig. 7.6 shows the stress strain curves for wrought iron and steels. Fig. 7.7 shows the stress strain curve for
nonferrous material.

2.6.3. Compression Test

 Compression test is reverse of tensile test. This test can also be performed on a universal testing machine. In
case of compression test, the specimen is placed bottom crossheads. After that, compressive load is applied on
to the test specimen. This test is generally performed for testing brittle material such as cast iron and ceramics
etc. Fig. 7.8 shows the schematic compression test set up on a universal testing machine. The following terms
have been deduced using figures pertaining to tensile and compressive tests of standard test specimen.

2.7. Occupational Health and Safety (OHS) measures and procedure

2.7.1. SAFETY PRECAUTIONS

Some safety precautions generally followed while working in forging shop are given as under.
1. Always avoid the use of damaged hammers.
2. Never strike a hardened surface with a hardened tool.
3. No person should be allowed to stand in line with the flying objects.
4. Always use the proper tongs according to the type of work.
5. The anvil should always be free from moisture and grease while in use.
6. Always wear proper clothes, foot-wears and goggles.
7. The handle of the hammer should always be tightly fitted in the head of the hammer.
8. Always put out the fire in the forge before leaving the forge shop.
9. Always keep the working space clean.
10. Proper safety guards should be provided on all revolving parts.
11. Head of the chisel should be free from burrs and should never be allowed to spread.
12. During machine forging, always observe the safety rules prescribed for each machine.
13. One must have the thorough knowledge of the working of the forging machine before operating it.

2.7.2. DEFECTS IN FORGED PARTS

Defects commonly found in forged parts that have been subjected to plastic deformation are as follows.

 Defects resulting from the melting practice such as dirt, slag and blow holes.
 Ingot defects such as pikes, cracks scabs, poor surface and segregation.
 Defect due to faulty forging design.
 Defects of mismatched forging because of improper placement of the metal in the die.
 Defects due to faulty design drop forging die.
 Defects resulting from improper forging such as seams cracks laps. etc.
  Defects resulting from improper heating and cooling of the forging part such as burnt metal and decarburized
steel.

2.7.3. Some of the causes of accident in forging shop are

 Fire: - burn might be caused by sparks.

 Sharp and pointed materials that can be considered as waste.
 Explosion: - sometimes the metal by itself explodes due to the presence of gas pockets inside it.
 Noise: - Potential loss of hearing that can result from exposure to very high sound. Thus, it contributes to
reduced workers performance.
Note: Most experts state that harmful effects can be expected from noise level above 100 dB (decibel). Sound
around 140 dB is physically dangerous and increases muscular tension.
 Reference
 Introduction to Basic Manufacturing Processes and Workshop Technology
 Carrying out hand forging of engineering materials
 https://studentlesson.com/types-of-forging-tools/

 https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/engineering/forging-temperature
 https://www.google.com/url?
sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjFj73z1_H5Ah
VK4oUKHaBBCowQFnoECEIQAw&url=https%3A%2F
%2Fwww.rexforge.com%2Fforging-
process.html&usg=AOvVaw0ajqXHC85VFIrCgk_yKtnP
 Principles of metal manufacturing Processes’. Beddoes and M.J .Bibby
corleton university, Cabada
 Shape Analysis & Measurement Michael A. Wirth, Ph.D. University of
Guelph Computing and Information Science Image Processing Group ©
2004