Satheesan MP

Lecturer in Mech. Engg. SNPTC

Diploma in Mechanical Engineering
FOURTH SEMESTER
MODULE-4
ELECTRIC AND HYBRID VEHICLES
An Electric Vehicle (EV) is defined as a vehicle that can be powered by an electric
motor that draws electricity from a battery and is capable of being charged from an
external source. An EV includes both a vehicle that can only be powered by an electric
motor that draws electricity from a battery (all-electric vehicle) and a vehicle that can
be powered by an electric motor that draws electricity from a battery and by an internal
combustion engine (plug-in hybrid electric vehicle).
Electric road vehicles include electric passenger cars, electric buses, electric trucks and
personal transporters such as electric buggy, electric tricycles, electric bicycles and
electric motorcycles/scooters.

All-electric vehicles, also referred to as battery electric vehicles (BEVs), have an

electric motor instead of an internal combustion engine. The vehicle uses a large
traction battery pack to power the electric motor and must be plugged in to a wall outlet
or charging equipment. Because it runs on electricity, the vehicle emits no exhaust from
a tailpipe and does not contain the typical liquid fuel components, such as a fuel pump,
fuel line, or fuel tank.
 Historical background hybrid and electric vehicles:
• 1800s: Early experiments with battery-powered vehicles in Europe and the US.
• Late 1800s: Practical electric cars introduced in France and England.
• 1890: William Morrison's successful electric vehicle in the United States.
• Early 1900s: Electric cars gain popularity, accounting for a third of all vehicles.
• 1908: Henry Ford's Model T makes Petrol cars affordable, challenging electric cars.
• 1970s: Oil crises prompt renewed interest in electric vehicles.
• Late 20th Century: Limited performance and range hamper electric vehicles.
• 1990s: Environmental regulations boost electric vehicle development.
• Late 1990s: GM's EV1 and Toyota's Prius mark advancements.
• Early 21st Century: Tesla's announcement sparks electric vehicle revival.
• Late 2010: Commercially available plug-in hybrids and all-electric vehicles.
• Present: Growing electric vehicle popularity and infrastructure development.
Historical background of Hybrid vehicles:
1900: The Lohner-Porsche Elektromobil makes its debut at the Paris Exposition.
1916: Woods Motor Vehicle Company introduces the Woods Dual Power, a hybrid
electric vehicle with a 4-cylinder internal combustion engine.
1968: General Motors develops the GM XP 512, an experimental vehicle that can run
on electricity at low speeds and gasoline at high speeds.
1973: Electrical engineer Victor Wouk builds a prototype HEV
1989: Audi demonstrates the experimental Audi Duo. It combines a 12-horsepower
electric motor with a 139-horsepower internal combustion engine.
1997: Toyota introduces the Prius and begins marketing it in Japan
1999: Honda introduces the Insight.
2000: Toyota begins marketing the Prius (as a 2001 model) in the United States.
2002: Hybrids start to become common in the marketplace. Honda introduces the
Accord Hybrid. Many more hybrid cars follow over the next few years.
2004: Ford introduces the first hybrid SUV, the 2005 Ford Escape.
Need Electric vehicles (Advantages of EV)
1. Lower operating costs: EVs have lower fuel costs, maintenance costs, and
energy costs.
2. Environmentally friendly: EVs produce zero tailpipe (exhaust) emissions and
reduce greenhouse gas emissions.
3. Better performance: EVs have more horsepower and better torque.
4. Tax benefits: EVs may qualify for tax and financial benefits.
 5. Convenience: EVs can be charged at home and can travel 300–500 km on a
single charge.
6. No fuel required
7. Reduced dependence on petroleum
8. Reduced health effects from air pollution
9. Very Silent.
10. Convenient cabin space
11. More storage.

Need of Hybrid vehicles: (Advantages of HEV)

1. Environment-friendly
2. Financial benefits due to lesser fuel cost incurred
3. Less dependence on fossil fuels
4. Regenerative braking system
5. Built from lightweight materials
6. Electric motor assistance
7. Smaller engines
8. Automatic start and stop

Social and environmental importance of hybrid and electric vehicles.

1. Less Emissions: Without relying solely on fossil fuels, these cars release fewer
emissions, which improves the air quality and keeps streets cleaner.
2. A car like this can emit 46% less greenhouse gas than traditional gas-powered
vehicles.
3. Cleaner Car: Electric cars stay cleaner because they do not contain a fuel tank
or tailpipe or exhaust pipe. They also do not use motor oil or gasoline to operate
the car, which eliminates residue and emissions.
4. Self-Sustaining: Since you can convert energy from pressing the brake pedal into
a battery charge, known as regenerative braking, the electric car can be self-
sustaining
5. Less Noise: When you drive an electric or hybrid car, the car does not make a
lot of noise.
6. Fuel-Efficient and Cost-Effective: By using less gasoline or none at all, your car
provides more fuel efficiency.
Main components of electric vehicles.

Battery (all-electric auxiliary): In an electric drive vehicle, the auxiliary battery

provides electricity to power vehicle accessories.
Charge port: The charge port allows the vehicle to connect to an external power supply
in order to charge the traction battery pack.
DC/DC converter: This device converts higher-voltage DC power from the traction
battery pack to the lower-voltage DC power needed to run vehicle accessories and
recharge the auxiliary battery.
Electric traction motor: Using power from the traction battery pack, this motor drives
the vehicle's wheels. Some vehicles use motor generators that perform both the drive
and regeneration functions.
Onboard charger: Takes the incoming AC electricity supplied via the charge port and
converts it to DC power for charging the traction battery. It also communicates with
the charging equipment and monitors battery characteristics such as voltage, current,
temperature, and state of charge while charging the pack.
Power electronics controller: This unit manages the flow of electrical energy delivered
by the traction battery, controlling the speed of the electric traction motor and the
torque it produces.
Thermal system (cooling): This system maintains a proper operating temperature range
of the engine, electric motor, power electronics, and other components.
Traction battery pack: Stores electricity for use by the electric traction motor.
Transmission (electric): The transmission transfers mechanical power from the electric
traction motor to drive the wheels.

WORKING PRINCIPLES OF ELECTRIC VEHICLES

The Engine of a conventional IC Engine Car is replaced by an electrical Motor
and the fuel tank is replaced by the Battery Pack. Of all the components only the
Battery Pack and Motor alone contributes to about more than 50% of the total cars
weight and the price. As you can see the Battery Pack, Battery Management System
(BMS) Controller, Motor and the Transmission unit forms the major components in an
EV.
The Battery Pack is the fuel source of the car, since there are hundreds of cells
arranged to form a battery pack a special circuit is required to monitor these cells, this
circuit is called as the Battery Monitoring circuit. The DC voltage from battery cannot
be used to drive a motor so we need the controller which drives the motor, and the
Transmission system transfers the rotational energy from motor on to the wheels
through some gear arrangements.
Power is converted from the DC battery to AC for the electric motor. The accelerator
pedal sends a signal to the controller which adjusts the vehicle's speed by changing the
frequency of the AC power from the inverter to the motor The motor connects and turns
the wheels through a transmission system. When the brakes are pressed or the car is
decelerating, the motor becomes an alternator and produces power, which is sent back
to the battery.
Controller takes and regulates electrical energy from batteries and inverters. With the
controller set, the inverter then sends a certain amount of electrical energy to the motor
(according to the depth of pressure on the pedal) Electric motor converts electrical
energy into mechanical energy (rotation) Rotation of the motor rotor rotates the
transmission so the wheels turn and then the car moves.
WORKING PRINCIPLES OF HYBRID VEHICLES
Hybrid electric vehicles are powered by an internal combustion engine and one or more
electric motors, which uses energy stored in batteries. A hybrid electric vehicle cannot
be plugged in to charge the battery. Instead, the battery is charged through regenerative
braking and by the internal combustion engine.
DIFFERENT CONFIGURATIONS OF ELECTRIC VEHICLES
1) Pure Electric Vehicle (PE) or Battery Electric vehicles (BEV)
2) Fuel Cell Electric Vehicles (FCEV)
3) Hybrid Electric vehicle (HEV)
4) Plug-in Hybrid Electric vehicle (PHEV)
5) Electric vehicles based on with and without differential.
1. Battery Electric Vehicle (BEV)
Vehicles powered solely by one or more electric batteries are known as BEVs. They
are more popularly called EVs. Chargeable batteries power them, and there is no IC
engine (petrol or diesel-powered). All the power comes from the battery pack, which
is chargeable from the electricity grid. The charged battery pack sends power to one or
more electric motors to move the vehicle.
Components of BEV
1) Battery pack 3) Inverter 5) Drive train
2) Electric motor(s) 4) Control module 6) Charge port

The battery pack sends power to one or more electric motors, which propels the
vehicle's wheels forward or backwards. Furthermore, when brakes are engaged, or the
vehicle decelerates, the motor acts as an alternator. It produces power, charges the
battery pack, and offers more driving range.
2. Fuel Cell Electric Vehicles (FCEV)
Fuel cell electric vehicles (FCEVs) are powered by hydrogen. They are more efficient
than conventional internal combustion engine vehicles and produce no harmful
emissions—they only emit water vapor and warm air. FCEVs use a propulsion system
similar to that of electric vehicles, where energy stored as hydrogen is converted to
electricity by the fuel cell.
A hydrogen fuel-cell vehicle (HFCV for short) uses the same kind of electric motor to
turn the wheels that a battery-electric car does. But it's powered not by a large, heavy
battery but by a fuel-cell in which pure hydrogen (H2) passes through a membrane to
combine with oxygen (O2) from the air, producing the electricity that turns the wheels.
What this means is that a fuel-cell vehicle is technically a series hybrid, which is why
they are sometimes classified as fuel-cell hybrid electric vehicles (FCHEV).
3. Hybrid Electric vehicle (HEV)
Hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs) use two power sources to propel the vehicle, one of
which is electrical energy. The electric powertrain can improve fuel efficiency, increase
performance, or independently propel the vehicle.
In simple words, an HEV is a vehicle that comprises a conventional fuel engine and an
electric powertrain, wherein the electric motor assists the engine to extract more
performance, and better fuel economy, depending on the type of the system.
The below points explain how an HEV works.
• Powering a hybrid electric vehicle is an IC engine and an electric motor.
• The electric motor utilises the electrical energy stored in the battery pack.
• The battery pack gets charged via regenerative braking or through a generator that
is run by the internal combustion engine.
• An HEV does not need to be plugged into a power source to charge the battery.
• The electric motor and IC engine work in conjunction to propel the vehicle.
• The additional power from the electric motor assists the engine, and it enhances
the performance and improves the fuel economy.
• The battery pack can also power other electrical components such as lights.
• The electric powertrain also saves fuel via the engine start/stop technology,
wherein the engine automatically shuts off when idle and starts automatically
when the driver presses the throttle pedal.

The three main types of hybrid vehicles are:

1. Mild hybrid 2. Full hybrid 3. Plug-in hybrid

1. Mild hybrid
Mild hybrids are the most basic type of electrified cars. This is a conventional petrol
or diesel engine with a low voltage (48V) battery and an electric motor which is
typically used to power electric components such as air conditioning and the radio.
Mild hybrids make conventional combustion engines significantly more efficient with
little effort. This involves recovering kinetic energy while the vehicle is braking. This
energy, otherwise lost, is stored in a 48V battery and then used to support the engine
and power a high-performance 48V on-board electrical system. In addition to other
benefits, this mild hybridization cuts fuel consumption by 15% or more – and thus
reduces CO2 emissions accordingly.
Most mild hybrids (also called MHEVs) run a conventional engine, but employ a small
generator (instead of a starter motor) and a lithium-ion battery (separate to the 12V).
Their job is to assist the engine, helping it to accelerate efficiently and make the start-
stop system work more smoothly.
2. Full hybrid
Hybrid electric vehicles are powered by an internal combustion engine and one or more
electric motors, which uses energy stored in batteries. These two power sources work
together to increase a vehicle’s fuel economy. A hybrid electric vehicle cannot be
plugged in to charge the battery. Instead, the battery is charged through regenerative
braking and by the internal combustion engine.
Types of Full Hybrid Electric Vehicles
There are three types of HEVs based on power delivery and distribution. Below are
more details on the same.
1. Series Hybrid Electric Vehicles 2. Parallel Hybrid Electric Vehicles 3. Series-Parallel
Hybrid Electric Vehicles.

2.1. Series hybrid

In a series hybrid system, the IC engine powers the electric generator, which drives the
electric motor and charges the battery. In this setup, the engine does not directly power
the wheels. Series hybrid is also called a range extender since the engine powers the
electric motor and the battery pack.
2.2. Parallel hybrid
In this system, both the engine and electric motor work parallel to propel the vehicle.
The engine and the electric motor deliver optimum power for the efficient functioning
of the car. The battery pack gets charged via regenerative braking. If you wonder what
regenerative braking is, here’s a brief explanation. Regenerative braking is a process
of utilising the kinetic energy produced while slowing the vehicle down to charge the
battery pack.

2.3. Series-parallel hybrid

A series-parallel is a flexible system wherein the IC engine, and electric motor can
work in conjunction or independently. The power delivery or the power distribution
helps the vehicle achieve maximum efficiency in terms of power output or fuel-
efficiency.
A series-parallel hybrid electric vehicle (HEV) is a parallel hybrid that uses power-split
devices to allow for either mechanical or electrical power paths from the ICE to the
wheels. The main principle is to decouple the power supplied by the primary source
from the power demanded by the driver.
3. Plug-in Hybrid Electric vehicle (PHEV)
PHEVs use the electric motor to drive until the battery charge drains. Once the battery
power is depleted, the internal combustion engine takes over. The electric motor
derives power from the battery pack, which is chargeable, unlike HEVs.
The battery pack is charged through the conventional electricity grid, regenerative
braking, or the internal combustion engine.
A plug-in hybrid electric vehicle (PHEV) is a type of hybrid vehicle that combines a
petrol or diesel engine with an electric motor and a large battery. The battery can be
recharged by plugging into an electrical outlet or electric vehicle charging station.
PHEVs have a larger battery pack than standard hybrid electric vehicles. They can
provide all-electric power for short trips, and the option to gas up and drive for longer
distances.
Plug-in hybrid-electric cars combine two propulsion modes in one vehicle–a battery-
powered electric motor that is plugged in and recharged, and an internal combustion
engine that is fueled with gasoline. They offer all-electric power for short trips and the
opportunity to gas up and drive for as far as you desire.
A plug-in hybrid electric vehicle (PHEV) uses a battery to power an electric motor and
uses another fuel, such as petrol or diesel, to power an internal combustion engine. The
battery pack in a PHEV is generally larger than in a standard hybrid electric vehicle.
In a parallel plug-in hybrid, both the electric powertrain and the conventional engine
propel the vehicle in almost all driving conditions. Generally, the vehicle can only
operate in all-electric mode at slow speeds.
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN ELECTRIC AND HYBRID VEHICLE

1. Power Source: Hybrid vehicles use a combination of an internal combustion engine

and an electric motor, while electric vehicles are powered solely by electricity from a
battery.
2. Fuel Efficiency: Hybrid vehicles are generally more fuel-efficient than traditional
gasoline-powered vehicles, but they are not as efficient as electric vehicles, which can
be driven for longer distances on a single charge.
3. Emissions: Hybrid vehicles emit fewer pollutants and greenhouse gases compared
to traditional gasoline-powered vehicles, but they still emit some emissions from the
internal combustion engine. Electric vehicles, on the other hand, produce zero tailpipe
emissions and are considered one of the cleanest forms of transportation.
4. Recharging: Hybrid vehicles do not need to be recharged, as they use Petrol to
power the battery. However, the electric battery in a hybrid vehicle can be recharged
through regenerative braking and other methods. Electric vehicles must be plugged in
for recharging.
5. Maintenance: Hybrid vehicles require regular maintenance, including oil changes
and other routine maintenance tasks associated with internal combustion engines.
Electric vehicles have fewer moving parts and generally require less maintenance.
5. Cost: Hybrid vehicles are generally more affordable than electric vehicles, but the
cost of electric vehicles is decreasing as technology improves and production increases.
Additionally, electric vehicles may be more cost-effective in the long run, as they have
lower fuel and maintenance costs compared to hybrid and gasoline-powered vehicles.
 Regenerative Braking system

A regenerative braking system is a mechanism that converts kinetic energy into

electrical power. It's found in most full-electric and hybrid vehicles.
Here's how it works:
• When the driver steps on the brake, the electric motor switches to generator mode.
• The electric motors reverse and feed energy back into the hybrid or electric system.
• The energy is stored in electric batteries, ultracapacitors, flywheels, or hydraulic
accumulators.
• The energy is used to charge the vehicle's high voltage battery.
• The small boosts in battery range can accumulate and improve efficiency over
time.
How Regenerative Braking Works
Conventional braking system operates---. When you step on a vehicle's brake pedal, the
discs and the brake pads create friction as they meet. In turn, the friction creates kinetic
energy that dissipates into the environment in the form of heat.
Regenerative braking recovers some of the kinetic energy that would otherwise turn into
heat and instead converts it into electricity.
In this system, the motor drives the wheels during acceleration or cruising, but the wheels
drive the motor while decelerating.
This two-way energy flow allows the motor to act as a generator, resisting the rotation of
the wheels and creating electricity to recharge the vehicle's battery.
There are two conditions when regeneration occurs:
1. When the driver applies the brake pedal
2. When the driver releases the accelerator pedal, and the vehicle is coasting
In both cases, the system creates electricity to recharge the battery.
Drivers can view this regenerative effect on the vehicle's charging gauge, which shows it
as energy flowing from the wheels to the battery.
The amount of electricity the system generates is proportional to the level of braking force.
That means the stronger the braking force, the greater the electrical current.
 Fuel Cells
A fuel cell uses the chemical energy of hydrogen or another fuel to cleanly and
efficiently produce electricity. If hydrogen is the fuel, electricity, water, and heat are
the only products. Fuel cells are unique in terms of the variety of their potential
applications; they can provide power for systems as large as a utility power station and
as small as a laptop computer.

Fuel cells can be used in a wide range of applications, including transportation,

material handling, stationary, portable, and emergency backup power applications.
Fuel cells have several benefits over conventional combustion-based technologies
currently used in many power plants and passenger vehicles. Fuel cells can operate at
higher efficiencies than combustion engines, and can convert the chemical energy in
the fuel to electrical energy with efficiencies of up to 60%. Fuel cells have lower
emissions than combustion engines. Hydrogen fuel cells emit only water, so there are
no carbon dioxide emissions and no air pollutants that create smog and cause health
problems at the point of operation. Also, fuel cells are quiet during operation as they
have fewer moving parts.
How Fuel Cells Work
Fuel cells work like batteries, but they do not run down or need recharging. They
produce electricity and heat as long as fuel is supplied. A fuel cell consists of two
electrodes—a negative electrode (or anode) and a positive electrode (or cathode)—
sandwiched around an electrolyte. A fuel, such as hydrogen, is fed to the anode, and
air is fed to the cathode. In a hydrogen fuel cell, a catalyst at the anode separates
hydrogen molecules into protons and electrons, which take different paths to the
cathode. The electrons go through an external circuit, creating a flow of electricity. The
protons migrate through the electrolyte to the cathode, where they unite with oxygen
and the electrons to produce water and heat.
Advantages of Fuel Cell
• High Efficiency- when utilizing co-generation, fuel cells can attain over 80%
energy efficiency
• Good reliability- quality of power provided does not degrade over time.
• Noise- offers a much more silent and smoother alternative to conventional
energy production.
 • Environmentally beneficial- greatly reduces CO2 and harmful pollutant
emissions.
• Size reduction- fuel cells are significantly lighter and more compact.
Disadvantages of Fuel Cell
• Expensive to manufacture due the high cost of catalysts (platinum)
• Lack of infrastructure to support the distribution of hydrogen.
• A lot of the currently available fuel cell technology is in the prototype stage and
not yet validated.
• Hydrogen is expensive to produce and not widely available.
ts of a Fuel Cell