BASIC ELECTRONICS

(24B11EC111)
Lecture-1

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
 COURSE OUTCOMES (CO)
CO (Code: 24B11EC111) COGNITIVE
LEVELS
C.1 Remembering
Recall the concepts of various circuit elements and Level
Kirchhoff’s laws.
(C1)
C.2 Understanding
Understand the basics of semiconductor PN junction Level
diodes and Op-Amp, and their applications.
(C2)
C.3 Apply network theorems to effectively solve complex DC Applying Level
circuits. (C3)
C.4. Analyzing Level
Explain the operation of transistors (BJT and MOSFET)
(C4)
and analyze their biasing techniques.

9
 SYLLABUS
Module Title of Module Topics in the Module No. of
No. Lectures
Basic Circuit Analysis Kirchhoff's Laws, Voltage Divider rule, 10
Current Divider Rule, DC circuit analysis
1
(Nodal, Mesh), Superposition and
Thevenin/Norton Theorem
PN Junction Diode PN Junction, Biasing the PN Junction, 8
and Current–Voltage Characteristics of a PN
2 Applications Junction, PN Junction Diodes, Half Wave
Rectifier & Full Wave Rectifier Clipper &
Clamping Circuits
Zener Diode and Zener Diode and applications, Line and 4
3 Applications Load Regulations of reference circuits.
Introduction to BJT Introduction to BJT, operation, 6
4
characteristics, Biasing and Stability
Introduction to Introduction to MOSFET, operation, 6
5
MOSFET characteristics and biasing
10
 SYLLABUS
Module Title of Module Topics in the Module No. of
No. Lectures
Op-amp and Block Diagram Representation of Typical Op- 8
Applications Amp, Schematic Symbol, Op-Amp parameters,
Ideal Op-Amp, Equivalent Circuit of Op-Amp,
6 Op-Amp Applications: Inverting Configuration,
Non-Inverting Configuration, Voltage
Follower, summer, comparator, difference
Amplifier, Integrator, Differentiator
Total no. of lectures 42

11
 EVALUATION CRITERIA
Components Maximum Marks

• T1 20

• T2 20

• End Term Examination 35

• TA 25 (Assignments = 15, Attendance = 10 )

• Total 100

12
 RECOMMENDED BOOKS
1. R.C. Dorf and James A. Svoboda, “Introduction to Electric Circuits”, 9th
ed, John Wiley & Sons, 2013.
2. Charles K. Alexander (Author), Matthew N.O Sadiku, “ Fundamentals of
Electric Circuits”, 6th ed, Tata Mc Graw Hill, 2019.

3. Sze and Ng," Physics of Semiconductor Devices", 3rd Ed., 2006.

4. R. Boylestad and L. Nashelsky, ‘Electronic Devices and Circuit Theory’,
PHI, 7e, 2001.
5. Ramakant A. Gayakwad, “Op-Amps and Linear Integrated Circuits”, 4th
edition, Pearson, 2000.

13
BASIC ELECTRONICS
(24B11EC111)
Unit-1
Lecture-2
(Kirchhoff’s Laws)

14
 CONTENTS
• Introduction
• Kirchhoff’s Laws
– Kirchhoff’s Current Law (KCL)
– Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (KVL)
• Problems and solutions
• Practice Problems
• References

15
 CHARGE
•Under normal conditions, atom is considered to be electrically neutral. It
means the total positive charge on protons is equal to the total negative
charge on electrons.

•If an atom loses electrons, it becomes positively charged. On the other

hand, if an atom acquires excess electrons, it becomes negatively
charged.

•The charge can be considered as the quantity of electricity.

•The unit of charge is coulomb (C).

•Charge may flow in an electrical circuit, which is basically

interconnection of electrical elements linked together in a closed path so
that an electric current may flow continuously.

•Charge is the quantity of electricity responsible for electric phenomena.

 CURRENT

•Current is the time rate of change of charge passing through an

area, where charge is the intrinsic property of matter responsible for
electric phenomena

•The quantity of charge can be expressed in terms of the charge on an

electron i.e. 1.602 x 10-19 coulombs (C). Thus, -1 C is the charge on 6.24 x
1018 electrons

•The current through a specified area is defined by the electric charge

passing through the area per unit time. Thus q is defined as the charge
expressed in coulombs.

•The unit of current is ampere (A). An ampere is 1 coulomb per second.

 Circuit
⮚ An electrical circuit is a closed path consisting of active and passive
elements all interconnected and the current flow is confined to the closed
path.
⮚ An active element is one which supplies energy to the circuit whereas
passive element is one which receives energy and then this energy is
converted into heat (resistor) or stores it in an electric (capacitor) or
magnetic field (inductor).

18
Power

19
 Power Received and Supplied by an
element
Figure 1 shows that there are two
different ways to arrange the direction of
the current and the polarity of the
voltage. (a)

Power Received
• In Figure 1(a), the current is directed
from the + toward the – of the voltage (b)
polarity. In this the voltage and
current are said to ―adhere to the
passive convention.‖ Figure 1 (a)The element voltage and
current adhere to the passive convention.
• In the passive convention, the voltage (b) The element voltage and current do
pushes a positive charge in the not adhere to the passive convention.
direction indicated by the current.

• The Power calculated is known as

power received
20
 Contd..
•

21
 Energy
•

22
 SOURCES
• Sources -devices that are intended to supply energy to a circuit. A source is a
voltage or current generator capable of supplying energy to a circuit. An active
two-terminal element that supplies energy to a circuit is a source of energy

• Sources are categorized as : voltage sources and current sources

23
 INDEPENDENT SOURCES
• Independent source: a voltage or current generator not dependent on
other circuit variables.

• Independent voltage source: provides a specified voltage independent

of the current through it and is independent of any other circuit
variable.
– For example, a voltage source specified by v(t) = 9 volts will have a voltage of 9 volts
regardless of the circuit in which it is used. In contrast, the current of the voltage
source depends on the circuit in which the source is used.

• Independent current source: provides a current, independent of the

voltage across the source element and is independent of any other
circuit variable.
– For example, a current source specified by i(t) = —0.25 milliamps will have a
current of —0.25 milliamps in any circuit in which it is used. The voltage across this
current source will depend on the particular circuit.
24
 DEPENDENT SOURCES
• Dependent sources model the situation in which the voltage or current of one
circuit element is proportional to the voltage or current of the second circuit
element.
– (In contrast, a resistor is a circuit element in which the voltage of the
element is proportional to the current in the same element.)

• Dependent sources are used to model electronic devices such as transistors and
amplifiers. For example, the output voltage of an amplifier is proportional to
the input voltage of that amplifier, so an amplifier can be modeled as a
dependent source.

Fig. (a) shows a circuit that includes a dependent

source represented by the diamond symbol. The
plus/minus signs identify the dependent source as
a voltage source and indicate the reference
polarity of the element voltage.

25
 TYPES OF DEPENDENT SOURCES: SYMBOLS

❖ Current-Controlled Voltage Source (CCVS) ❖ Voltage-Controlled Voltage Source (VCVS)

• r is the gain of the CCVS. • b is the gain of the VCVS.
• r has units of volts/ampere. • b has units of volts/volt.

❖ Voltage-Controlled Current Source (VCCS) ❖ Current-Controlled Current Source (CCCS)

• g is the gain of the VCCS. • d is the gain of the CCCS.
• g has units of amperes/volt. • d has units of amperes/ampere.
26
 Kirchhoff’s Laws
• In 1847, Gustav Robert Kirchhoff, a professor at the University of
Berlin, formulated two important laws that provide the foundation for
analysis of electric circuits. These laws are referred to as Kirchhoff’s
current law (KCL) and Kirchhoff’s voltage law (KVL).
• Kirchhoff’s laws are a consequence of conservation of charge and
conservation of energy
• Kirchhoff’s current law states that the algebraic sum (i.e taking
reference directions into account) of the currents entering any node is
identically zero for all instants of time.

– Kirchhoff’s current law (KCL): The algebraic sum of the currents

into a node at any instant is zero.

27
 Kirchhoff’s Laws…
Figure (a) shows an electric circuit that consists of six elements connected together at
four nodes.
It is common practice to draw electric circuits using straight lines and to position the
elements horizontally or vertically as shown in Figure (b).

FIGURE (a) An electric circuit. (b) The same circuit, redrawn using straight lines and
horizontal and vertical elements.
28
 Kirchhoff’s Current Law (KCL)
• Consider the same circuit after labeling the nodes and elements.
• Four elements of this circuit 1, 2, 3, and 4 are connected to node a.
• By Kirchhoff’s current law, the algebraic sum of the element currents i1, i2, i3,
and i4 must be zero.
• Currents i2 and i3 are directed away from node a, so we will use a plus sign for
i2 and i3. In contrast, currents i1 and i4 are directed toward node a, so we will
use a minus sign for i1 and i4.
• The KCL equation for node a
-i1+i2+i3-i4 = 0

The circuit after labeling the nodes and elements.

29
 Kirchhoff’s Current Law (KCL)
• An alternate way is to set the sum of all the currents directed away from the
node equal to the sum of all the currents directed toward that node.
i2+i3= i1+i4

• Similarly, the Kirchhoff’s current law equation for node b

i1 = i2+i3+i6

30
 Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (KVL)
• Kirchhoff’s voltage law (KVL): The algebraic sum of the voltages around any loop in
a circuit is identically zero for all time.

• The phrase algebraic sum indicates that we must take polarity into account as we
add up the voltages of elements that comprise a loop.

• One way to take polarity into account is to move around the loop in the clockwise
direction while observing the polarities of the element voltages.

• For example, consider the circuit shown in Figure c. Elements 3, 4, 5, and 6 comprise
a loop of the circuit. By Kirchhoff’s voltage law, the algebraic sum of the element
voltages v3, v4, v5, and v6 must be zero.
v4 - v5 - v6 - v3 = 0

• Similarly, the KVL equation for

the loop consisting of (1, 4, 5, 6) is
v4 - v5 - v6 + v1 = 0
the loop consisting of (1 and 2) is
- v2 + v1 = 0

31
 Problems
Problem 1. Consider the circuit shown in Figure. Notice that the passive convention
was used to assign reference directions to the resistor voltages and currents. This
anticipates using Ohm’s law. Find each current and each voltage when R1 = 8 Ω, v2
= -10 V, i3 = 2 A, and R3 = 1 Ω. Also, determine the resistance R2.

Solution: The sum of the currents entering node a is

i1- i2- i3 =0
Using Ohm’s law for R3, we find that v3 = R3i3 = 1(2) = 2 V
Kirchhoff’s voltage law for the bottom loop incorporating v1, v3,
and the 10-V source is
-10 + v1 + v3 = 0
Therefore; v1 = 10 - v3 = 8 V
Ohm’s law for the resistor R1 is v1 = R1i1
or i1 = v1/R1 = 8/8 = 1 A
Next, apply Kirchhoff’s current law at node a to get
i2 = i1 - i3 = 1-2 = -1 A
We can now find the resistance R2 from v2 = R2i2 or
R2 = v2/i2 = -10/-1 = 10Ω

32
 Problems
Problem 2. Determine the value of the current, in amps, measured by
the ammeter in Figure a.

33
 Problems…

Solution:
An ideal ammeter is equivalent to a short circuit. The current
measured by the ammeter is the current in the short circuit.
Figure b shows the circuit after replacing the ammeter by the
equivalent short circuit.

34
 Problems…
Solution …
The circuit has been redrawn in Figure to label the nodes of the circuit. This
circuit consists of a voltage source, a dependent current source, two resistors,
and two short circuits. One of the short circuits is the controlling element of
the CCCS, and the other short circuit is a model of the ammeter.

Applying KCL twice, once at node d and again at node a, shows that the
current in the voltage source and the current in the 4Ω resistor are both equal
to ia.
Applying KCL again, at node c, shows that the current in the 2Ω resistor is
equal to im.
35
 Problems…
Solution …
Next, Ohm’s law tells us that the voltage across the 4Ω resistor is equal
to 4ia and that the voltage across the 2Ω resistor is equal to 2im.
Applying KCL at node b gives
- ia -3ia - im = 0

Applying KVL to closed path a-b-c-e-d-a gives

0 = - 4ia + 2im -12 = -4(- im /4) + 2im - 12 = 3im - 12

Finally, solving this equation gives im = 4 A

36
 Problems…
Problem 3. Determine the value of the voltage, in volts, measured by the
voltmeter in Figure a.

37
 Problems…
Solution:
An ideal voltmeter is equivalent to an open circuit.
The voltage measured by the voltmeter is the voltage across the open circuit.
• Figure shows the circuit after replacing the voltmeter by the equivalent open
circuit.

• This circuit consists of a voltage source, a dependent voltage source, two

resistors, a short circuit, and an open circuit.
• The short circuit is the controlling element of the CCVS, and the open circuit
is a model of the voltmeter.

38
 Problems…
Solution …

• The circuit has been redrawn in Figure to label the nodes of the circuit.

• Applying KCL at node c, shows that the current in the 5Ω resistor is equal to the
current in the open circuit, that is, zero.

• Ohm’s law tells us that the voltage across the 5Ω resistor is also equal to zero.

• Next, applying KVL to the closed path b-c-f-e-b gives vm = 3ia.

• Applying KVL to the closed path a-b-e-d-a gives -4ia + 3ia -12 = 0

so ia = -12 A

Finally vm = 3ia = 3(-12) = -36 V

39
 Practice Problem
Problem 1. Determine the values of i3, i4, i6, v2, v4, and v6 in Figure shown.

Answer: i3 = 3 A, i4 = 3 A, i6 = 4 A, v2 = 3 V, v4 = 6 V, v6 = 6 V

40
 REFERENCES

[1] R.C. Dorf and James A. Svoboda, ―Introduction to Electric

Circuits‖, 9th ed, John Wiley & Sons, 2013.

41
BASIC ELECTRONICS
(24B11EC111)
Unit-1
Lecture-3
(Voltage Divider Rule)

42
 CONTENTS
• Voltage Divider Rule
• Voltage Divider Calculation for two series resistors
• Voltage Divider Rule Using more than two Resistor
• Practice Problem
• Parallel resistors
• Current division rule
• Numerical
• Practice Problems
• References

43
 Voltage Divider Rule

Definition
• A voltage divider is a basic circuit, used to generate a part of its input
voltage like an output. This circuit can be designed with two resistors
otherwise any passive components along with a voltage source.

• The resistors in the circuit can be connected in series whereas a voltage

source is connected across these resistors. This circuit is also called a
potential divider.

• The input voltage can be transmitted between the two resistors in the
circuit so that the division of voltage takes place.

44
Voltage Divider Calculation for two series resistor

i1

Figure
1

45
Contd..

46
Voltage Divider Rule Using more than two Resistor

Figure
2

47
Contd..

48
 Example-1
Find the voltages across each resisters.

49
 Practice Problem

Figure
3

50
Example 2

Figure
4

51
Contd..
•

52
Contd..

53
 Parallel resistors and Current division rule
• The circuit with two resistors and a current source shown in Figure.
• Note that both resistors are connected to terminals a and b and that the
voltage v appears across each parallel element.

54
 Parallel resistors and Current division rule
KCL at node a

From Ohm’s
law

55
 Parallel resistors and Current division rule
Conductance G can be defined as the inverse
of resistance R.

• Equivalent circuit for this parallel circuit is a

conductance Gp, as shown in Figure ,

where

The equivalent resistance for the two-resistor circuit is found from

56
Parallel resistors and Current division rule

Because Gp = 1/Rp, we have

❖ The circuit shown in Figure is called a current divider circuit

because it divides the source current.

57
 Parallel resistors and Current division rule
Note that

we solve for v, obtaining

Substituting v, we obtain

58
 Parallel resistors and Current division rule
• Note that we may use G2 = 1/R2 and G1 =
1/R1 to obtain the current i1 and i2 in
terms of two resistances as follows:

• The current of the source divides between conductances G1 and G2 in

proportion to their conductance values.

59
 • In Fig. 1, suppose one of the
resistors is zero, say or short
circuit as shown in Fig. 3(a).
• From equation (10), implies
that , . This means that
the current i bypasses and flows
through the short circuit , the
A shorted circuit path of least resistance.
• Thus, when a circuit is short
circuited, the equivalent resistance,

and the entire current flows through

the short circuit.

60
 an open circuit

• Also, as an another extreme case, suppose or is an

open circuit.
• The current still flows through the path of least resistance, . By
taking the limit of equation (7) as , we obtain in
this case.

61
 Parallel resistors and Current division rule
• Let us consider the more general case of current division with
a set of N parallel conductors as shown in Figure.

• The KCL gives

---------- Eq. 1

for which

We may write Eq. 1 as

Therefore, FIGURE Set of N

parallel conductances
with a current source is
62
 Parallel resistors and Current division rule
Because

we may obtain v from

Equivalent conductance Gp

Therefore,

FIGURE Set of N
which is the basic equation for the current
parallel conductances
divider with N conductances.
with a current source is
63
 Problems
Problem-1
Find i0 and v0 in the circuit shown in Fig. Also, calculate the
power dissipated in the 3 Ω resistor.

64
Solution:

65
66
67
Problem-2
For the circuit shown in Fig., determine the (a) the voltage, v0
(b) the power supplied by the current source (c) the power
absorbed by each resistor.

68
Solution:
(a)

6 kΩ and 12 kΩ resistors are in series,

So 60 + 12 = 18 kΩ

We now apply the current division technique to find i1 and i2 69

70
71
 Problems
Find v1 and v2 in the circuit shown in Fig. Also, calculate i1 and
i2 and the power dissipated in the 12 Ω and 40 Ω resistors.

72
Practice Problems
For the circuit in Figure , find (a) the current in each branch,
(b) the equivalent circuit, and (c) the voltage v.

The resistors are R1 = 1/2 Ω; R2 = 1/4 Ω; R3 = 1/8 Ω

Ans: Current i1 = 4 A, i2 = 8 A, i3 = 16 A
73
 References
1. R.C. Dorf and James A. Svoboda, “Introduction to Electric
Circuits”, 9th ed, John Wiley & Sons, 2013.
2. D.C. Kulshreshtha, Basic Electrical Engineering, Revised 1st ed,
Tata Mc Graw Hill, 2017.
3. V. K.Mehta, Rohit Mehta, Basic Electrical Engineering, 6th ed,
S. Chand Publishing, 2012.

74
BASIC ELECTRONICS
(24B11EC111)
Unit-1
Lecture-4
(Methods of DC Circuit Analysis)

75
 CONTENTS
• Methods of Analysis of Resistive Circuits
• Node Voltage Method
• Mesh Current Method
• Node Voltage Analysis of Circuits with Current
Sources
• Node Voltage Analysis of Circuits with Current
and Voltage Sources
• Problem
• References

76
 Methods of Analysis of Resistive Circuits

• Method for small circuits: write and solve a set of equations. Obtain equations using

Kirchhoff’s current and voltage laws. The constitutive equations of the circuit

elements, such as Ohm’s law, provide the remaining equations. The unknown

variables are element currents and voltages.

77
 Methods of Analysis of Resistive Circuits

• For moderate-sized/Large-sized circuits, above method provides quite large set of

equations.

• So for such type of circuits, we consider two methods for writing a smaller set of

simultaneous equations:

1. The node voltage method.

2. The mesh current method.

78
 Node Voltage Method
• The node voltage method uses a new type of variable called the node voltage.

• The “node voltage equations” or, more simply, the “node equations,” are a set of

simultaneous equations that represent a given electric circuit.

• The unknown variables of the node voltage equations are the node voltages.

• After solving the node voltage equations, we determine the values of the element

currents and voltages from the values of the node voltages.

79
 Node Voltage Method
• It’s easier to write node voltage equations for some types of circuit than for others.

• Starting with the easiest case, we will learn how to write node voltage equations for

circuits that consist of:

1. Resistors and independent current sources.

2. Resistors and independent current and voltage sources.

3. Resistors and independent and dependent voltage and current sources.

80
 Mesh Current Method
• The mesh current method uses a new type of variable called the mesh current.

• The ―mesh current equations‖ or, more simply, the ―mesh equations,‖ are a set of

simultaneous equations that represent a given electric circuit.

• The unknown variables of the mesh current equations are the mesh currents.

• After solving the mesh current equations, we determine the values of the element

currents and voltages from the values of the mesh currents.

81
 Mesh Current Method
• It’s easier to write mesh current equations for some types of circuit than for others.

• Starting with the easiest case, we will learn how to write mesh current equations for

circuits that consist of:

1. Resistors and independent voltage sources.

2. Resistors and independent current and voltage sources.

3. Resistors and independent and dependent voltage and current sources.

82
Node Voltage Analysis of Circuits with
Current Sources
1. Consider the circuit shown in Figure.
2. This circuit contains four elements: three
resistors and a current source.

1. Figure shows the same circuit, redrawn

so that all three nodes are drawn as
points rather than lines.
2. In Figure, the nodes are labeled as node
a, node b, and node c.

83
 Node Voltage Analysis of Circuits with
Current Sources
Analyzing a connected circuit containing n nodes will require n - 1 KCL equations.

1. The node at which KCL is not applied is called the reference node.
2. Any node of the circuit can be selected to be the reference node.
3. We will often choose the node at the bottom of the circuit to be the reference
node.
4. When the circuit contains a grounded power supply, the ground node of the
power supply is usually selected as the reference node.

The voltage at any node of the circuit, relative

to the reference node, is called a node voltage.

84
 Node Voltage Analysis of Circuits with
Current Sources

1. One of the standard methods for analyzing an electric circuit is to write and solve
a set of simultaneous equations called the node equations.
2. The unknown variables in the node equations are the node voltages of the circuit.
3. We determine the values of the node voltages by solving the node equations.

❖ To write a set of node equations, we do two things:

1. Express element currents as functions of the node voltages.
2. Apply Kirchhoff’s current law (KCL) at each of the nodes of the circuit except
for the reference node.
85
 Node Voltage Analysis of Circuits with
Current Sources

• The circuit element in Figure could be anything: a resistor, a current source, a

dependent voltage source, and so on.
• In Figure , the circuit element is a resistor. We will use Ohm’s law to express the
resistor current i as a function of the node voltages.

86
Node Voltage Analysis of Circuits with Current Sources
• let’s write node equations to represent the circuit shown in Figure.
• The input to this circuit is the current source, current is.
• To write node equations, we will first express the resistor currents as functions of
the node voltages and then apply Kirchhoff’s current law at nodes a and b.

Using KCL at node a gives

the KCL equation at node b is

87
Node Voltage Analysis of Circuits with Current Sources
Using KCL at node a gives

the KCL equation at node b is

On solving the equations, the node voltages of this circuit

are

88
 Node Voltage Analysis of Circuits with Current
and Voltage Sources
• First we consider the circuit with a voltage source between ground and one of the
other nodes.
• Because we are free to select the reference node, this particular arrangement is
easily achieved.

• We immediately note that the source

is connected between terminal a and
ground and, therefore,
va = v s

KCL equation at node b

89
 Node Voltage Analysis of Circuits with Current
and Voltage Sources
• consider the circuit of Figure, which includes a voltage source between two nodes.
• Because the source voltage is known, use KVL to obtain

1. To account for the fact that the source voltage is known, we consider both node
a and node b as part of one larger node represented by the shaded ellipse.
2. This larger node is often called a supernode or a generalized node.
3. KCL says that the algebraic sum of the currents entering a supernode is zero.
4. That means that we apply KCL to a supernode in the same way that we apply
KCL to a node. 90
Node Voltage Analysis of Circuits with Current
and Voltage Sources
• A supernode consists of two nodes connected by an independent or a
dependent voltage source

KCL equation at the supernode as

91
 Problem
• Determine the values of the node voltages va and vb for the circuit shown
in Figure

• We can write the first node equation by considering the voltage source.

92
 Problem - Solution
• To write the second node equation, we must decide what to do about the voltage
source current. (Notice that there is no easy way to express the voltage source
current in terms of the node voltages.)
• In this example, we illustrate two methods of writing the second node equation.

• Assign a name to the voltage source current. Apply KCL at both of

Method 1: the voltage source nodes. Eliminate the voltage source current from
the KCL equations.

The KCL equation at node a is

The KCL equation at node b is 93

 Problem - Solution
Combining these two equations gives

Method 2:

Apply KCL to the supernode to get

94
 Problem - Solution
• This is the same equation that was obtained using method 1. Applying
KCL to the supernode is a shortcut for doings three things:
1. Labeling the voltage source current as i.
2. Applying KCL at both nodes of the voltage source.
3. Eliminating i from the KCL equations.

95
 References
1. R.C. Dorf and James A. Svoboda, “Introduction to Electric Circuits”, 9th ed,
John Wiley & Sons, 2013.
2. D.C. Kulshreshtha, Basic Electrical Engineering, Revised 1st ed, Tata Mc
Graw Hill, 2017.
3. V. K.Mehta, Rohit Mehta, Basic Electrical Engineering, 6th ed, S. Chand
Publishing, 2012.

96
 BASIC ELECTRONICS
(24B11EC111)
Unit-1
Lecture-5
(Methods of DC Circuit Analysis Contd.)

97
 CONTENTS
• Node Voltage Analysis of Circuits with Dependent
Sources
• Mesh Current Analysis of Circuits with
Independent Voltage Sources
• Mesh Current Analysis with Current and Voltage
Sources
• Problem
• References

98
 Node Voltage Analysis of Circuits with
Dependent Sources
• When a circuit contains a dependent source the controlling current
or voltage of that dependent source must be expressed as a
function of the node voltages.

• It is then a simple matter to express the controlled current or

voltage as a function of the node voltages.

99
 Problem
Determine the node voltages for the circuit shown in Figure

FIGURE - A circuit with a CCVS.

100
 Problem - Solution
• The controlling current of
the dependent source is ix.

• The value of the node voltage

at node a is set by the 8-V
voltage source

The node voltage at node c is equal to the voltage of the dependent source, so

101
 Problem - Solution
Next, apply KCL at node b to get

eliminate vc

Solving for vb gives

Then
102
 Mesh Current Analysis of Circuits with
Independent Voltage Sources
• we consider the analysis of circuits using Kirchhoff’s voltage law (KVL) around a
closed path
• A mesh is a special case of a loop.
• A mesh is a loop that does not contain any other loops within it.

⮚ Mesh current analysis is applicable only to planar networks.

• A planar circuit is one that can be drawn on a plane, without crossovers.

• An example of a nonplanar circuit is shown in Figure, in which the crossover is
identified and cannot be removed by redrawing the circuit.

103
 Mesh Current Analysis of Circuits with
Independent Voltage Sources
There are four meshes in the circuit shown in Figure.

104
 Mesh Current Analysis of Circuits with
Independent Voltage Sources
• Mesh current as the current through the elements constituting the mesh.
• Figure shows a circuit having two meshes with the mesh currents labeled as i1 and i2.
• We will use the convention of a mesh current in the clockwise direction as shown in
Figure.

• For analyzing an electric circuit : write and solve a set of simultaneous equations
called the mesh equations.
• The unknown variables in the mesh equations are the mesh currents of the
circuit.
• We determine the values of the mesh currents by solving the mesh equations.
To write a set of mesh equations, we do two things:
1. Express element voltages as functions of the mesh currents.
2. Apply Kirchhoff’s voltage law (KVL) to each of the meshes of the circuit.
105
 Mesh Current Analysis of Circuits with
Independent Voltage Sources

Figure shows a circuit element that is in two meshes.

The reference directions for 3 A and i1 i2 are different (one points up, the other
points down)

106
 Mesh Current Analysis of Circuits with
Independent Voltage Sources

• The resistor
currents are
expressed as
functions of the
mesh currents,
and then the
resistor voltages
are expressed as
functions of the
mesh currents
107
 Mesh Current Analysis of Circuits with
Independent Voltage Sources

Rewriting the two equations, we have

108
 Mesh Current Analysis of Circuits with
Independent Voltage Sources
• Consider a circuit with three meshes, as shown in Figure.
• Assign the clockwise direction to all of the mesh currents. Using KVL, we obtain
the three mesh equations

These three mesh equations can be rewritten by collecting coefficients for each
109
mesh current as
Mesh Current Analysis of Circuits with
Independent Voltage Sources

110
Mesh Current Analysis with Current and Voltage
Sources

second mesh current is equal to the negative of the current source current.

and we need only determine the first mesh current i1. Writing KVL for the first
mesh, we obtain

111
 References
1. R.C. Dorf and James A. Svoboda, “Introduction to Electric
Circuits”, 9th ed, John Wiley & Sons, 2013.
2. D.C. Kulshreshtha, Basic Electrical Engineering, Revised 1st ed,
Tata Mc Graw Hill, 2017.
3. V. K.Mehta, Rohit Mehta, Basic Electrical Engineering, 6th ed,
S. Chand Publishing, 2012.

112
 BASIC ELECTRONICS
(24B11EC111)
Unit-1
Lecture-6
(Methods of DC Circuit Analysis Contd.)

113
 CONTENTS
• Mesh Current Analysis with Current and
Voltage Sources
• Mesh Current Analysis with Supermesh
approach
• Problem
• References

114
Mesh Current Analysis with Current and Voltage
Sources
we have a current source is that has an unknown voltage vab across its terminals. We
can readily note that

by writing KCL at node a.

The two mesh equations are

115
Mesh Current Analysis with Current and Voltage
Sources
we eliminate vab, obtaining

116
 Mesh Current Analysis
⮚ If the current source influences only one mesh current, we write the
equation that relates that mesh current to the current source current
and write the KVL equations for the remaining meshes.

⮚ If the current source influences two mesh currents, we write the KVL
equation for both meshes, assuming a voltage vab across the terminals
of the current source. Then, adding these two mesh equations, we
obtain an equation independent of vab.

117
 Problem
Consider the circuit of Figure where R1 = 1 Ω, R2 = 1 Ω and R3 = 2 Ω. Find the
three mesh currents.

118
 Problem - Solution
Because the 4-A source is in mesh 1
only, we note that

For the 5-A source, we have

Writing KVL for mesh 2 and mesh 3, we obtain

119
 Problem - Solution
We substitute i1 = 4 , and add both equations

From Eq. i2 = 5 + i3 , we have

Using the values for the resistors, we obtain

120
Mesh Current Analysis with Current and Voltage
Sources
• Another technique for the mesh analysis method when a current source is
common to two meshes involves the concept of a supermesh.
• A supermesh is one larger mesh created from two meshes that have an
independent or dependent current source in common, as shown in Figure.

FIGURE - Circuit with a supermesh that incorporates mesh 1 and mesh 2.

The supermesh is indicated by the dashed line.
121
 Mesh Current Analysis – Supermesh Approach
• The 5-A current source is common to
mesh 1 and mesh 2.
• The supermesh consists of the
interior of mesh 1 and mesh 2.
• Writing KVL around the periphery of
the supermesh shown by the dashed
lines, we obtain

For mesh 3, we have

Finally, the equation that relates the current source current to the mesh currents is

122
 Mesh Current Analysis – Supermesh Approach

Then the three equations may be reduced to

Therefore, solving the three equations

simultaneously, we find that

123
 Practice Problem
Determine the values of the mesh currents i1 and i2 for the circuit shown
in Figure

124
Mesh Current Analysis with Dependent Sources
- Example
⮚ When a circuit contains a dependent source, the controlling current or voltage of
that dependent source must be expressed as a function of the mesh currents.

Problem: Consider the circuit shown in Figure. Find the value of the voltage measured
by the voltmeter.

125
 Problem - Solution
Let i1 and i2 denote the
mesh currents in meshes 1
and 2, respectively.

The controlling current of the dependent source, ia, is the current in a short circuit.
The short-circuit current can be expressed in terms of the mesh currents as

The reference direction of the dependent source current does not agree with the
reference direction of i2. Consequently,

126
 Problem - Solution

Apply KVL to mesh 1 to get

Apply KVL to mesh 2 to get

127
 Problem
Consider the circuit shown in Figure. Find the value of the resistance, R.

128
 Problem - Solution
Figure shows the circuit after replacing the ammeter by an equivalent short circuit and
labeling the current measured by the ammeter.

• This circuit can be analyzed using

mesh equations or using node
equations.
• To decide which will be easier, we
first count the nodes and meshes.
• This circuit has five nodes.
• Selecting a reference node and
then applying KCL at the other four
nodes will produce a set of four
node equations. The circuit has
three meshes.
• Applying KVL to these three meshes will produce a set of three mesh equations.
Hence, analyzing this
• circuit using mesh equations instead of node equations will produce a smaller set of
equations. Further, notice that two
• of the three mesh currents can be determined directly from the current source
currents. This makes the mesh equations
• easier to solve. We will analyze this circuit by writing and solving mesh equations.
129
 Problem - Solution
The mesh current i1 is equal to the
current in the 1-A current source, so

The mesh current i2 is equal to the

current in the 3-A current source, so

The mesh current i3 is equal to the current in the short circuit that replaced the ammeter,
so

Apply KVL to mesh 3 to get

Substituting the values of the mesh currents gives

130
 Problem
Consider the circuit shown in Figure. Find the value of the resistance, R.

131
 Problem - Solution

• Figure shows the circuit after replacing the voltmeter by an equivalent open circuit and
labeling the voltage measured by the voltmeter.
• This circuit can be analyzed using mesh equations or node equations. To decide which will
be easier, we first count the nodes and meshes.
• This circuit has four nodes. Selecting a reference node and then applying KCL at the other
three nodes will produce a set of three node equations.
• The circuit has three meshes. Applying KVL to these three meshes will produce a set of
three mesh equations. Analyzing this circuit using mesh equations requires the same
number of equations that are required to analyze the circuit using node equations.
• Notice that one of the three mesh currents can be determined directly from the current
source current, but two of the three node voltages can be determined directly from the
voltage source voltages. This makes the node equations easier to solve.
• We will analyze this circuit by writing and solving node equations. 132
 Problem - Solution
The voltage of the 16-V voltage
source can be expressed in
terms of the node voltages as

The voltage of the 18-V voltage

source can be expressed in terms
of the node voltages as

The voltmeter measures the node voltage at node 3, so

Applying KCL at node 3 to get

Substituting the values of the node voltages gives

133
• If a circuit has both current sources and voltage sources, it can be analyzed by
either method.
• One approach is to compare the number of equations required for each
method.
• If the circuit has fewer nodes than meshes, it may be wise to select the node
voltage method. If the circuit has fewer meshes than nodes, it may be easier
to use the mesh current method.

• Another point to consider when choosing between the two methods is what
information is required. If you need to know several currents, it may be wise
to proceed directly with mesh current analysis.

134
 References
1. R.C. Dorf and James A. Svoboda, “Introduction to Electric Circuits”, 9th ed,
John Wiley & Sons, 2013.
2. D.C. Kulshreshtha, Basic Electrical Engineering, Revised 1st ed, Tata Mc Graw
Hill, 2017.
3. V. K.Mehta, Rohit Mehta, Basic Electrical Engineering, 6th ed, S. Chand
Publishing, 2012.

135
BASIC ELECTRONICS
(24B11EC111)
Unit-1
Lecture-7
(Superposition Theorem)

136
 CONTENTS

• Network Theorems

• Linearity Property

• Superposition Theorem

• Problem

• References
 Network Theorems

• To handle the complex circuits, engineers have developed some theorems like

Superposition Theorem, Thevenin’s Theorem, Norton’s Theorem, Maximum Power

Transfer Theorem.

• Since these theorems are applicable to linear circuits, we first discuss the concept

of circuit linearity.
 Linearity Property
• Linearity is the property of an element describing a linear relationship between cause and
effect.
• The property is a combination of both the homogeneity (scaling) property and the additivity
property.
• The homogeneity property requires that if the input is multiplied by a constant, then the
output is multiplied by the same constant.
• The additivity property requires that the response to a sum of inputs is the sum of the
responses to each input applied separately.
• Resistor is a linear element because the voltage-current relationship satisfies both the
homogeneity and the additivity properties.
• In general, a circuit is linear if it is both additive and homogeneous.
• A linear circuit consists of only linear elements, linear dependent sources, and independent
sources.
 Superposition Theorem
❖ The superposition principle states that the voltage across (or current through) an
element in a linear circuit is the algebraic sum of the voltages across (or currents
through) that element due to each independent source acting alone.

⮚ To apply the superposition principle, we must keep two things in mind:

1. We consider one independent source at a time while all other independent

sources are turned off. This implies that we replace every voltage source by 0 V (or
a short circuit), and every current source by 0 A (or an open circuit). This way we
obtain a simpler and more manageable circuit.
2. Dependent sources are left intact because they are controlled by circuit variables.
 Superposition Theorem

⮚ With these in mind, we apply the superposition principle in three steps:

1. Turn off all independent sources except one source. Find the output (voltage or
current) due to that active source.
2. Repeat step 1 for each of the other independent sources.
3. Find the total contribution by adding algebraically all the contributions due to
the independent sources.
 Problem
Use the superposition theorem to find v in the circuit of Fig.
 Problem - Solution
Since there are two sources, let

where v1 and v2 are the contributions due to the 6-V voltage source and the 3-A current
source, respectively.

To obtain v1 we set the current source to zero, as shown in Figure.

Applying KVL to the loop gives

Thus
 Problem - Solution

We may also use voltage division to get v1 by writing

 Problem - Solution

To get v2 we set the voltage source to zero, as in Figure.

Using current division,

Hence,

And we find
 Problem
Find i0 in the circuit of Figure using superposition.
 Problem - Solution
The circuit in Figure involves a dependent source, which must be left intact.

We let

where and are due to the 4-A current source and 20-V voltage source
respectively.

To obtain we turn off the 20-V source so that we have the circuit in Figure.

We apply mesh analysis in order to obtain

For loop 1,

For loop 2,
 Problem - Solution
For loop 3,

But at node 0,

By substituting, we get

After solving, we get

 Problem - Solution

To obtain we turn off the 4-A current source so that the circuit becomes that
shown in Figure.
For loop 4, KVL gives

and for loop 5,

But

Substituting this in Equations gives

which we solve to get

Finally, we
get
 Practice Problem
For the circuit in Figure, use the superposition theorem to find i.

Ans: 2 A
 References
1. R.C. Dorf and James A. Svoboda, “Introduction to Electric Circuits”, 9th ed,
John Wiley & Sons, 2013.
2. D.C. Kulshreshtha, Basic Electrical Engineering, Revised 1st ed, Tata Mc Graw
Hill, 2017.
3. V. K.Mehta, Rohit Mehta, Basic Electrical Engineering, 6th ed, S. Chand
Publishing, 2012.

151
BASIC ELECTRONICS
(24B11EC111)
Unit-1
Lecture-8
(Thevenin’s Theorem)

152
 CONTENTS

• Basics of Thevenin’s theorem.

• Finding the Thevenin's equivalent circuit.
• Procedure for solving a circuit using Thevenin’s
Theorem
• Problems.
• Practice Problems
• References
 Thevenin’s Theorem
• M. L. Thevenin, a French engineer, introduced the Thevenin theorem and its equivalent circuit in
1883.
• Statement: Thevenin’s Theorem states that ―Any linear circuit containing several independent or
dependent voltages sources and resistances can be replaced by just one single voltage in series with
a single resistance connected across the load‖. In other words, it is possible to simplify any
electrical circuit, no matter how complex, to an equivalent two-terminal circuit with just a single
constant voltage source known as Thevenin’s equivalent voltage (Vth) or open circuit voltage (Voc)
in series with a resistance or impedance (Thevenin’s equivalent resistance, Rth)) connected to a load
as shown below.

Rth

Vth or Voc

Fig. 1 (a) Fig. 1 (b)

 Finding the Thevenin equivalent circuit
• Thevenin equivalent voltage Vth or Open circuit voltage , Voc : In Fig. 2, an open circuit is connected across the
terminals A – B of circuit shown in Fig. 1(a) or removing the load resistance RL from A - B terminals. The voltage across
that open circuit is the open-circuit voltage, Voc.

+
Voc or Vth
-

• Fig.is2 connected across the terminals A - B. The current in that short circuit
Short circuit current, Isc: In Fig. 3, a short circuit
is the short-circuit current, Isc.

Isc

Fig. 3
 Finding the Thevenin equivalent circuit
• Thevenin equivalent resistance: Fig 4. indicates that Rth, is the thevenin equivalent resistance looking back
into the circuit when all the independent voltage sources are replaced by short circuits and current sources by
open circuits. However, dependent current and voltage sources are not replaced with open circuits or short
circuits.

Rth

Fig. 4
• Thevenin resistance, Rth, can be determined by repeatedly replacing series or parallel resistors by equivalent
resistors. Sometimes, a more formal method is required where, a current source having current It, is
connected across the terminals of circuit and the voltage, Vt, across the current source is calculated or
measured.
– Then Thevenin equivalent resistance can be calculated as
 Procedure for solving a circuit using Thevenin’s Theorem
• Remove the load resistor RL or component concerned.
• Find Rth by shorting all voltage sources or by open circuiting all the
current sources.
• Find Voc by the usual circuit analysis methods.
• Find the current flowing through the load resistor RL.
 Problems
Q1. For the given circuit, calculate the current in 40 Ω resistor using Thevenin theorem.
 Problem-1 Solution

Sol. Step 1: Calculate Rth

 Problem-1 continues

Sol. Step 2: Calculate Vth

 Problem-1 continues

Step 3: Calculate current across 40 Ω

 Problem 2
Q2. Determine the Thevenin equivalent circuit for the circuit shown in Figure.
 Problem 2

Sol. Step 1: Calculate Rth

 Problem 2 continues
Sol. Step 2: Calculate Vth

Step 3: Thevenin equivalent circuit

 Practice Problems
Q1. Determine the Thevenin equivalent network for the following circuit.

Ans. Vth = 2V, Rth = 4Ω

Q2. Calculate the value of I, using Thevenin theorem. Also find Thevenin equivalent network

Answer: VTh = 9 V, RTh = 3 Ω, I = 2.25 A.

 References

[1] R.C. Dorf and James A. Svoboda, ―Introduction to Electric Circuits‖, 9 th ed, John Wiley & Sons, 2013.
BASIC ELECTRONICS
(24B11EC111)
Unit-1
Lecture-9
(Thevenin’s Theorem Contd.)

167
 CONTENTS
• Thevenin equivalent circuit of a circuit having dependent
and independent sources.

• Thevenin equivalent circuit of a circuit having dependent

sources only.

• Problems.

• Practice Problems

• References
 Thevenin equivalent circuit of a circuit
having dependent and independent sources
⮚Procedure for solving such circuit using Thevenin’s Theorem

1. The calculation of Voc finding remain same as we have discussed for the circuits
having independent sources only.

1. For Rth calculation, first calculate Isc (short circuit current) by replacing the load
resistance with short circuit. Then Rth can be obtained as:

Isc
 Problem 1
Q1. Determine the Thevenin equivalent circuit for the circuit shown in Figure.
 Solution 1

Sol. Step 1. Solving Voc

The open circuit causes the current in the 5-V resistor to

be zero. The voltage across that resistor is also zero, so
the
voltage across the 40-V resistor is voc . The ia can be
calculated as
 Problem 1 continues

Applying KVL to the loop consisting the 12-V source, 10-Ω resistor, and 40- Ω resistor gives
 Problem 1 continues
Sol. Step 2. Solving Isc

Applying KVL in loop having 5 Ω and 40 Ω

resistors

Applying KCL at the top node of the 10 Ω resistor

Applying KVL in loop having 5 Ω and 10 Ω resistors

 Problem 1 continues
Sol. Step 3. Solving Rth
 Problem 2
Q2. For the given circuit , find the value of the resistance RL that will cause current iL to be -2 A.
Solution 2
Problem 2 continues
 Thevenin equivalent circuit of a
circuit
having dependent sources only
⮚Procedure for solving such circuit using Thevenin’s Theorem

1. The value of Voc must be zero, because no independent source is there.

2. For Rth calculation, remove the load resistance and connects a 1 A current source
across load terminals and measure the voltage Vt across that current source, then
Rth is
 Problem 1
Q1. Determine the Thevenin's equivalent network for the given circuit.
 Solution 1
Voc=0

For Rth,

+
Vt
-
 Practice Problems
Q1. Find the Thevenin equivalent circuit for the circuit shown in Figure .

Ans. Voc= -2V, Rth= -8/3 Ω

Q1. For the given circuit , find out the resistance R that will cause current ib to be 2 mA. The current
ia has units of amps.

Ans. R=-2 Ω
 References
*1+ R.C. Dorf and James A. Svoboda, “Introduction to Electric Circuits”, 9th
ed, John Wiley & Sons, 2013.
BASIC ELECTRONICS
(24B11EC111)
Unit-1
Lecture-10
(Norton’s Theorem)

183
 CONTENTS
• Norton Theorem
• Examples
• Practice Problem
• References

184
 Norton Theorem
• Norton’s Theorem states that a linear two terminal network can be
replaced by a current source shunted by a resistance R.
• In the Norton circuit, the current source is the short circuit current of the
network, that is the current obtained by shorting the output of the
network.

• The resistance is the resistance seen looking into the network with all
sources deactivated. This is the same as RTH.

185
Norton Equivalent Circuit

186
From source transformations:

If we have the Thevenin equivalent circuit of a network, we can obtain

the Norton equivalent by using source transformation.

187
 Example
Find the Norton equivalent circuit of the circuit

188
189
190
Alternative Method

191
192
 Example

For the circuit shown below, find the Norton equivalent circuit to the left of terminals A-
B.

193
194
195
From the mesh on the left we have;

196
Therefore;

The Norton equivalent circuit is shown below.

197
 Practice Problem
Find the Norton equivalent circuit to the left of terminals A-B for the network
shown below. Connect the Norton equivalent circuit to the load and find the
current in the 50 Ω resistor.

198
199
 Example

Find norton equivalent circuit of Fig shown Below.

Also find current flowing through 40 ohm resistor.
• Isc :
 Example

• Find norton equivalent circuit:

• In order to determine the short-circuit current, we’ll short-circuit terminals a and b
as shown in the following figure and V2 = 0.
 Example continued

Applying KCL at node 1 :

⮚ ̶ 0.003 + V1/3000 + V1/2000 = 0
⮚ V1 = 3.6 V
⮚ i = V1/3000 = 3.6 V/3000Ω= 0.0012 A
 Example continued

CCVS = 2000i = 2.4 V i = 0.0012 A

IR2 = V1/R2 = 1.8mA

IR3 = CCVS/R3 = 2.4mA
IN = IR2+ IR3 = 1.8 mA + 2.4 mA = 4.2 mA
• In order to determine RN, deactivate the current source, a test voltage of 1 V is
applied across terminals a and b as shown in the following figure.
• Vt = 1 V.
IR2 = i = Vt/(R1+ R2) = 1 V/5 kΩ = 0.2mA
CCVS= 2000i = 0.4 V
IR3 = (Vt- CCVS)/R3 = 0.6mA
IR4 = Vt/R4 = 0.25mA
It = IR2 + IR3 + IR4 = 0.2 mA + 0.6 mA + 0.25 mA = 1.05mA
Norton’s equivalent resistance can be found as
RN = Vt/It = 952.381Ω
 References
1. R.C. Dorf and James A. Svoboda, “Introduction to Electric Circuits”, 9th ed,
John Wiley & Sons, 2013.
2. D.C. Kulshreshtha, Basic Electrical Engineering, Revised 1st ed, Tata Mc Graw
Hill, 2017.
3. V. K.Mehta, Rohit Mehta, Basic Electrical Engineering, 6th ed, S. Chand
Publishing, 2012.