MEASUREMENT

AND
INSTRUMENTATION
SUBMIT BY:
Ankit Gupta 22/006
Civil engineering
THEORY OF ERRORS

ACCURACY AND PRECISION

In ordinary usage, the distinction between words "Accuracy" and "Precision" is usually very
vague. Infact even the dictionaries invariably link the definition of one with the other. But as
far as field of measurements is concerned, there is a difference between the two terms as
they have sharp differences in meaning
As far as measurements are concerned, the two terms may be defined as:

Accuracy
1.It is the closeness with which an instrument reading approaches the true value of the
quantity being measured. Thus, accuracy of a measurement means conformity to truth.

2.The accuracy may be specified in terms of inaccuracy or limits of errors and can be
expressed in the following ways:

1. Point accuracy
This is the accuracy of the instrument only at one point on its scale. The specification of this
accuracy does not give any information about the accuracy at other points on the scale or in
other words, does not give any information about the general accuracy of the instrument.
However, the general accuracy may be given by drawing up a table that specifies the
accuracy at a number of points throughout the range of instrument.
2.Accuracy as "Percentage of Scale Range
When an instrument has uniform scale, its accuracy may be expressed in terms of scale range.
For example, the accuracy of a thermometer having a range of 500°C may be expressed as±
0.5 percent of scale range. This means that the accuracy of the thermometer when the reading
is 500°C is± 0.5% which is negligible, but when the reading is 25°C (i.e., 20 percent of scale
range), the error is as high as (500/25)x(10.5) = 10 percent and therefore specifica- tion of
accuracy in this manner is highly misleading.

3.Accuracy as "Percentage of True Value"

The best way to conceive the idea of accuracy is to specify it in terms of the true value of the
quantity being measured l.e., within± 0.5 per cent of true value. This statement means thus as the
readings get smaller so do the errors. Thus at 5 percent of full scale the accuracy of the instrument
would be 20 percent better than that of an instrument which is accurate to ± 0.5% of scale range.
 Precision

It is a measure of the reproducibility of the measurements, ie, given a fixed value of a

quantity, precision is a measure of the degree

of agreement within a group of measurements. The term 'Precise' means clearly or sharply
defined. As an example of the difference in meaning of the two terms accuracy and precision,
suppose that we have an ammeter which possesses high degree of precision by virtue of its
clearly legible, finely divided, distinct scale and a knife edge pointer with mirror arrangements
to remove parallax. Let us say that its readings can be taken to 1/100 of an ampere. At the
same time,

ils zero, adjustment is wrong. Now every time we take a reading, the ammeter is as precise
as ever, we can take readings down to 1/100 of an ampere, and the readings are consistent
and "clearly defined". However, the readings taken with this ammeter are not accurate, since
they do not confirm to truth on account of its faulty zero adjustment.

Let us cite another example. Consider the measurement of a known voltage of 100 V with a
meter. Five readings are taken, and the indicated values are 104, 103, 105, 103 and 105 V.
From these values it is seen that the instrument cannot be depended on for
an accuracy better than 5% (5 Vin this case), while a precision of + 1 % is indicated since the
maximum deviation from the mean

reading of 104 V is only 1.0 V. Thus we find that the instrument can be calibrated so that it
could be used to read + 1 V dependably. This example illustrates that accuracy can be
improved upon but not the precision of the instrument by calibration. Another point which is
evident from above is that although the readings are close together they have a small scatter
(or dispersion) and thus have a high degree of precision but the results are far from accurate.
The precision of

an instrument is usually dependent upon many factors and requires many sophisticated
techniques of analysis.

Thus, when it is stated that a set of readings shows precision it means that the results agree
among themselves. Agreement, however, is no guarantee of accuracy, as there may be
some systematic disturbing effect that causes all the measured values to be in error.
 REPEATABILITY

0 Input_.

Reproducibility and Repeatability are a measure of closeness with which a given input may be measured over
and over again. The two terms cause confusion. Therefore, a distinction is made between the two terms.
Reproducibility is specified in terms of scale readings over a given period
of time. On the other hand, Repeatability is defined as the variation. of scale reading and is random in
nature. Figure shows this repeatability.

LIMITS OF ERRORS
Absolute Error: The difference between the measured
value and the true value. It is expressed in the same units as the
measurement.
Relative Error: The ratio of the absolute error to the true value,
often expressed as a percentage. This gives a sense of the error's
magnitude relative to the quantity being measured.
Precision: Refers to the consistency of repeated measurements,
indicating the extent of random errors. It does not imply accuracy.
Accuracy: The closeness of a measurement to the true value,
reflecting both systematic and random errors.
 Systematic Errors
.

These are consistent, repeatable errors associated with faulty equipment or bias in measurement methods.
They can often be corrected once identified

Instrumental Errors: Caused by imperfections in measuring instruments

(e.g., zero error in a scale).

Environmental Errors: Result from external factors like temperature, humidity, or

electromagnetic interference.

Observational Errors: Occur due to the limitations of human observers (e.g.,

parallax error).

Random Errors
These are unpredictable fluctuations that vary with each measurement. They arise from random and uncontrollable
factors (e.g., electrical noise in a circuit). Unlike systematic errors, they cannot be corrected but can be minimized
by taking multiple measurements and averaging them.

Modeling errors
Modeling error in measurement and instrumentation occurs when the mathematical model used to describe a
system doesn't perfectly match the actual system.

Key causes include:

• Simplifications: Models often simplify complex systems, which can lead to inaccuracies.
• Parameter Estimation: Errors in estimated parameters, like resistance in a circuit, can propagate and
affect the results.
• Dynamic Systems: Static models may not capture time-dependent changes in dynamic
systems.
• Nonlinearities: If the model assumes linearity but the system is nonlinear, errors occur.

• Numerical Approximations: Computational models can introduce errors through approximations.

To reduce modeling errors, improve model accuracy, validate
models with experimental data, and quantify uncertainties.
 Probable errors
Definition: Probable error (PE) is a statistical measure indicating the range within which half of
the measurement errors are likely to fall. It provides an estimate of the precision of a set of measurements.

Usage: PE helps in assessing the reliability of measurements by giving a confidence interval for
the expected error. For example, if the probable error of a measurement is small, the data is considered
precise.
 Standard Deviation (S.D.}
Another important term in the analysis of random the standard deviation or the root mean square deviation.
The Standard Deviation of an infinite number of data is defined as the square root of the sum of the individual
deviations squared, divided by the number of readings.

Thus standard deviation is:

In practice, however, the number of observationsis finite. When the number of observations is greaterthan 20, S.D. is
denoted by symbol o while if thenumber of observations is less than 20, the symbolused is s. The Standard Deviation of a
finite number ofdata is given by

Gaussian Error Analysis

Gaussian Error Analysis is used to understand and interpret errors that follow a normal (Gaussian) distribution.

Normal Distribution: Errors are distributed in a bell-shaped curve around the mean (true value}, with most
errors close to the mean and fewer as you move away.

Standard Deviation (a): Measures how spread out the errors are. In a Gaussian distribution
• 68% of errors fall within +la of the mean.
• 95% fall within +2a.
• 99.7% fall within +3a.

Error Propagation: When combining measurements, Gaussian error analysis helps calculate the overall error
by considering the errors in each measurement.

Confidence Intervals: It helps determine the range within which the true value lies with a specific probability
(e.g., 95% confidence).
Gaussian error analysis is essential for quantifying measurement uncertainty and ensuring the reliability of
results.

Combination Of Errors
Combination of errors in measurement and instrumentation refers to the process of determining the overall error
when multiple measurements, each with its own error, are combined.Addition/Subtraction:Rule: When measurements
are added or subtracted, the total error is calculated by considering the individual errors of each measurement. Example:
If two measurements with errors of +2 and +3 units are added, the combined error is approximately +3.6
units.Multiplication/Division:Rule: When measurements are multiplied or divided, the relative (percentage) errors are
combined.
Example: If two measurements are multiplied, with relative errors of 5% and 10%, the combined relative error is
approximately 11.2%
 Importance:
Accuracy: Understanding how errors combine helps in accurately assessing the reliability of complex
measurements.
Uncertainty: It allows for proper estimation of the total uncertainty in the final result, ensuring more reliable
measurements.

TRANSDUCER
Classification of Transducers
Based on Operating Principle:
Analog vs. Digital: Analog transducers provide a continuous output signal (e.g., thermocouples}, while digital
transducers provide discrete output (e.g., digital temperature sensors).

Active vs. Passive: Active transducers generate an output signal without needing an external power source
(e.g., piezoelectric sensors}, whereas passive transducers require an external power source to produce an
output signal (e.g., resistive temperature devices).

Based on Measurement Type:

Mechanical Transducers: Measure mechanical properties like force or pressure (e.g., strain gauges).
Electrical Transducers: Measure electrical properties like voltage or current (e.g., Hall effect sensors).
Optical Transducers: Use light to measure properties like displacement or pressure (e.g., fiber optic sensors).

Based on Measurement Quantity:

Temperature Transducers: Measure temperature changes (e.g., thermistors, RTDs).
Pressure Transducers: Measure pressure (e.g., Bourdon tubes, piezoelectric sensors).Displacement Transducers:
Measure movement or displacement (e.g., LVDTs, potentiometers).

Selection Criteria for Transducers

Measurement Range: The transducer must be able to accurately measure the expected
range of the variable. Ensure the transducer's range covers the maximum and minimum
values of the parameter.

Accuracy and Precision: Choose a transducer with the required level of accuracy and
precision for the application. Higher accuracy reduces measurement errors and improves
reliability.

Sensitivity: The transducer should be sensitive enough to detect the smallest changes in
the measurement parameter.

Environmental Conditions: Consider the operating environment, such as temperature,

humidity, and exposure to chemicals
or vibrations. Ensure the transducer can withstand these conditions.

Response Time: The transducer should have an appropriate response time for the
application. Faster response is needed for dynamic measurements.
 Output Signal Compatibility: The output signal of the transducer should be compatible with
the measurement system or data acquisition system. This includes considerations of voltage,
current, or digital signals.

Size and Installation: Ensure the transducer fits the physical space and installation
requirements of the system.

Cost and Maintenance: Balance the cost of the transducer with its performance and
maintenance requirements. Ensure that the total cost of ownership fits within the project budget.

Characteristics of Transducers
1. Sensitivity: The ability of a transducer to convert a small input signal into a significant output signal.
Higher sensitivity means the transducer can detect minute changes in the measured parameter.

2. Linearity: The degree to which the output signal of the transducer is directly proportional to the input signal.
A linear transducer produces an output that changes consistently with the input.

3. Range: The range is the span between the minimum and maximum values that a transducer can
accurately measure.

4. Accuracy: The closeness of the transducer's output to the true value of the measured quantity. High accuracy
means the transducer's readings are very close to the actual value.

5. Resolution: The smallest change in the input signal that a transducer can detect and respond to.

6. Repeatability: The transducer's ability to produce the same output when the same input is applied
repeatedly, indicating consistency.

?.Stability: The ability of a transducer to maintain its performance over time, without drifting.

Construction of Transducers
The construction of a transducer depends on its type and the quantity it measures. However, common
elements include:

1. Sensing Element: The component that directly interacts with the physical quantity being
measured. For example, a thermocouple uses junctions of different metals, while a strain gauge
uses a resistive wire.
 2. Transduction Element: Converts the sensed physical quantity into an electrical signal. For
example, in a piezoelectric transducer, mechanical pressure is converted into a voltage signal.
3. Housing: The enclosure that protects the internal components from environmental factors
like dust, moisture, and physical damage.

4. Signal Conditioning Circuit: Enhances the output signal for further processing or display, often
involving amplification, filtering, or analog-to-digital conversion.

Working Principles of Transducers

Electromagnetic: These transducers operate based on electromagnetic principles, where
changes in magnetic fields induce a voltage. Example: Inductive sensors that detect metal
objects by changes in inductance.

Piezoelectric: Utilizes the piezoelectric effect, where mechanical stress applied to a

piezoelectric material generates an electrical charge. Example: Piezoelectric sensors
used in vibration and pressure measurement.

1. RTD (Resistance Temperature Detector)

• Working Principle: RTDs operate on the principle that the electrical resistance of a metal
changes with temperature. Typically made of platinum, the resistance increases linearly with
temperature.
• Application: Used for precise temperature measurements in industrial processes,
laboratories, and HVAC systems.

2. Thermocouples
• Working Principle: Based on the Seebeck effect, where a voltage is generated at the
junction of two different metals when there is a temperature difference between them.
Application: Commonly used in high-temperature environments such as furnaces, engines, and
industrial kilns

3.Thermistors
• Working Principle: Thermistors are temperature-sensitive resistors,
typically made of
semiconductor materials. Their resistance decreases significantly with increasing temperature
(negative temperature coefficient).
• Application: Used in temperature sensing, circuit protection, and automotive
sensors.

3. LVDT (Linear Variable Differential Transformer)

• Working Principle: An LVDT measures linear displacement by converting it into
an electrical signal. It operates using a movable core that changes the inductance in
the transformer coils.
• Application: Used in precision measurement of displacement in machinery,
robotics, and aerospace.

4. Strain Gauges
• Working Principle: Strain gauges measure the change in electrical resistance as a
material deforms under stress. The deformation causes a change in length and cross-
sectional area, altering the resistance.
• Application: Widely used in load cells, pressure sensors, and structural testing.

5. Bourdon Tubes
• Working Principle: Bourdon tubes are mechanical pressure sensors that work by
straightening out under pressure. The movement of the tube's end is then converted
into a readable output.
• Application: Used in pressure gauges for monitoring fluids and gases in industrial
processes.

6.Seismic Accelerometers
• Working Principle: Seismic accelerometers detect vibrations or accelerations by
measuring the force exerted on a proof mass. The displacement is then converted into
an electrical signal.
• Application: Used in earthquake detection, structural monitoring, and vibration
analysis.

7.Tacho-generators
• Working Principle: Tacho-generators convert rotational speed into a proportional
electrical signal, typically voltage. They work on the principle of electromagnetic induction.
• Application: Used to measure rotational speed in motors, turbines, and automotive
applications.
8.Load Cells
• Working Principle: Load cells measure force or weight by converting the mechanical
force into an electrical signal, usually through the deformation of strain gauges.
• Application: Used in weighing scales, industrial process control, and material testing
machines.
•

9.Piezoelectric Transducers
• Working Principle: These transducers generate an electrical charge when
subjected to mechanical stress or pressure, due to the piezoelectric effect.
• Application: Used in vibration sensors, accelerometers, ultrasonic devices, and
microphones.
 10.Ultrasonic Flow Meters
• Working Principle: Ultrasonic flow meters measure the velocity of a fluid by sending
ultrasonic pulses through the fluid and analyzing the changes in the signal as it passes through.
• Application: Used in measuring flow rates of liquids and gases in pipelines, water
treatment facilities, and chemical plants.