Electrochemistry Communications 154 (2023) 107560

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Electrochemistry Communications
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/elecom

Enhancing gravimetric and volumetric capacitance in supercapacitors with

nanostructured partially graphitic activated carbon
Jeong Han Lee a, b, Yong-Mook Kang b, c, d, Kwang Chul Roh a, *
a
Emerging Materials R&D Division, Korea Institute Ceramic Engineering & Technology, Jinju-si 52851, Republic of Korea
b
Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Korea University, Seoul 02841, Republic of Korea
c
KU-KIST Graduate School of Converging Science and Technology, Korea University, Seoul 02841, Republic of Korea
d
Energy Storage Research Center, Clean Energy Research Division, Korea Institute of Science and Technology (KIST), Seoul 02792, Republic of Korea

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: The volumetric and gravimetric capacitance of supercapacitors are primarily influenced by the specific surface
Petroleum pitch area and porosity required for the formation of electric double layers in the electrode material, and these
Partially graphitic structure capacitance are known to have a trade-off relationship. To address this issue, additional capacitance enhance­
Supercapacitor
ment mechanisms are needed not only at the electrode material surface but also within the limited mass and
Activated carbon
volume, which can be achieved through structural improvements of the material. In this study, we produce
partially graphitic activated carbon with low specific surface area but nano-sized crystalline regions from pe­
troleum pitch, a soft carbon precursor. This approach allows for improvements in gravimetric capacitance. The
resulting activated carbon with a specific surface area of 1122 m2 g− 1 exhibits volumetric specific capacitance of
27.9 F cc− 1 and gravimetric specific capacitance of 38 F g− 1 in an organic electrolyte, indicating a new direction
for electrode materials in supercapacitors.

1. Introduction yields during the production process [15,16]. PP possesses a structure

that tends to exhibit crystallinity due to its soft carbon nature and can
EDLC (Electric Double Layer Capacitor) is an energy storage device readily develop partial crystallinity under specific experimental condi­
that stores charge electrostatically at the interface between the electrode tions [17]. Moreover, PP is readily available and cost-effective, making
and electrolyte, enabling fast and repetitive charging and discharging it an economical choice for activated carbon production. Consequently,
cycles, while providing high power density and long cycle life [1,2]. To extensive research has been conducted on PP as a potential precursor for
increase the energy storage capacity of EDLC, it is crucial to increase the activated carbon electrodes [18–20].
specific surface area of electrode materials to allow for the adsorption of In this paper, we manufactured activated carbon from PP capable of
a large amount of ions and reduce the internal resistance of the elec­ inducing partially graphitic structures that satisfy both volumetric and
trodes [3–7]. There have been numerous studies regarding electrode gravimetric specific capacitance simultaneously. Subsequently, through
materials or electrolytes in relation to achieving high energy density in the investigation of the relationship between the physical and electro­
EDLCs [8,9]. Among various materials, activated carbon is the most chemical properties of the activated carbon, it was confirmed that both
attractive electrode material because it has fine micropores on its sur­ specific capacitances could be achieved.
face, allowing for the formation of electric double layers on each pore
wall and increasing the specific capacitance per unit surface area. 2. Experimental
Activated carbon is commonly produced using the alkaline activation
method and various raw materials such as coconut shells, wood, and 2.1. Materials
petroleum or coal residues like pitch, to create a porous carbon structure
[10–14]. Petroleum pitch (PP) was a by-product of the petroleum refining
Petroleum pitch (PP) is particularly notable among various materials process obtained from Liaoning Sincere Carbon New Material Co., Ltd.
for activated carbon due to its high carbon content, which results in high (Liaoning, China), and has a softening point of 200 ◦ C. Potassium

* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: [email protected] (K.C. Roh).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.elecom.2023.107560
Received 19 July 2023; Received in revised form 8 August 2023; Accepted 14 August 2023
Available online 15 August 2023
1388-2481/© 2023 The Authors. Published by Elsevier B.V. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-
nc-nd/4.0/).
J.H. Lee et al. Electrochemistry Communications 154 (2023) 107560

hydroxide (KOH, 95 %) and hydrochloric acid aqueous solution (HCl, and power density (P, W kg− 1 and W L− 1) were obtained using Equations
36.5 %) were purchased from Samchun Chemical Co., Ltd. (South Korea) (2) and (3), respectively, using the symmetric cell:
and used as activators and neutralizers. The conductive material, Super-
Cm ΔV 2 Cv ΔV 2
P black, and the binder, polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE), were purchased Em = , Ev = (2)
2 2
from MMM Carbon Co. and Daikin Industries in Belgium, respectively.
Em Ev
2.2. Preparation of activated carbon Pm = , Pv = (3)
t t
where t (s) is discharge time and ΔV (V) is the voltage window [21].
The activation process proceeded in three steps. First, the carbon­
ization process of the PP was carried out at 500, 600, and 700 ◦ C for 1 h a
heating rate of 3 ◦ C min− 1 in an inert atmosphere (N2, 300 cc min− 1) to 3. Results and discussions
remove volatile materials and form the basic carbon structure. Second,
the resulting powders were mixed with KOH pellets at a C/KOH ratio of 3.1. Structural analysis of carbonized petroleum pitch and activated
1:4 (w/w %), the mixture was placed in a nickel reactor for activation, carbons
and heated to 900 ◦ C (heating rate of 2 ◦ C min− 1) in a vertical furnace for
1 h inert atmosphere (Ar, 300 cc min− 1). The resulting activated carbon The structure of carbonized petroleum pitch (PP) was confirmed
was cooled to 25 ◦ C and then washed with 0.1 M HCl solution and through XRD and Raman analysis. As shown in Fig. 1(a), the XRD
deionized water to adjust the pH to 7. Finally, filtered and dried over­ pattern of all carbonized samples exhibited two broad peaks at around
night at 80 ◦ C to obtain PP-derived activated carbon. Carbonized sam­ 25◦ and 43◦ , corresponding to the (0 0 2) and (1 0 0) planes associated
ples are denoted “PP-XC”, where X is the carbonization temperature (eg with graphite [22]. These results were also observed in the Raman
X = 5 = 500 ◦ C). The activated carbon produced is marked PP-XCAC. spectra (Fig. 1(b)). In the Raman spectra, the D band (D1, D2, and D3),
known as the disorder band, was mainly observed at approximately
1350 cm− 1, indicating the presence of structural defects within the
2.3. Characterization of the pitches and activated carbons
carbon material. The G band, also known as the graphite band, appeared
around 1580 cm− 1, indicating the presence of a graphitic component
X-ray diffraction (XRD, D8-Advanced, Bruker Inc., Germany) with Cu
comprising multiple layers of graphene [23]. With an increase in
Kα radiation (λ = 0.154 nm), and Raman spectra (LabRAM ARAMIS,
carbonization temperature up to 700 ◦ C, the intensity of the D peak
Horiba–Jobin Yvon, France) with 514 nm radiation were used to
increased, indicating the removal of carbonaceous hydrocarbons [24].
confirm the crystalline properties. X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy
This indicates that the decrease in the hydrocarbon peak at around 1450
(XPS, PHI 5000 Versa Probe, Ulvac-PHI Inc., Japan) was used to
cm− 1 and the increase in the AD/AG areal ratio from 2.83 to 4.83 are
investigate the surface functional groups of activated carbons. The
attributed to the generation of defects in the carbonaceous material due
graphitic structures were observed by high-resolution transmission
to the volatilization of carbonaceous hydrocarbons.
electron microscopy (HR-TEM, JEM-4010, JEOL, Japan), and the sur­
In the XRD spectra of activated carbons (Fig. 1(c)), most of the
face morphologies were examined using field-emission scanning elec­
graphite peaks disappeared under the strong corrosive reaction of KOH.
tron microscopy (FE-SEM, JSM-7610, JEOL, Japan). N2
It was observed that the PP-7CAC, derived from the PP-7C with the
adsorption–desorption isotherm measurements were performed using a
strongest graphite peak, only showed a weak graphite peak. This result is
gas analyzer at 77 K (Belsorp-Max, BEL, Japan), and the surface area and
attributed to the weaker carbon structure of PP-5CAC and PP-6CAC,
pore size distributions were calculated using the Brunauer–Emmett–­
which were carbonized at relatively low temperatures. Furthermore,
Teller (BET) method, Barrett–Joyner–Halenda (BJH) method, and the
all samples exhibited a decrease in the AD/AG ratio from 7.12 to 6.28 in
non-local density functional theory (NLDFT) model.
the Raman spectra, which is consistent with the XRD results and cor­
relates with the increase in carbonization temperature (Fig. 1(d)). The
2.4. Electrochemical characterization
Ia-c/IG ratio, also representing the degree of amorphous carbon,
decreased as the carbonization temperature increased, indirectly indi­
The electrochemical properties were prepared with prepared acti­
cating the presence of relatively crystalline carbon [25]. The oxygen
vated carbon, Super-P black, and PTFE in a 90:5:5 (w/w/w) ratio, after
functional groups on the surface significantly increased from 0.5 to 5.7
fully mixinsg with ethanol. The electrodes was prepared with the
at. % after activation, as observed in XPS survey spectra (Fig. 1(e)). This
resulting slurry using a roll press and dried at 120 ◦ C for 12 h. Tetrae­
suggests that the oxygen functional groups are introduced from the
thylammonium tetra-fluoroborate in propylene carbonate (1 M TEABF4
oxygen gas generated during the activation process.
in PC) was used as the electrolyte. The symmetrical EDLC was assembled
using a 2032 coin-type cell with a separator and assembled together for
electrochemical tests. 3.2. Morphological and porosity analysis of PP-derived activated carbons
The electrochemical performance of the symmetric two-electrode
EDLC was carried out using a VSP potentiostat (Bio-Logic, France). In the SEM image, the particle size was similar, and cracks were
The gravimetric specific capacitance (Cm, F g− 1) and volumetric specific commonly generated on the rough surface (Fig. 2(a)). Supported by the
capacitance (Cv, F cc− 1) of the EDLC was obtained by galvanostatic Raman spectrea, HR-TEM images in Fig. 2(b) confirmed that the PP-
charge–discharge (GCD) test at constant currents using equation (1). The derived activated carbons possess a partially micro-graphite structure.
GCD behavior of the EDLC was examined in the voltage range of 0–2.7 V Fig. 2(c) showed that N2 adsorption and desorption isotherms of the
at various current densities (1–50 mA cm− 2). activated carbons. All samples exhibit Type I isotherms [26], indicating
a microporous structure according to the International Union of Pure
IΔt IΔt
Cm = , Cv = (1) and Applied Chemistry classification. It was confirmed that the N2
ΔVmac ΔVvac
adsorption amount increased as the carbonization temperature
Where I (A) is the discharge current, Δt (s) is the discharge time, mac decreased. This indicates that PP-5CAC has a weak carbon structure,
(g) represents the total mass of the active materials in the electrode, vac making it more susceptible to severe corrosion by the explosive reaction
(cc) represents the total volume of the electrode, and ΔV (V) is the of potassium. The pore size distribution, determined using the non-
voltage window upon discharge. Cyclic voltammetry (CV) curves at localized density functional theory from the isotherms, is shown in
various scan rates (1–500 mV s− 1) are also obtained. Fig. 2(d). As the carbonization temperature increases, there is a slight
Gravimetric, volumetric specific energy (E, Wh kg− 1 and Wh L− 1) difference in the size of micro-pores in activated carbon, which is

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J.H. Lee et al. Electrochemistry Communications 154 (2023) 107560

Fig. 1. (a) XRD patterns of PP, and (b) Raman spectra of PP and carbonized PP at various temperatures. XRD patterns (c), Raman spectra (d), and XPS survey spectra
(e) of activated carbons.

Fig. 2. (a) FE-SEM and (b) TEM images of PP-5CAC, PP-6CAC, and PP-7CAC. (c) N2 adsorption/desorption isotherms and (d) pore size distribution of activated
carbons prepared from carbonized PP, (e) Comparison of pore volumes according to micro, meso, and macro size.

attributed to the formation of pores during the high-temperature of PP-7CAC, can be expected to significantly enhance the output char­
carbonization process due to vigorous gasification. The volume ratio acteristics significantly.
of pores according to their size was calculated and presented in Fig. 2(e).
Consistent with the results of specific surface area, the pore volume
increases up to a maximum of 1.20 cc g− 1 as the carbonization tem­ 3.3. Electrochemical performance of activated carbon electrodes
perature decreases, and the proportion of micropores is also confirmed
to be the highest. A higher meso-macro pore volume, such as in the case The electrochemical performance of the activated carbon electrodes
were conducted using a rubber-type electrode with a high loading

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J.H. Lee et al. Electrochemistry Communications 154 (2023) 107560

amount of the activated carbons was employed, taking into account on activated carbon derived from pitch. The maximum gravimetric en­
practical usage conditions. The electrode densities using the PP-5CAC, ergy density of pitch-based activated carbon, which was 42.1 Wh kg− 1,
6CAC and 7CAC were 0.51, 0.56, and 0.80 g cc− 1, respectively, and was found to be higher than that of other activated carbons with similar
the electrode thickness was approximately 150 μm. The porosity and specific surface areas [22,31–34], confirming its exceptional perfor­
graphitic structure differences of activated carbons resulting from the mance as an activated carbon for EDLC. Furthermore, the volumetric
carbonization temperature also had an impact on electrode density and energy density of PP-7CAC was determined to be 28.2 Wh L− 1. Even at a
electrochemical characteristics. Fig. 3(a) depicts the cyclic voltammetry very high power density of 4.2 kW L− 1, a specific energy of 21.6 Wh L− 1
(CV) curves of the activated carbon electrode in a two-electrode system can still be achieved.
with a voltage window of 2.7 V. Notably, as the carbonization temper­
ature increases, a larger redox current is observed than in others, which 4. Conclusions
may be due to rapid ion transfer and storage resulting from low resis­
tance [27,28]. The galvanostatic charge–discharge (GCD) profiles in In this study, we have demonstrated the influence of electrode den­
Fig. 3(b) also exhibit straight triangular-shaped typical EDLC behavior. sity and graphitic structure on the volumetric and gravimetric capaci­
The degree of graphitization difference in activated carbons was tance of petroleum pitch-derived activated carbon electrodes in
found to have an impact on the IR drop (Fig. 3(c)) with current densities. supercapacitors. Three different activated carbons with distinct specific
At a high carbonization temperature of 700 ◦ C, the partially graphitic surface areas were compared in terms of electrode density, revealing
structure of activated carbon not only reduces electrical resistance but significant differences in volumetric capacitance. Among them, the
also generates additional capacitance due to enhanced conductivity, volumetric capacitance of PP-7CAC with an electrode density of 0.80 g
resulting in a relatively lower IR drop compared to activated carbons cc− 1 reaches a maximum of 27.9 F cc− 1, which is more than 9.0 F cc− 1
carbonized at 500 and 600 ◦ C. Furthermore, each graphitic layer can be higher than that of PP-5CAC with an electrode density of 0.51, repre­
considered as a small supercapacitor, naturally interconnected in par­ senting an increase of over 47.6%. However, there was only a marginal
allel or series, resulting in high energy and power density of the pre­ difference of 8.6% in gravimetric capacitance across different electrode
pared porous carbon [29]. Additionally, the graphite layer provides ion densities. These unexpected results would be difficult to explain unless
adsorption sites through intercalation and deintercalation of some ions the observed partial crystallinity in PP-7CAC is taken into account.
during the voltage increase process, enabling an increase in capacity Future research should focus on the formation of partial crystallinity in
[30]. The volumetric specific capacitance was calculated from the materials from other soft carbon precursors and analyze their electro­
charge profiles obtained during GCD measurements at various current chemical performance in relation to electrode density.
densities, as shown in Fig. 3(d). The PP-7CAC demonstrated the highest
volumetric capacitance of 27.9 F cc− 1 at 1 mA cm− 2. It has been also
CRediT authorship contribution statement
observed that it exhibit improved rate performance, which can be
attributed to the lower resistivity. On the other hands, the PP-5CAC
Jeong Han Lee: Writing – original draft, Investigation, Formal
which has a relatively high specific surface area and low electrode
analysis, Data curation. Yong-Mook Kang: Writing – review & editing,
density, showed the highest gravimetric specific capacitance of 41.6 F
Supervision, Investigation. Kwang Chul Roh: Writing – review &
g− 1 as shown in Fig. 3(e). The noteworthy point here is that, the PP-
editing, Supervision, Project administration, Conceptualization.
7CAC, which has about 30% higher electrode density than PP-5CAC,
also exhibited a relatively decent gravimetric specific capacitance of
38.8 F g− 1. As mentioned earlier, despite the higher electrode density, it Declaration of Competing Interest
is speculated that the gravimetric specific capacitance is additionally
generated due to the higher proportion of the partially graphitic The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
structure. interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
Fig. 3(f) illustrates the Ragone plot for the symmetric device based the work reported in this paper.

Fig. 3. Comparison of electrochemical performance: (a) CV at a scan rate of 5 mV s− 1; (b) GCD curves at a static current density of 1 mA cm− 2; (c) IR drop at various
current densities; (d) volumetric, (e) gravimetric specific capacitance, and (f) Ragone plot at various current densities.

4
J.H. Lee et al. Electrochemistry Communications 154 (2023) 107560

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