HEREDITY AND VARIATIONS

The study of heredity and variation is known as Genetics. Heredity is defined as transmission of
characteristics from parents to offsprings. The differences in characters of parents and offsprings is known
as variation.

There are two types of variation- somatic variation and gametic variation.

Somatic variation occurs in the somatic cell of the body. They are not inherited or transmitted in the next
generation. So, they are also known as acquired traits.
Gametic variation occurs in the germ cells/gametes of the body. They are inherited in the next generation.
So, they are known as inherited traits.

Importance of variations
• It is the basis of heredity.

• It is the basis of evolution.

• It increases the chances of survival of the organism according to the changing environment.

Causes of variation
The most common causes of variations are mutation, recombination and random mating of gametes. Recombination
or crossing over is one of the important reason for variation. It is an exchange of chromosome segment at the time
of gamete formation.
SOME IMPORTANT TERMS
Dominant trait: The character which expresses itself in a First generation/ heterozygous condition is
dominant trait. Example : Tallness(TT) is a dominant character in pea plant over dwarfness (tt).

Recessive trait: The character which does not express itself but is present in a generation is recessive
trait. Ex. dwarfism in the pea plant.

Homozygous: A condition in which both the alleles of a gene are same for example; an organism has both
the alleles for tallness it is expressed as TT and homozygous alleles for dwarfness are written as tt.

Heterozygous: A condition in which both the alleles of a gene are different for example; an organism has
alleles Tt ,it means it has an allele for tallness and the other for dwarfness .In this combination only tall
character is expressed.

Genotype: It is genetic make up of an individual for example; A pure/homozygous tall plant is expressed as
TT and hetrozygous tall as Tt.

Phenotype: It is external appearance of the organism for example; a plant having Tt genotype will appear
tall although it has one allele for dwarfness.

Mendel and his contribution in Genetics

G.J. Mendel started his work on Pisum sativum (garden pea). He was known as Father of genetics. Pea plant
has seven pair of contrasting characters-
 Round

REASONS FOR CHOSING SWEET PEA PLANT

• Seven pairs of contrasting characters can be found.

• Short life cycle

• Large number of seeds produced in every generation.

• Bisexual flowers and naturally Self-pollinating.

• Easy to rear and cultivate.

Mendel’s Experiment: Mendel started his experiment on the pea plants. He conducted first monohybrid
and then dihybrid crosses.

• Monohybrid Cross: The cross in which Mendel observed the inheritance of single pair of
contrasting characters.
• He took pure tall (genotype TT) and pure dwarf (genotype tt) pea plants and cross pollinated them
to obtain first generation or first filial generation. In this F1 generation he obtained only tall plants.
This meant that only one of the parental traits was seen, not the mixture of the two. The plants of F1
generation or progeny are then self pollinated to obtain F2 generation or progeny. Now all plants
were not tall. He obtained 75% tall plants and 25% dwarf plants i.e. the phenotypic ratio was 3:1.
This indicates that in the F1 generation both tall and dwarf traits were inherited but tallness
expressed itself. Tallness is a dominant trait and dwarfness is a recessive trait. F2 generation has a
genotypic ratio of 1 : 2 : 1 of three types of plants represented by TT, Tt and tt as shown in the
cross.

• Conclusion: Phenotypic ratio— 3:1

Tall : Dwarf
Genotype ratio— 1 : 2 : 1
Pure Tall : HetrozygousTall : Pure Dwarf

EXAMPLE 2 Green colour pod x Yellow colour pod

GG x gg Parents

F1 generation all Greenpod

Gg x Gg F2 Self fertilization
Gametes G g

G GG Green colour Gg Green colour

g Gg Green colour gg Yellow colour

Phenotype ratio 3 : 1 Genotype ratio 1:2:1

Green : Yellow GG:Gg:gg
EXAMPLE 3

Phenotype ratio 3:1

Purple : white

Genotype ratio 1:2:1

PP:Pp:pp

Dihybrid Cross: Mendel also carried out experiments to observe inheritance of two pairs of contrasting
characters, which is called dihybrid cross.

He cross bred pea plants bearing round green seed with plants bearing wrinkled and yellow seeds. In the
F1generation he obtained all round and yellow seeds it means round and yellow traits of seeds are
dominant features while wrinkled and green are recessive. He self-pollinated the plants of F: generation to
obtain F2 generation, he obtained four different types of seeds round yellow, round green, wrinkled yellow
and wrinkled green in the ratio of 9 : 3 : 3 : 1. He concluded that traits are independently inherited.
Conclusion

• Round and yellow seeds-9.

• Round and green seeds-3.
• Wrinkled and yellow seeds-3.
• Wrinkled and green seeds-1.
EXAMPLE 2 –Green pods and Yellow seeds x Yellow pods with green seeds

GGYY x ggyy Parents

GY GY gy gy
Gametes

GgYy

F1 generation all have green pods and yellow seeds

How do traits get expressed?

Cellular DNA is the information source for making proteins in the cell.
A part of DNA that provides information for one particular protein is called a gene for that protein for
example; the height of a plant depends upon the growth hormone which is in turn controlled by the gene. If
the gene is efficient and more growth hormone is secreted the plant will grow tall. If the gene for that
particular protein gets altered and less of it is secreted when the plant will remain short. Both the parents
contribute equally to the DNA of next generation during sexual reproduction. They actually contribute a
copy of the same gene for example; when tall plant is crossed with short plant the gametes will have single
gene either for tallness or for s
Mendel’s Laws of Genetics

Law of Dominance: When parents having pure contrasting characters are crossed then only one character
expresses itself in the F1 generation. This character is the dominant character and the character/factor
which cannot express itself is called the Recessive character.

Law of Segregation: The two alleles for a heritable character separate (segregate) during gamete formation
and end up in different gametes.

Law of Independent Assortment: Each pair of alleles segregates independently of other pairs of alleles
during gamete formation. Due to Independent Assortment we get new combinations in F2 generation.
Sex Determination

Sex determination is used to defined the sex of the offspring’s. Environment and genetic factors determine
the sex of the offspring’s. Environment factor includes temperature such as gender in turtles are determined
according to the temperature.
Different species use different strategies for this :

• In some animals the temperature at which fertilized eggs are kept determines whether the developing
animals will be males or females.

Egs in reptiles and turtles higher incubation temp results in female progeny whereas lower incubation
temperature results in male progeny.

• Some animals like snails can change sex indicating that sex is not genetically determined.
• In human beings sex of the individual is determined genetically; means genes inherited from the
parents decide the sex of the offspring.

Sex Determination in Humans

In human beings, all chromosomes are not paired. 22 chromosomes are paired called autosomes but one
pair called sex chromosome is odd in not having a perfect pair in males. Females have a perfect pair both
represented by XX. On the other hand males have a normal sized X but the other is short called Y so it is
shown as XY. All gametes or ova formed by the homogenetic female are similar i.e. have X chromosome.
Males heterogenetic form two types of sperms i.e. half with X chromosome and the other half with Y
chromosome. Sex of the baby will depend on fertilization. There are two possibilities :

Autosomes: Those chromosomes which do not play any role in sex determination. First 22 pairs or 44
chromosomes.
Sex chromosomes: Those chromosomes which play a role in determining sex of the newborn.Last /23rd
pair of chromosome in humans.

• If the sperm having X chromosome fertilizes with ovum with X chromosome then the baby will have
XX chromosome and it will be female.
• If the sperm having Y chromosome fertilizes with ovum with X chromosome then the baby will have
XY chromosomes and it will be male.
BLOOD GROUP INHERITANCE

Humans have four different blood groups: A, B, O, AB. A and B are co-dominant genes
whereas O is a recessive gene.